CRCJ 3370 – Introduction to Forensic Science

Organic Analysis in Forensics

Chapter 10 (235-237); Chapter 12 (p. 307 to end of chapter)
 Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.
 Element: A collection of atoms all having the same atomic number. An element cannot be broken
down into simpler substances by chemical means.
o Elements provide the building blocks from which all matter is composed. At present, 118
elements have been identified, of which 89 occur naturally.
o Atom: The smallest particle of an element that can exist and still retain its identity as that element.
 Compound: A pure substance composed of two or more elements. Examples: CO2 or NaCl.
o Over 16 million compounds are known to exist today!!
o Molecule: The smallest unit of a compound. Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

PHYSICAL STATES
 Solid: Rigid, definite shape and volume.
 Liquid: Has a specific volume, but its fluidity causes it to take shape of its container.
 Gas: Has neither a definite shape nor volume, will completely fill its container.
 Plasma: A gas that is sufficiently ionized so as to affect its dynamical behavior.
 Whenever a situation exists in which substances can be distinguished by a visible boundary,
different phases are said to exist. Example: Oil and water

 Organic substances contain the element carbon and are commonly found in combination with one or
more of the following: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, chlorine, and bromine.
 Inorganic substances encompass all other known chemical substances.
 Qualitative relates to the identity of a substance.
 Quantitative refers to determination of the “percentage combination of the components of a mixture.”

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
o An analytical method for identifying a substance by its selective absorption of different wavelengths of
light.

CHROMATOGRAPHY
o Any of several analytical techniques whereby organic mixtures are separated into their components by
their attraction to a stationary phase while being propelled by a moving phase. p. 279

HENRY’S LAW:
 First observed in 1803 by British Chemist William Henry.
 When a volatile chemical compound is dissolved in a liquid and is brought to equilibrium with air,
there is a fixed ratio between the concentration of the volatile compound in air and its concentration in
the liquid, and this remains constant for a given temperature. p. 280

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY:
 Stationary liquid phase
 Moving gas phase
 Extremely sensitive – can detect at the nanogram levels
 Can yield quantitative results
 Can separate highly complex mixtures
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 Retention time – the time required for a component to emerge from the column from the time of
its injection into the column
 Produces a chromatogram

PYROLYSIS GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY:

 Pyrolysis – The decomposition of organic matter by heat
 Utilized for many solid materials such as paints, fibers and plastics.
 Produces a pyrogram

HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY:

 Moving phase is a liquid
 Stationary phase is the surface of the solid particles making up the column
 HPLC takes place at room temperature.

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY:

 Moving phase is a liquid
 Stationary phase is the granular material making up the coating on the surface of the plate
 Liquid rises up the plate by means of capillary action.
 May need to spray with a visualizing agent to see the spots

Rf Values
 A numerical value assigned to the relative distance a spot travels up a thin layer plate. “This
value is defined as the distance traveled by the component divided by the distance traveled by the
moving liquid phase.” p. 286

ELECTROPHORESIS
 Separates materials according to their migration rates on a stationary solid phase
 An electric potential is placed across a stationary medium

THEORY OF LIGHT
 Light is a continuous wave.
 Light is a stream of discrete energy particles.
F=c/λ
 F = frequency
 c = the speed of light (a universal constant at 300 million meters/second)
 λ = wavelength; expressed in nanometers
Photons
 Energy particles and E = hf
 E = energy of the photon
 h = Planck’s constant
 f = frequency of radiation

ORDER OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM:

Radio Rabbits
Microwaves Mate
Infra-Red In
Visible light Very
Ultra-violet Unusual
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X-rays eXpensive
Gamma rays Gardens

LASER:
 L ight
 A mplification
 S imulated
 E mission
 R adiation

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY:
BEER’S LAW
 A = kc
 A = absorption (or quantity) of light taken up at a single frequency
 c = concentration of the absorbing material
 k = a proportionality constant
 The more material you have, the more radiation it will absorb

Absorption Spectrophotometers generally contain the following components:

1) Monochromator
2) Radiation Source
3) Slit
4) Recorder

MONOCHROMATOR
 A device for isolating individual wavelengths or frequencies of light.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY RADIATION SOURCES

