A

Project Report
On

“Fabrication of Biodegradeble Plastic Material”

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

Requirements for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Engineering
In

Mechanical Engineering
By

SB NEWTON KUMAR 1608-16-736-312

CH SAI PAVAN TEJA 1608-16-736-314

Under the guidance of

Mr T SOMA SEKHAR
Assistant Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Matrusri Engineering College
(Affiliated to Osmania University, Approved by
AICTE) Saidabad, Hyderabad-500059,
www.matrusri.edu.in

(2019-2020)
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Matrusri Engineering College
(Affiliated to Osmania University, Approved by AICTE)
Saidabad, Hyderabad-500059
(2019-2020)

CERTIFICATE

This is to Certify that A Project report entitled “FABRICATION OF

BIODEGRADEBLE PLASTIC MATERIAL” is being submitted by
SB NEWTON KUMAR (1608- 16-736-312), CH SAI PAVAN TEJA
(1608-16-736-314) in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the award
for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering
O.U., Hyderabad during the year 2019-2020, is a record of bonafide work
carried out by him/her under my guidance. The results presented in this
thesis have been verified and are found to be satisfactory.

T. Soma Sekhar Dr. M.V.Kishore

Assistant Professor Head (MED)
 DECLARATION

This is to declare that the work submitted in the present project work
report titled “Fabrication of Biodegradeble Plastic Material” is a
record of bonafide work done by us in the department of mechanical
engineering at Matrusri engineering college, Saidabad, Hyderabad.

No part of this report is copied from books, journals and where ever the
subject content is taken, the same has been duly referred in the references.
The report generated is based on the project work carried out entirely by
us and not copied from any other source.

SB NEWTON KUMAR 1608-16-736-312

CH SAI PAVAN TEJA 1608-16-736-314
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to express our sincere graduate and indebtedness to our

project supervisor Mr. T.Soma Sekhar, for his valuable suggestions and
interest throughout the course of this project.

We are also thankful to Head of the department Dr.M.V.Kishore and

Principal Dr.D.Hanumantha Rao for providing excellent infrastructure
and a nice atmosphere for completing this project successfully.

We are thankful to our family and friends for their wholehearted support
and constant encouragement towards the fulfilment of this project work.

SB NEWTON KUMAR 1608-16-736-312

CH SAI PAVAN TEJA 1608-16-736-314
 CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION

This chapter gives brief introduction of the plastic, types of plastics being used,
Properties , Role of biodegradable plastics over Traditional plastics.

1.1 Description
Plastics are usually synthetic or semi synthetic organic compounds of very high
molecular mass and can be moulded into solid objects of numerous shapes and sizes.
Plastics generally include a main chain organic link; Side linked molecular groups and
some organic and inorganic blends added as additives, plasticizers, fillers etc
Everywhere you look, you will find plastics. We use plastic products to help
make our lives cleaner, easier, safer and more enjoyable. We find plastics in the
clothes we wear, the houses we live in, and the cars we travel in. The toys we play
with, the televisions we watch, the computers we use and the DVDs we watch all
contain plastics.
The term ‘’plastic’’ is derived from the Greek word ''plastikos'', meaning fit
for moulding. This refers to the material’s malleability or plasticity during
manufacture, which allows it to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes –
such as films, fibres, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more.

1.2 Properties

Plastics have a huge range or differing properties depending on their

chemical,physical and additives. 
1. Plastics are considered to be good insulators of heat as they restrict the movement
of thermal energy. When any two objects of differing temperatures touch there will
always be thermal conduction, but some materials have lower thermal conductivity
than others. Plastics are used where thermal transfer must be restricted, eg. in home
cavity insulation, cooking utensils and pans
& beverage cups. Polyurethane and polystyrene have some of the lowest thermal
conductivity. They are commonly used as foam to increase the insulating properties
through trapping pockets of air within the material structure
2. Most plastics are also excellent insulators of electricity due to their high resitivity.
The valence electrons in the outer atomic band of plastics have low energy and no
'free' electrons as found in metals. They will therefore not allow the transfer of current
through them from an external source. This, coupled with
the malleable/ductile properties of plastic, make it ideal for insulating
copper electrical wire. PVC is commonly used where electrical conductivity must be
restricted for safety or to prevent short circuits within a product. This could be likened
to electrical resistance as insulators restrict current flow,Although plastic is non-
conductive, no material is considered a perfect insulator due to charge
carriers existing in all materials. If a large amount of voltage is applied a 'breakdown
voltage' can be reached which forces the material to conduct, breaking the electrons
away from their atomic structure. Products are classified according to the insulation
applied -
Class 1; all exposed metal parts & casing on the product must be earthed
Class 2; 'double insulated' - by fully insulating all electrically energised parts within a
casing to prevent 'live' contact

3. Elasticity is a property common to plastics and details a materials ability

to resist a deforming force and to return to its original size and shape when that force
is removed. As with insulators, no perfectly elastic material exists and all have
an 'elastic limit' which determines the extent to which they can be stretched.
The elasticity of a material is measured
as 'Youngs Modulus',  which is measure of a materials performance
under Stress (force applied) & Strain (distance covered). A high youngs modulus
would mean the material is considered 'stiff' or ridgid and resists deformation without
returning to its original shape. Polymers, in particular rubbers, are
considered 'flexible' and have a low youngs modulus making them elastic. Low
density Polyethelene (LDPE) is an elastic thermoplastic used commonly used for
clingfilm products for this reason

4. Toughness is a materials ability to absorb energy and

plastically deform without fracturing. This is not to be confused
with Strength  which concerns the force a material can support, although they are
often linked together. For a material to have good toughness it must have
both strength and ductility, which is a materials ability to deform under tension
(copper wire). 
In order to test the toughness of a material, a sample can be
taken and a force applied to it by a swinging pendulum mass. The height the
pendulum fell, minus the height it rose after hitting the sample, multiplied by the mass
of the pendulum would calculate the energy absorbed by the sample. The more energy
absorbed without fracture, the higher the material toughness. PVC is a high toughness
polymer

5. Chemical resistance is common amoungst plastics and is a materials ability to resist

molecular reaction with liquids other than water. This property is rated from A-D as
follows; 
A/E = No Attack, possibly slight absorption. Negligible effect on mechanical
properties.
B/G = Slight attack by absorption. Some swelling & a small reduction in mechanical
properties likely.
C/N = Moderate attack of absorption. Material will have limited lifespan
D/F = Material will decompose or dissolve in a short period of time
This property led them to be widely used in the food and drinks industry for storage to
prevent contamination from the material over a long period of time. However, the
prescence of bisphenol A (BPA) in some plastics meant it could contaminate the
contents leading to the common use of BPA Free plastics. 
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS

PLASTICS

Physical and
Behaviour with
Structure chemical Type of Resin
respect of heating
properties

Thermoplastics Homogenous soft PET

Thermosetting Heterogeneous Rigid LDPE

Elastomers HDPE

Semi Rigid PVC

1.3.1 Thermoplastic And Thermosetting plastic

Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics are two separate classes of polymers,

which are differentiated based on their behavior in the presence of heat. The material
difference between the two is that thermoplastics can be remelted, while thermoset
plastics remain in a permanent solid state once hardened. As a result of these physical
qualities, thermoplastic materials have low melting points while thermoset plastic
products can withstand high temperatures without losing austerity.

Thermoplastics pellets soften when heated and become more fluid as more heat is
administered. The curing process is 100% reversible as no chemical bonding takes
place. This characteristic allows thermoplastics to be remolded and recycled without
negatively affecting the material’s physical properties. There are a variety of
thermoplastic resins that offer various performance benefits, but the majority of
materials commonly offer high strength, shrink-resistance and easy flexibility.
Depending on the resin, thermoplastics can serve low-stress applications such as
plastic bags or high-stress mechanical parts. Examples of thermoplastic polymers
include polyethylene, PVC, and nylon. 
1.3.2 Thermoplastics Properties
• It may melt before passing to a gaseous state.
• Allow plastic deformation when it is heated.
• Chemical composition do not change on heating.
• They are brittle and glossy.
• They are soluble in certain solvents.
• Swell in the presence of certain solvents.
• Good resistance to creep.
1.3.3 Thermoplastic Advantages:
 Highly recyclable
 Reshaping capabilities
 Chemical resistant
 Aesthetically superior finishes
 Hard crystalline or rubbery surface options
 High-Impact resistance

1.3.4 Thermoset plastics

Thermoset plastics, typically processed by reaction injection molding, contain
polymers that combine together during the curing process to form a permanent
chemical bond. This process forms weak bonds between the monomer chains within
these materials and eliminates the risk of the product remelting when heat is applied,
making thermosets ideal for high-heat applications like appliances and electronics.
Thermoset plastics greatly improve the material’s mechanical properties, providing
enhanced chemical resistance, heat resistance and structural integrity. Thermoset
plastics are frequently used for sealed products due to their resistance to deformation
and are also among some of the most impact resistant plastics available. Examples
of thermoset plastic polymers include epoxies, phenolics, silicones, and polyesters. 
1.35 Thermosets Properties
These are soluble in alcohol and certain organic solvents, when they are in thermo-
plastic stage. This property is utilized for making paints and varnishes from these
plastics. They undergo irreversible chemical process. These are durable, strong and
hard. They are available in a variety of beautiful colours. They are mainly used in
engineering application of plastics.