 Visible Region – Ordinary Tungsten Bulb
 Ultraviolet Region – Hydrogen or Deuterium Discharge Lamp
 Infrared Region – Heated Molded Rod containing a mixture of Rare Earth Oxides

ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROPHOTOMETRY:
 Absorbance of light
 Measured in nanometers
 Presumptive identification only
 Must confirm with TLC, GC, GC/MS or IR

INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY:
 More complex pattern than Ultraviolet Spectrophotometry (UV)
 Distinct Pattern
 Equivalent to a “FINGERPRINT” of a substance
 Confirmatory Test

FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY (FTIR)

 The heart of an FTIR is a Michelson interferometer. This uses a beam-splitting prism and two
mirrors (one moving and one stationary) to direct light toward the sample.
 As the wavelengths pass through the sample and reach the detector, they are all measured
simultaneously.
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 The Fourier Transform method (a mathematical operation) is used to decode the measured signals
and record the wavelength data.
“Different materials always have distinctively different infrared spectra; each IR spectrum is
therefore equivalent to a “fingerprint” of that substance and no other.” p. 290

GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY/MASS SPECTROMETRY (GC/MS):

 Provides a specific (positive) means for identifying a chemical structure.
 Materials are separated after ionization and fragmentation according to masses.
 Is sensitive to minute concentrations. “…can detect and identify substances present in only
one-millionth-of-a-gram quantities.” p. 292
“The unique feature of mass spectrometry is that under carefully controlled conditions, no two
substances produce the same fragmentation pattern.” p. 290

All of the above information is from the following sources unless otherwise noted:

Saferstein, R. (2015). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.

Saferstein, R. (2018). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.
 CRCJ 3370: Introduction to Forensics
Chapter 6 - Fingerprints

HISTORY:
o Chinese used fingerprints to sign legal documents as far back as three thousand years ago
o William Herschel, an English civil servant (India), required natives to sign contracts with an
imprint of their right hand – Hindu custom?
o In 1880, Scottish physician, Henry Fauld wrote that skin ridge patterns could be important in
identification work
o A thief left his fingerprint on a whitewashed wall – compared with 1st suspect - No
match; compared with 2nd suspect with positive association
o The first systematic attempt at personal identification was devised by Alphonse Bertillon in 1883.
o Alphonse Bertillon (1853 –1914) – Father of Criminal Identification – A French Police Expert
o Developed the first scientific method of identification known as Anthropometry
o Anthropometry was used for two decades before being replaced by fingerprints in the
early 1900’s

Bertillon’s System:
Relied on: 1. Portrait Parlé – Detailed description of the individual
2. Full length and profile photographs
3. Anthropometry – A system of precise body measurements
Anthropometry:
o A method of identification
o Based upon the premise that the dimensions of the human skeletal system remained fixed from
age 20 until death
o Eleven (11) measurements taken - to include height, width of head and length of left foot

More History:
o Fauld offered to set up a system of fingerprints at Scotland Yard (at his own expense)
o Rejected in favor of the Bertillon System; this decision reversed less than two decades later

Francis Galton:
o In 1892, published the classic work Finger Prints
o In this book he discussed the anatomy of fingerprints and suggested methods for recording them
o Proposed three pattern types: loops, whorls, and arches
o No two prints are identical
o An individual’s prints remain unchanged from one year to the next

Dr. Juan Vucetich:

o Argentinian police officer
o Fascinated by Galton’s work
o In 1891, he devised a fingerprint classification system
o Still widely used in Spanish speaking countries

Sir Edward Richard Henry:

o Englishman
o In 1897, Henry proposed another classification system which is still in use today
o Most English-speaking countries use some version of Henry’s classification system
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o Will and William West Case: 1903 – Fort Leavenworth Prison

Why do we have fingerprints?

 To improve tactile sensitivity
 To improve grip on wet surfaces

Do all humans have fingerprints? No, In Taiwan, the Huang-Tien family has had no fingerprints for at
least five generations.