1.36 Thermosetting Plastic Advantages: 

 More resistant to high temperatures
 Highly flexible design
 Thick to thin wall capabilities
 High levels of dimensional stability
 Cost-effective

1.3.7 Rigid Plastics

A rigid-plastic material is defined as a material exhibiting no elastic deformation and
perfect plastic deformation. Compared to a real metal, all elastic behaviour and strain
hardening effects are ignored. These plastics have a high modulus of elasticity and
they retain their shape under exterior stresses applied at normal or moderately
increased temperatures.

1.3.8 Semi-rigid Plastics

These plastics have a medium modulus of elasticity and the elongation under pressure
completely disappears, when pressure is removed.

1.3.9 Soft Plastics

These plastics have a low modulus of elasticity and the elongation under pressure
disappears slowly, when the pressure is removed.

1.3.10 Elastomers
These plastics are soft and elastic materials with a low modulus of elasticity. They
deform considerably under load at room temperature and return to their original a
shape, when the load is released. The extensions can range up to ten times their
original dimensions.

1.3.11 Structure of Plastics

Plastics are mostly carbon-based atoms. Silicones are an exception since they based
on the silicon atom. The carbon atom is capable of linking to other atoms with up to
four chemical bonds. In plastics, the carbon atoms also link to hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, chlorine, or sulfur. When the linking of these atoms results in long chains,
like pearls on a string of pearls, the polymer is termed as ‘Thermoplastic’.
Thermoplastics are meltable. All thermoplastics have repeating units,i.e. the smallest
identical section of the chain.  About vast majority of plastics are 92% thermoplastics.

To make unit cells a group of atoms is used called ‘Monomers’.Upon the combination of
monomers, we get polymers or plastics. All the monomers contain double bonds
between carbon atoms such that the carbon atoms can subsequently react to form
polymers.

The plastic behavior of polymers is influenced by their arrangement of molecules on a

large scale. In other words, polymers are either amorphous or crystalline. The
arrangement of molecules in the amorphous state is random and are intertwined. In
crystalline state, the arrangement of molecules is in a closely identifiable manner. On the
other hand, semicrystalline materials exhibit crystalline regions, called crystallites,
within an amorphous matrix.

The chemical structure of the plastics can change, with the use of copolymers, and the
chemical binding of different elements and compounds and on the other hand, the use of
crystallizability can change the processing, aesthetic, and performance properties of
plastics. Alteration of plastics can also happen by adding additives.

1.3.12 PET, or Polyethylene Terephthalate

Polyethylene terephthalate(PET) Introduced by J. Rex Whinfield and James T.
Dickson in 1940, this plastic is one of the most commonly used on the planet.
Interestingly enough, it took another 30 years before it was used for crystal-clear
beverage bottles, such as the ones produced by Coca-Cola and Pepsi. PET plastics
make up 96% of all plastic bottles and containers in the United States, yet only 25%
of these products are recycled. By being mindful and making sure to recycle code 1
plastics, you're helping to ensure a cleaner environment and less landfill pollution.
It is a polymer manufactured from ethylene terephthalate monomors as the most
commonly used plastics in the polyester family. It is globally recognized as
a safe, non-toxic, strong, lightweight, flexible material that is used widely in the
food/drink industry. Around 70% of drinks bottles are manufactured from PET due to
its extremely low water absorption, high chemical resistance, shatterproof, naturally
colourless and recyclable (Group 1). It is one of the most recycled plastics in the
world accounting for over 7 millions tonnes a year with around 40% of energy
recovered
PET is also used as a  fibre in the textiles
industry accounting for 60% of global PET production. Commonly referred to
as Polyester it is used widely for home furnishings, shirts, trousers, jackets, hats, bed
sheets, blankets & upholstered furniture. It is highly stain resistant with only one class
of dye, disperse dye, that will colour it and is often blended with natural fibers to
reduce shrinking and wear as with PVC, there is health concerns over the use
of Phthalates as drinks bottles but these are irrelevant given that they are not used to
manufacture PET. In fact there is no proven health risk associated with PET. The
primary disadvantage of PET use is being non-biodegradable, like most plastics,
contributing to huge levels of litter and unnecessary landfill waste. Equally, it is prone
to oxidisation and may degrade slighty, affecting the taste of the liquid contained due
to Acetaldehyde

1.3.13 High-density polyethylene (HDPE or HIPS)

In 1953, Karl Ziegler and Erhard Holzkamp used catalysts and low pressure to create
high-density polyethylene. It was first used for pipes in storm sewers, drains, and
culverts. Today, this plastic is used for a wide variety of products. HDPE is the most
commonly recycled plastic because it will not break under exposure to extreme heat
or cold. According to the EPA, 12% of all HOPE products created are recycled in a
year. This is a very small dent in the planet's carbon footprint
High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) is a form of polystrene
commonly used in schools as a low cost, highly formable plastic for Vacuum
forming processes. It is a ridgid alternative to polystrene which due to it's higher
density has more practical applications. It has a low melting point of 100°C which
allows it to be formed easily through vacuum forming and can easily be cut, shaped
and punched.  It is also available in a range of colours and transparencies 
HIPS is, however, non-biodegradable and
contributes to a large portion of litter which can takes hundreds of years to
breakdown. Polystryrene is classified as group 6 which are rarely recycled by councils
due to lack of incentive and it's use is widely being phased out across the world. It is
also flammable as a material and banned from use in construction. Finally, due to it's
low melting point it deforms quickly when heat is applied making
it unsuitable for laser cutting.

1.3.14 Polypropylene (PP)

J. Paul Hogan and Robert L. Banks of Phillips Petroleum Company discovered
polypropylene in 1951. At the time, they were simply trying to convert propylene into
gasoline, but instead discovered a new catalytic process for making plastic. Only
about 3% of polypropylene products are recycled in the US, but interestingly enough,
325 million pounds of non-bottle plastics were collected for recycling over a year. In
other words, a lot of this plastic is created, but only a small fraction is actually
recycled.
PP, or Polypropylene , is constructed from propylene monomors and commonly found
the packaging industry, accounting for 30% of its use globally. It has a high chemical
resistance and is considered a 'tough' plastic for it's resistance to deformation without
fracture. Comparatively to HDPE, PP has will not show signs of fatigue and stress.
This property allows PP to be used as a 'living hinge' on products, whereby a thin strip
of plastic is used in place of a mechanical hinge.  Although they are weak structurally,
a living hinge is ideal for non load bearing applications such as lids for packaging
bottles and containers.Polypropylene is a versatile polymer which is
primarily injection moulded or thermoformed but it can also be extruded into fiber for
use in the textiles industry as carpets & clothing. Another key property is it's ability to
be easily co-copolymerised with other polymers such as ethylene to significantly alter
it's material properties. Other advantages include; low cost, resistant
to moisture, high impact strength, low friction surface and a good electrical insulator
PP is, however, prone to thermal expansion above 160°C limiting
manufacturing methods, degrades in U.V light, is highly flammable and like PE
is difficult to bond to other materials including paint. As with other polymers,
additives can be used to overcome these issue.

1.3.15 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

PVC is one of the oldest synthetic materials in industrial production. It was actually
discovered on accident twice; once in 1838 by French physicist Henri Victor Regnault
and again in 1872 by German chemist Eugen Baumann. On both occasions, these men
found it inside vinyl chloride flasks left exposed to sunlight. PVC is one of the least
recycled materials; generally less than 1% of PVC plastic is recycled each year. It has
been called the "poison plastic" because it contains numerous toxins and is harmful to
our health and the environment.
PVC, or Polyvinyl Chloride, is polymerised from vinyl chloride monomors as either a
ridgid (RPVC) or flexible plastic. It is widely used
in constrution and transport industries for it's high durability and lifespan. Unlike
other plastics which are derived primarily from Oil, PVC is mostly made of chlorine,
extracted from common salts (57%), and Carbon from ethylene gas (43%). It is
supplied in a powdered raw form and not pellets as common with other plastics giving
it a longer shelf life. A lack of a total dependency on oil makes PVC a far more
sustainable option than other plastics.
PVC, is a tough, ridgid, hard wearing plastic used largely in construction for
underground piping, windows, doors and electrical cables. The addition
of Plasticisers can alter it's properties to be softer and more flexible to the point it can
imitate fabric.  Phthalates and Adipates are small molecules added to PVC when
heated to widen the space between interconnecting molecules permanently. They
are not considered additives as they chemically bond with the PVC polymers directly
altering the softness of the material. 
There are, however, health concerns surrounding the use of plasticisers, linking it
to cancer, but no conclusive research is yet to be found. Other downsides
are - flammability, low melting point (160°C), brittle without additives, cannot be
laser cut, releases harmful gases when burnt (dioxin) & manufactured, known as
the 'Poison Plastic'