History in the United States:

o 1901 – First systematic use of fingerprints adopted by the New York Civil Service Commission
o 1904 – American police received training in fingerprint techniques from Scotland Yard’s
representatives
o 1924 – Fingerprint records from the Bureau of Investigation and Leavenworth merged to form
records for the new FBI

Admissibility of Fingerprints:
o Challenged in the case of United States v. Byron C. Mitchell in 1999
o It was alleged that the defendant Mitchell's fingerprint was found on the getaway car used
in an armored car robbery.
o Argued under Daubert guidelines that fingerprints were not unique
o Judge upheld admissibility and ruled:
o Human friction ridges are unique and permanent
o Human friction ridge skin arrangements are unique and permanent

FUNDAMENTALS PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINTS:

First Principle: A Fingerprint Is an Individual Characteristic; No Two Fingers Have Yet Been
Found to Possess Identical Ridge Characteristics
o Galton’s calculations show the possible existence of 64 billion different fingerprints
o The individuality of a fingerprint is not determined by its general shape or pattern but by a careful
study of its ridge characteristics also known as minutiae.
o There are as many as 150 individual ridge characteristics on an average finger.
o Ridge Characteristics: See info in textbook.
o International Association for Identification: 1973 – “no valid basis exists for requiring a
predetermined minimum number of ridge characteristics which must be present in two
impressions in order to establish positive identification.”
Second Principle: A fingerprint will remain unchanged during an individual’s lifetime.
Third Principle: Fingerprints have general ridge patterns that permit them to be systematically
classified,

Loops:
 Observed in 60 to 65% of the population
 Must have one or more ridges entering from one side and exiting from the same side
 The pattern area is surrounded by two diverging ridges known as type lines
 The ridge point nearest the type-line divergence is known as the delta.
 All loops must have one delta.
 The core is the approximate center of the pattern.
 Ulnar loops open toward the little finger.
 Radial loops open toward the thumb.
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Whorls:
 Observed in 30 to 35% of the population.
 Whorls must have type lines.
 Whorls must have a minimum of two deltas.
 Whorls are divided into four distinct groups – plain, central pocket loop, double loop and
accidental.
 Plain Whorl and Central Pocket Loop Whorl
 Must have at least one ridge that makes a complete circuit. May be a spiral, oval
or any variant of a circle.
 If an imaginary line is drawn between the two deltas and if the line touches
any one of the spiral ridges, the pattern is a plain whorl. If no ridge is
touched, it is a central pocket loop.
 Double Loop Whorl - Made of two loops combined into one fingerprint.
 Accidental - Contains two or more patterns (not including the plain arch) or is a pattern
not covered by other categories.
Arches:
 Observed in about 5% of the population.
 Arches do not have type lines, deltas, or cores.
 Arches are divided into two distinct groups: plain arches and tented arches.

THE HENRY SYSTEM – PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION

 Original system adopted in 1901 by Scotland Yard
 Original system could only accommodate files of up to 100,000 sets
 The primary classification system places all the prints in the world into 1024 groups
 Pair up the fingers in the following sequence:
 R. Index R. Ring L. Thumb L. Middle L. Little
R. Thumb R. Middle R. Little L. Index L. Ring
 The presence or absence on the whorl pattern is the basis for the Primary Classification.
 If a whorl is present on any finger it receives the following score:
 1st Pair = 16
 2nd Pair = 08
 3rd Pair = 04
 4th Pair = 02
 5th Pair = 01
 Any finger having an arch, or a loop is given the value of 0.
 Example: If right index and right middle fingers are whorls and all others are loops:
16 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 17
0+8+0+0+0+1 = 9

Approximately 25% of the population fall into 1/1 because they have all loops or arches.

SKIN RIDGES CONTAIN PORES – Skin contains openings for ducts from sweat glands where
perspiration is discharged to surface of skin – the transfer results in LATENT (Hidden)
FINGERPRINTS,

Fingerprint Development:
Types of Fingerprints: Visible, Plastic and Latent
Visible - Ridges placed on a surface after contact with a colored material (i.e. blood, paint, grease, ink)
Plastic - Ridges left on a soft material (i.e. putty, wax, soap, and dust)
Latent - Hidden or invisible – transfer of body perspiration or oils – must be enhanced
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Types of Surfaces:
Non-Porous – Glass, mirror, tile, hard plastic, painted surfaces – Developed with powder and /or
superglue and powder

 Porous – Paper, cardboard, cloth – Enhance with chemicals

 RUVIS:
 R - REFLECTED
U - ULTRA
V - VIOLET
I - IMAGING
S – SYSTEM
 Handheld device to detect fingerprints on non-porous surfaces without the aid of chemical or
powder treatments

Fingerprint Powders:
o Black (for white or light surfaces); Gray or white (dark surfaces)
o Fluorescent (multi-colored surfaces
o Magnetic (leather or rough plastic – for fragile prints)
o Powders adhere to perspiration and/or body oils

Iodine Fuming:
o Oldest chemical method
o Uses crystalline iodine
o Fumes combine with fatty oils and/or react w/ water from sweat
o Fade quickly – Photograph - Fix w/1% starch

Ninhydrin:
o Ninhydrin (triketohydrindene hydrate)
o Reacts with amino acids in perspiration
o For latent prints on paper & porous surfaces
o Easy to use & sensitive; Sprayed on
o Prints appear in 1to 2 hours – blue print - weak prints up to 48 hours, hastened by heat

DFO:
o DFO (1,8-diazafluoren-9-one)
o Better than ninhydrin for latent prints on paper & porous surfaces
o Paper dipped in solution & dried
o Prints visualized by alternate light source

Silver Nitrate:
 For Porous surfaces
 paper, wood, cloth, brass
 Reacts with salt residues
 Basic component of Physical Developer
 Article sprayed, brushed, or dipped
 AgNO3 (Silver Nitrate) + NaCl (Salt) --> AgCl (Silver Chloride) + NaNO3 (Sodium Nitrate)
 AgCl (Silver Chloride) is photosensitive, turns dark brown in daylight or UV
 Blurs with time, recorded by photography
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Physical Developer:
 Silver nitrate-based liquid reagent
 Useful on paper & porous surfaces
 may work when other methods have failed
 useful on previously wetted paper

Order of Application of Chemicals is very important:

1. First, fume with Iodine
2. Next, treat with Ninhydrin
3. Always apply Physical Developer last.

Super Glue Fuming:

 Cyanoacrylate ester (Super Glue)
 Fuming by heat or sodium hydroxide in cabinet
 Fuming wand for use at scene (inside a car)
 Non-porous surfaces
 metal, tape, leather, plastic
 White prints appear in a few hours

Fluorescence Techniques:
 Argon-ion Lasers
 Alternate Light Sources
 Quartz halogen
 Zenon arc
 Indium arc
 Colored filters & goggles required
 Natural fluorescence by components of perspiration and blood
 Fluorescent powders
 Fluorescent dyes
 ninhydrin + ZnCl
 Superglue + Rhodamine
 Highly sensitive
 Does not interfere with DNA testing

DIGITAL IMAGING:
 Scanner; Digital Camera
 Video Camera
 Enhance with Filters, contrast, or brightness
 Remove background colors
 Scaling / Resizing Tools
 Side-By-Side Comparison

PRESERVATION AND COMPARISON OF FINGERPRINTS:

o Photography:
 One to one (1:1) vs. Natural Size
 One to one: The size of the image on the negative is the actual size of
the object being photographed.
 Natural Size: A scale is always included in the plane of the object being
photographed so that a print can be made which is actual size.
o Lifting: Tape and Hinged Lifters
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ACE-V: A Four Step Process for Comparison and Verification of Fingerprint Evidence :
 A = Analysis
o Determines the value of the print
 C = Comparison
o Observes general ridge flow and pattern
o Locates and compares ridge characteristics
o Examines ridge pores, breaks, creases, scars, and other minutiae
 E = Evaluation
o A point-by-point comparison of a fingerprint’s ridge characteristics must be
demonstrated in order to prove identity.
o Determines Identification, Exclusion, or Inconclusive result of comparison
 V = Verification
o Independent examination of known and questioned prints by another qualified examiner

AFIS: Automated Fingerprint Identification System - Automatic Scanning Devices Convert Fingerprint
Image into Digital Minutiae - Utilizes bifurcations and ridge endings
 Prints are digitised by computer scanning
 Sent to Central computer for comparison with database of records held
 Computer generates a hit list
o Possible matches are then checked by expert and new original prints are obtained for
comparison
 In 1999, FBI initiated IAFIS (Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System.
o Linked state AFIS computers with FBI database
o Contains almost 50 million fingerprint records
 A set of 10 fingerprints can be searched against a file of 500,000 10-fingerprints in about eight-
tenths of a second!