1.3.16 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)

It was the first polyethylene to be produced, making it the godfather of the material.
It has less mass than HDPE, which is why considered a separate material for
recycling.
Packaging and containers made from LDPE make up about 56% of all plastic waste,
75% of which comes from residential households. Fortunately, many recycling
programs are evolving to handle these products. This means less LOPE will end up in
landfills and negatively affect the environment. Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) is
a semi-rigid and translucent polymer. Compared to HDPE, it has a higher degree of
short and long side-chain branching. It is produced at high pressure (1000-3000 bar;
80-300°C) via free radical polymerization process.
The LDPE is composed of 4,000-40,000 carbon atoms, with many short branches.
Two basic processes used for the production of low density polyethylene: stirred
autoclave or tubular routes. The tubular reactor has been gaining preference over the
autoclave route due to its higher ethylene conversion rates.

1.3.17 Polystyrene or Styrofoam (PS)

In 1839, German apothecary Eduard Simon accidentally came across polystyrene
while preparing medication. He isolated a substance from natural resin and didn't
realize what he had discovered. It took German chemist Hermann Staudinger to
research this polymer and expand on its uses
Since polystyrene is lightweight and easy to form into plastic materials, it also breaks
effortlessly, making it more harmful to the environment. Beaches all over the world
are littered with pieces of polystyrene, endangering the health of marine animals.
Polystyrene accounts for about 35% of US landfill materials.
1.3.18 Recycling Codes for Plastic Resins
Recycling code Polymer and structure Uses

Bottles for soft

drinks and other
 Poly(ethylene terephthlate) beverages
(PET)

Containers for
milk and other
 High-density polyethylene beverages,
squeeze bottles

Bottles for
cleaning
 Vinyl/polyvinyl chloride materials, some
shampoo bottles

Plastic bags, some

 Low-density polyethylene
plastic wraps
 May have some branches

Heavy-duty
microwavable
containers
 Polypropylene
Beverage/foam
cups, toys,
window in
 Polystyrene envelopes
 Some ketchup
bottles, snack
All other resins, layered
packs, mixture
multimaterials, some containers
where top differs
from bottom
1.4 Affects on Environment
At first instance, end-user waste should have to be recovered rather than landfilled.
Generally, plastics waste as part of municipal solid waste streams needs to be
recovered eco-efficiently. Biodegradable plastics waste is mainly treated by
composting (aerobic degradation) or digestion (anaerobic degradation). Biological
treatment together with bio-waste is a sensible option when a consistent use of
biodegradable plastics is possible such as in the example of compostable kitchen-
waste bags explained above. Like other plastics waste, biodegradable plastics waste
can be recycled or reworked by the converter: When post-consumer plastics waste
does not fulfil such quality criteria, other recovery routes must be considered.
Education and information about proper use of plastics is important. Correct
information about plastic waste management and the importance of separate
collection to achieve the best efficiency in recycling have to be emphasized in any
communication program. This should be supported by the respective stakeholders by
the administration and in the value chain

1.4.1 Land litter

Plastic that either isn't collected where waste management facilities are lacking, or
plastic that is simply dropped or disposed of on streets or in the environment can be
termed as land litter. These items can also be transported by wind and rain into
drainage networks or rivers that then transported to sea
Microbeads
Microbeads are tiny pieces of plastic that are purposefully manufactured. They are
usually used in various personal care and cosmetic products like facial cleansers and
cosmetics. Their use in medicine as vectors for drugs was also reported. For example,
micro plastic "scrubbers", used in exfoliating hand cleansers and facial scrubs, have
replaced traditionally used ' natural ingredients, including ground almonds, oatmeal,
and pumice. Many of these micro bead particles are too small to be filtered out by
wastewater plants and end up flowing into the ocean from inland water streams and
drains.

1.4.2 Inland water litter

Plastic litter directly into the rivers, streams and drains can be a source of plastic
pollution. Sometimes, improper management of collected plastic waste can also find
its way into these inland water bodies through storm water drainage. All these can
cause of clogging of drains and can be breading spaces for mosquitos causing human
health hazard.

1.4.3 Industrial leakage

Poor standards in industrial processes are responsible for some plastic moving into the
environment, either when products containing plastic aren't disposed of properly, or
escaping during the production and/or transportation of products. For example,
thousands of tiny plastic pellets used to produce plastic products, known as nurdles or
mermaid's tears, are washed up on beaches every year (Greenpeace, 2018)
Marine litter, is human-created waste that has been deliberately or accidentally
released into a sea or ocean during shipping, fishing or aquacultures. Holiday makers
visiting beaches and disposing of bottles and food packaging on the sand also directly
contributes to plastic getting into the ocean. Floating oceanic debris tends to
accumulate at the centre of gyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground,
when it is known as beach litter or tide wrack.

1.5 INDIA PLASTIC WASTE CRISIS

India generates nearly 26,000 tonnes of plastic waste every day, making it the 15th
biggest plastic polluter globally.Discarded plastic waste litter the country’s roads,
rivers and also form huge mounds in garbage dumps across the country. Plastic
accounts for 8% of the total solid waste generated in the country annually, with Delhi
producing the biggest quantity, followed by Kolkata and Ahmedabad, data from
India’s central pollution control board (CPCB).
Of the 25,940 tonnes of plastic waste produced in India everyday according to CPCB,
94% is thermoplastic, or recyclable materials such as PET (polyethylene
terephthalate), and PVC (polyvinyl chloride).
 Fig 1.1 Plastic pollution emerging states

Fig 1.2 Consumption of different virgin plastic resins in india

 Fig 1.3Percentage of plastic consumption in india by different
market sector

1.6 BIO DEGRADEBLE PLASTIC

The theory behind bioplastics is simple: if we could make plastics from kinder
chemicals to start with, they'd break down more quickly and easily when we got rid of
them. The most familiar bioplastics are made from natural materials such as corn
starch . Some bioplastics look virtually indistinguishable from traditional
petrochemical plastics. Polylactide acid (PLA) looks and behaves like polyethylene
and polypropylene and is now widely used for food containers., making PLA saves
two thirds the energy you need to make traditional plastics. Unlike traditional plastics
and biodegradable plastics, bioplastics generally do not produce a net increase in
carbon dioxide gas when they break down (because the plants that were used to make
them absorbed the same amount of carbon dioxide to begin with). PLA, for example,
produces almost 70 percent less greenhouse gases when it degrades in landfills.
Another good thing about bioplastics is that they're generally compostable: they decay
into natural materials that blend harmlessly with soil. Some bioplastics can break
down in a matter of weeks. The cornstarch molecules they contain slowly absorb
water and swell up, causing them to break apart into small fragments that bacteria can
digest more readily.
1.7 Explanation of biodegradable vs. compostable vs. oxo-degradable
plastics

As consumer demand for sustainable products grows, bioplastics —which can reduce
our reliance on fossil fuels and decrease greenhouse emissions— will become more
prevalent. Production of bioplastics is expected to grow by as much as 20% by 2022,
and as it does, consumer understanding of bioplastics will need to grow with it.
A major source of confusion is the difference between three terms: Biodegradability,
compostability and oxo-degradability. Although these terms are often used
interchangeably, they are not synonymous. Confusion regarding common bioplastics
terminology such as these, especially where it concerns the disposal of bioplastic
products, can have dire consequences. Companies need to understand the distinctions
between each category in order to accurately and honestly market their products. And
consumers need to understand these terms in order to make educated purchasing
decisions and properly dispose of bioplastic products at the end of use.

Fig 1.4 Understanding the differences between biodegradable, Compostable and

Oxo- degradable

1.6.1 Understanding bioplastics: Bio-based vs. biodegradable

To understand these three terms (i.e., biodegradability, compostability and oxo-
degradability), it is important first to clearly understand the definition of bioplastics.
Bioplastics refer to a large family of plastics which are sourced from biomass at the
beginning of their life (bio-based), metabolized into organic biomass at the end of
their life (biodegradable), or both.
Based on this, bioplastics can be broken down into three distinct classifications:
Non-biodegradable and fully or partially bio-based (e.g., bio-based PET, bio-based
PE, ). Biodegradable and petroleum-based (g., PCL).
Biodegradable plastics are a relatively small subset of bioplastics which can be
converted into water, carbon dioxide (CO2) and bio-mass over time with the help of
micro-organisms — this process is called biodegradation. And because the
biodegradability of a plastic lies with the chemical properties of the polymer —and
not the source of the feedstock— biodegradable plastics can be either bio- or
petroleum-based.Nearly every material will biodegrade, given enough time. But the
length of the biodegradation process is highly dependent on environmental parameters
such as humidity and temperature, which is why claiming that a plastic is
“biodegradable” without any further context (i.e., in what timeframe and under what
environmental conditions) is misleading to consumers.
Reputable companies will often make more specific claims, primarily certifying that
their bioplastics are compostable. Compostable plastics are a subset of biodegradable
plastics, defined by the standard conditions and timeframe under which they will
biodegrade. All compostable plastics are biodegradable, but not all biodegradable
plastics would be considered compostable.