Early Success Story:

 Minutes after California’s AFIS network went online, they scored a hit which identified an
individual who had committed 15 murders in and around Los Angeles.
 San Francisco PD’s First Year Utilizing AFIS:
o Conducted 5,514 latent fingerprint searches and made 1001 identifications. Yielded a hit
rate of 18%.
o Previous year: 8 % hit rate using manual searches
 Experts estimate it would have taken a single technician, manually searching the city’s 1.7
million print cards, 67 years to find the killer’s prints.
 With AFIS, this search was complete in about 20 minutes.

FBI Next Generation Identification (NGI) System has essentially replaced IAFIS.

Live Scan Technology:

• Digitally captures fingerprints.
• Fingerprints are digitally uploaded to AFIS within minutes.

All of the above information is from the following sources unless otherwise noted:

Saferstein, R. (2015). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.

Saferstein, R. (2018). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.
 CRCJ 3370: Introduction to Forensics
Chapter 8 – Microscopy in Forensics

MICROSCOPY: The analytical approach in which a microscope plays a central role in maximizing the extraction
of useful information from a variety of samples.

FORENSIC MICROSCOPY:
 Document Examination, Tool Mark Comparison, Firearms Identification and Comparison, Biological
Applications, Drug Chemistry, Trace Evidence
 Trace Evidence Applications: Paints, Soil, Minerals, Dusts, Glass, Polymers, Hairs, Fibers, Papers,
Starches, Wood, Pollens, Safe Insulation, Feathers, Building Materials, Gunpowder Residues

The Microscope:
 Optical instrument
 Uses a combination of lens or lenses to magnify an image.
 Magnify and resolve details
 Simplest is magnifying glass
 Image appears larger (5-10X)

Virtual Image - An image that cannot be seen directly. It can only be seen by a viewer looking through a lens.

Real Image - An image formed by the actual convergence of light rays upon a screen.

Types of Microscopes Used in a Forensic Laboratory:

 Magnifying glass - 5 to 10 times
 Compound microscope – 1500 times
 Comparison microscope
 Stereoscopic microscope – 10 to 125 times
 Polarizing microscope
 Microspectrophotometer
 Scanning Electron Microscope – 1 Million times

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE:
 Two Lenses: Objective and Eyepiece
 Combined power of both lenses can magnify up to 1500X
 Reverse Image
 Mechanical System:
 Base
 Arm
 Stage
 Body Tube
 Coarse Adjustment
 Fine Adjustment
 Optical System
 Illuminator: Transmitted (type of illumination required to view a transparent object) or
Reflected/Vertical/EPI
 Condenser: this device collects light rays from the base illuminator and concentrates them
on the specimen.
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 Objective Lens
 Close to specimen
 Parfocal – A microscope having objective lenses that stay relatively in focus when
changed from one objective to another
 Parcentric – A microscope having objective lenses aligned in such a fashion as to allow
a specimen to stay in the center of the field of view when changing from one objective to
another
 Eyepiece or Ocular Lens:
 Monocular – singular lens
 Binocular – two lenses
Total Magnification of Image Viewed: Product of the magnifying power of the objective and eyepiece lenses.
(Example: 10X objective lens times 4X eyepiece = 40X)

Working Distance: The distance the front of the objective and the top of the cover glass on the slide. The
higher the magnification the smaller the working distance.

Field of View: Area of the specimen that can be seen; DECREASES AS MAGNIFICATION INCREASES

Depth of Focus: Defines the thickness of a specimen and DECREASES AS MAGNIFICAION INCREASES

Numerical Aperture:
 The ability of the objective lens to resolve fine structured detail in the specimen.
 The resolution of a microscope objective is defined as the smallest distance between two points on a
specimen that can still be distinguished as two separate entities.
 The higher the numerical aperture of the total system, the better the resolution.

Empty Magnification: The maximum useful magnification of a compound microscope is approximately 1,000
times the N.A. of the objective being used. Any attempt to increase the total magnification beyond this figure will
yield no additional detail and is referred to as empty magnification.

Microscope Care:
 EVERYTHING on a good quality microscope is unbelievably expensive, so be careful.
 Hold a microscope firmly by the stand, only. Never grab it by the eyepiece holder, for example.
 Hold the plug (not the cable) when unplugging the illuminator.
 Since bulbs are expensive, and have a limited life, turn the illuminator off when you are done.
 Always make sure the stage and lenses are clean before putting away the microscope.
 NEVER use anything but good quality lens tissue on any optical surface, with appropriate lens cleaner or
distilled water; organic solvents may separate or damage the lens elements or coatings.
 Cover the instrument with a dust jacket when not in use.
 Focus smoothly; don't try to speed through the focusing process or force anything.

Stereoscopic Microscope (Same as Dissecting Microscope):

 Magnification not as great as a compound microscope; 10X TO 125X
 Most utilized microscope in a forensic setting
 Right Side Up Image
 Three-Dimensional Image
 Wide Field of View
 Great Depth of Focus
 Large Working Distance
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Comparison Microscope:
 Side by side comparison (simultaneous view of two separate specimens)
 Two “matched” compound microscopes
 Optical bridge joins two objective lenses into single binocular eyepiece
 Split Field

Polarizing Microscope:
 Re-directs light waves to one plane; Eliminates light glare
 Detect with second polarizer (Analyzer)
 If a polarizer and analyzer are placed perpendicular to each other, no light will penetrate.
 Analyze birefringent materials that polarize light (minerals, fibers, etc.)

Microspectrophotometer:
 Combines a microscope with a spectrophotometer
 Analyzes trace materials: Inks, Paints, Fibers, Gunpowder
 Visible Spectra, Ultraviolet Spectra or Infrared (IR) Spectra

Scanning Electron Microscope:

 Uses a beam of electrons rather than a beam of light
 Viewed on CRT Screen – Digital imagery today
 High Magnification (To 1,000,000X)
 Depth of focus 300X better than a light microscope
 Combines with an X-Ray Analyzer to identify elemental compositions – Becomes a Scanning Electron
Microscope/Energy Dispersive Spectrometer or SEM/EDS

Forensic Palynology: The collection and examination of pollen and spores connected with crime scenes,
illegal activities, or terrorism. Microscopy is the main tool utilized by the forensic palynologist.
 Pollen Grains: The single-celled male gametophytes of seed-bearing plants.
 Spores: Both male and female gametes of plants such as algae, fungi, mosses, and ferns.

All of the above information is from the following sources unless otherwise noted:

Saferstein, R. (2015). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.

Saferstein, R. (2018). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.
 CRCJ 3370-001 – Introduction to Forensics
Chapter 11 – Hair and Fiber Examinations

EDMOND LOCARD (1877 – 1966)

 Educated in both medicine and law.

 In 1910, he obtained two rooms and two assistants and developed a police crime
laboratory in Lyon, France.
 LOCARD’S EXCHANGE THEORY:
 Whenever two objects come into contact, there is always a transfer of material.
The methods of detection may not be sensitive enough to demonstrate this or the
decay rate may be so rapid that all evidence of transfer has vanished after a
given time. Nonetheless, the transfer has taken place.

Hair Examinations by Microscopy Can Reveal the Following:

 Is it a hair?
 Animal vs. Human
 Racial Origin
 Body Area
 Color
 Length
 Treatment

Hair - A slender threadlike outgrowth from the follicles of the skin of mammals, composed
essentially of keratin and having three anatomical regions:
1. The cortex
2. The cuticle
3. The medulla

http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/july2004/images/2004_03/figure01a.jpg

The total number of hair follicles in an adult male averages 5 million with about 1 million of these
being located on the head. An average head of hair consists of 100,000 to 120,000 individual
hairs with a speed of growth of ¼ to ½ inch per month and a reproductive growth cycle lasting
two to five years. This range of growth rate can provide hair examiners with information about
when a person dyed or bleached their hair.
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The life cycle of a hair is composed of three phases:

 Anagen (Active Growth) - Lasts 1000 days (3 yrs or more) – 80 to 90% of hairs on your
head
 Catagen (Transition) - Lasts a few weeks
 Telogen (Final Resting) - Lasts about 100 days (3 to 4 months).

Is it possible to determine if hair was forcibly removed? Yes, it has follicular tissue
adhering to it.

 Cuticle: Overlapping scales that always point toward the distal tip of the hair.
o The coronal, or crown-like, scale pattern resembles a stack of paper
o Spinous or petal-like scales are triangular in shape and protrude from the hair shaft.
o The imbricate, or flattened-scale, type consists of overlapping scales with narrow
margins.