1.6.2 Regular Plastic vs. Biodegradable Plastic

When they are disposed of and begin to decompose or when they are melted, that
carbon is then released into the atmosphere. Biodegradable plastics do not release
carbon, because no carbon is involved in the manufacturing process. Methane and
other forms of pollutants could also be released from traditional plastic when they are
recycled and burned. This is not the case with biodegradable plastics, which do not
contain those polluting materials.
One of the many positive aspects of biodegradable plastics is that they are able to be
broken down by naturally occurring bacteria, which again will be beneficial to the
environment.
Aside from a slightly higher cost to produce, biodegradable plastics hold many
advantages over standard plastics, with a lesser impact on the environment being one
of its greatest advantages.
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY

This chapter summarizes different journals written by different authors on

topic of bioplastic . The different authors based on their topic selected
gave detailed explanation and information to enhance the research part of
the project

Expanding bioplastics production: sustainable business innovation in

the chemical industry Alastair IlesAbigail N.Martin
The case of bioplastics illustrates how business models can link producers and
customers through the development of new technologies and products. Chemical
companies have assumed that reducing costs, increasing yields, and developing better
feedstock supplies will guarantee the success of bioplastics in the market, yet a
number of unconventional hurdles exist. Companies need to build markets for
bioplastics and to assure customers that bioplastics are indeed sustainably made. We
contend that companies are most able to develop business models that bring
bioplastics to market effectively when they develop and mobilize their “dynamic
capabilities” around sustainability. DuPont, BASF, and Braskem have identified new
market opportunities for bioplastics, designed distinctive types of business models to
seize these opportunities, and devised ways to create increased value by
communicating performance advantages and environmental impact reduction to
downstream entities. Because they have not included societal actors in their efforts to
define sustainability, the firms face significant risk that their sustainable value
propositions may not endure without further innovations in creating accountability
systems.

Bioplastics: Its Timeline Based Scenario & Challenges Swati Pathak,

CLR Sneha, Blessy Baby Mathew
There has been substantial interest in the advancement and production of
biodegradable polymer to solve the current problem of pollution triggered by the
continuous use of synthetic polymer of petroleum origin. The likelihood of producing
these bio- polymers commercially and at comparable cost has been the key focus in
this area. The most promising way of making plastics from other abundant renewable
sources like corn, soy beans, sugarcane etc. is the avenue of Bio plastics. This paper is
a comparative study that confers the likelihood of the conventional petro-plastics
being substituted by the new-age degradable and renewable bio-derived polymers. It
presents the keynote issues that support findings of the benefits these materials have
in relation to conventional, petrochemical based counterparts. It is the view of the
authors that biodegradable plastic materials are most apt for single-use disposable
applications where the post-consumption waste can be locally composted

Biodegradable plastics from renewable sourcesM. Flieger, M.

Kantoroá, A. Prell, T. Rezanka & J. Votruba 
Plastic waste disposal is a huge ecotechnological problem and one of the approaches
to solving this problem is the development of biodegradable plastics. This review
summarizes data on their use, biodegradability, commercial reliability and production
from renewable resources. Some commercially successful biodegradable plastics are
based on chemical synthesis (i.e. polyglycolic acid, polylactic acid, polycaprolactone,
and polyvinyl alcohol). Others are products of microbial fermentations (i.e. polyesters
and neutral polysaccharides) or are prepared from chemically modified natural
products (e.g., starch, cellulose, chitin or soy protein).

Development of highly-transparent protein/starch-based bioplastics

J.Gonzalez-GutierrezP.PartalM.Garcia-MoralesC.Gallegos
Striving to achieve cost-competitive biomass-derived materials for the plastics
industry, the incorporation of starch (corn and potato) to a base formulation of
albumen and glycerol was considered. To study the effects of formulation and
processing, albumen/starch-based bioplastics containing 0–30 wt.% starch were
prepared by thermo-plastic and thermo-mechanical processing. Transmittance
measurements, DSC, DMTA and tensile tests were performed on the resulting
bioplastics. Optical and tensile properties were strongly affected by starch
concentration. However, DMTA at low deformation proved to be insensitive to starch
addition. Thermo-mechanical processing led to transparent albumen/starch materials
with values of strength at low deformation comparable to commodity plastics.
Consequently, albumen biopolymers may become a biodegradable alternative to oil-
derived plastics for manufacturing transparent packaging and other plastic stuffs.