 The medulla is a central core of cells which may or may not be present in the hair. In
human hairs, the medulla is generally amorphous (lacking defined structure) and its width is
generally less than one-third the overall diameter of the hair shaft.
 The medulla in hairs of lower animals is normally continuous, very regularly structured and
generally occupies an area of greater than one third the overall diameter of the hair shaft.
Medulla can appear:
 Absent
 If present, it can be:
 Opaque or Translucent or both and may appear:
 Continuous
 Discontinuous/Interrupted
 Fragmentary
 Pattern of medulla
 Amorphous
 Vacuolated
 Uniserial or multiserial ladder
 Lattice
 Width of medulla in relation to the overall shaft diameter should be considered – Note
variations throughout entire known specimen
 The pigment or pigmentation is the part of a hair within the cortex that imparts
color to the hair.

Determination of Racial Origin, Body Area Determination and Human Hair Comparison
Characteristics

Racial Origin:
Caucasian (European) Hair
African (Negroid) Hair
Mongoloid (Asian) Hair
Mixed Racial Hair

Human Hair Comparison Characteristics

o Color
o Tips
o Pigment Density
o Pigment Distribution
CRCJ 3370 – Introduction to Forensics
2020 Summer Session

o Artificial Treatment
 Bleaching
 Dying
o Damage

Known Hair Samples:

A minimum collection of 25 to 50 full-length hairs will normally ensure a representative sampling of
of head or pubic hairs. These hairs must be pulled from various areas of the head or pubic region.

When making hair comparisons, it is best to view the hairs side by side utilizing a comparison
microscope.

Conclusions (Following Comparison of Human Hairs by Microscopy):

1. The hairs from the questioned source are consistent with the hairs from a given known
sample and therefore could have come from the same source as the known sample.
2. The hairs from the questioned source are dissimilar to the hairs in the known sample
and, therefore did not come from the source represented by the known sample.
3. The questioned hairs and hairs in the known specimen exhibit both similarities and
unaccountable differences in their microscopic characteristics. It is the opinion of this
examiner, that the differences observed are not sufficient to eliminate the known sample
as a possible source of the questioned hairs.

Potential for Error:

FBI study between 1996 and 2000 compared results of microscopic hair comparisons and
subsequent DNA evaluation. Approximately 11% of the hairs which were associated by
microscopic evaluation were determined to be non-matches by DNA evaluation. “Microscopic
hair comparisons much be regarded by police and courts as presumptive in nature, and
all positive microscopic hairs comparisons must be confirmed by DNA determinations.”
P. 257

Natural Fibers:
 Animal
*Wool from Sheep
*Cashmere from Goats
*Mink, Rabbit, Beaver
 Vegetable
*Cotton – the most prevalent plant fiber
*Hemp
*Jute
 Mineral
*Asbestos

Manmade Fibers:
Manmade fibers represent approximately 75% of the total textile fiber production in the
United States.
6 of the 21 Generic Classes:
 Acetate
 Rayon
CRCJ 3370 – Introduction to Forensics
2020 Summer Session

 Acrylic
 Polyester
 Olefin
 Nylon

“The polymer is the basic chemical substance of all synthetic fibers.”

“Polymer – A substance composed of a large number of atoms, these atoms are usually
arranged in repeating units or monomers.”

Characteristics for Fiber Comparison:

 Color and Diameter – most important comparative characteristics
 Cross-sectional Shape
 Round, Trilobal, Dumbbell, Multi-lobed, Flat
 Polarized Light Microscopy (PLM)
 Refractive Index
 Birefringence - Synthetic fibers possess the physical property of birefringence
because they are crystalline. PLM can aid in identification.
 Surface Striations
 Presence of Delusterant – Titanium Dioxide added to reduce shine
 Infrared Microspectrophotometry – organic profile; can identify type of fiber
 Visible Light Microspectrophotometry
 Thin Layer Chromatography
 Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography or Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry

Bicomponent Fibers – made up of more than one fiber type (generic class)

All of the above information is from the following sources unless otherwise noted:

Saferstein, R. (2015). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.

Saferstein, R. (2018). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Boston: Pearson.