Properties and applications of compostable starch-based plastic

material JürgenLörcks
Biodegradable and compostable plastics, especially those based on renewable
resources from the agricultural industry, are an essential innovation. This innovation
offers substantial impulses for the future technologies. A lot of jobs and a potential
market of > 1 million tonnes/year for biodegradable plastics in Europe is proposed by
the EU Commission Directorate General XII. Bioplastics based on starch use the
benefits of natural polymerization and the availability of raw material and process
technology. Thermoplastic starch TPS and blends of TPS with hydrophobic
biodegradable polymers are in the BIOTEC research and production program. Latest
development results are reaction-compounding process technologies to produce
TPS derivatives and starchesters in a continuous extrusion process. Applications for
TPS bioplastic granules BIOPLAST are film extrusion and injection moulding. The
BIOFLEX film has mechanical properties, such as PE films are opaque to transparent,
printable, sealable, shrinkable and can be colourized. BIOFLEX is permeable to
vapour and has good barrier properties to oxygen. BIOFLEX can be used in the same
way as conventional foils, for instance for garbage sacks, shopping bags, packing up,
nets for food packaging, diapers, agricultural or technical uses. According to DIN
54900, TPS bioplastics are completely biodegradable and compostable. The
innovation of this bioplastic technology is an excellent example for a sustainable
development, which means the responsible use of available natural resources and
production processes that take environmental aspects and natural circulations into
consideration.

Biodegradable plastics: a solution or a challenge? X.Ren

Though developed as a solution for the waste problem, biodegradable plastics create
new challenges on waste management with respect to policies and laws, waste
management technologies and application of market-based instruments. A holistic
view and integrated approach are necessary to address the implication of each
component of this picture on others and on the whole. In an effort to tackle the
challenges, the paper makes an in-depth analysis of the waste management system
with biodegradable plastics as an element, emphasizing on regulatory and economic
aspects.
Sustainable bio-plastic production through landfill methane
recycling
Karthigeyan Chidambarampadmavathy Obulisamy Parthiba Karthikeyan
KirstenHeimann
Plastics are an indispensable part of day-to-day life. Environmental implications of
these non-biodegradable plastics in landfills raise major concerns. Use of
biodegradable plastics is the best alternative as they are environmental friendly, with
great recycling potential, and can be produced using renewable resources such as
waste materials, methane (CH4) and simple carbon sources. Whilst the biodegradable
plastics are eco-friendly, they pose a risk of emitting CH4 under anaerobic
conditions in landfills. As a cradle-to-cradle approach, landfill CH4 could be
effectively used for biodegradable plastic production by methanotrophs. This review
briefly reviews approaches to plastic disposal, alternatives to plastic waste
management and outlines issues arising. The focus of the review is to examine the
potential for cost-effective production of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) using
methanotrophs for manufacturing biodegradable plastics. The data input into this
analysis is derived from Australian landfill CH4 emissions, the average PHB content
of methanotrophs and applied to a case-scenario in Sydney, Australia.. The results
suggest that this approach to biodegradable plastic production can be economically
viable and price-competitive with synthetic plastics. In our case study, landfills were
sized small, medium and large (5,000, 35,000 and 230,000 t of waste per year,
respectively). In small landfills, 162 t of CH4 can be recovered to produce 71 t of PHB
per year, whilst in large landfills 7,480 t of CH4 can be recovered to produce 3,252 t
of PHB. The cost of PHB production can be reduced to 1.5–2.0 AUD meeting the
market value of synthetic plastic by increasing production volumes through building a
centralised extraction and refinement facility suitable for large metropolitan cities.
 CHAPTER 3
BIO-PLASTICS
In this chapter we will understand Types of Biodegradeble plastics, Role of
Maize in Bio plastics, Conversion of maize into starch ,Role and Types of additives
being used in biodegradable plastic.

3.1 PLA (Polylactic acid)

The design and development of tissue-engineered products has benefited from many
years of clinical utilization of a wide range of biodegradable polymers. Newly
developed biodegradable polymers and novel modifications of previously developed
biodegradable polymers have enhanced the tools available to create clinically
important tissue-engineering applications. Insights gained from studies of cell-matrix
interactions, cell–cell signaling, and organization of cellular components are placing
increased demands on biomaterials for novel sophisticated medical implants, such as
tissue engineering constructs, and continue to fuel the interest in improving the
performance of existing medical-grade polymers and developing new synthetic
polymers. This chapter surveys those biologically derived and synthetic biodegradable
polymers that have been used or are under consideration for use in tissue-engineering
applications. The polymers are described in terms of their chemical composition,
breakdown products, mechanism of breakdown, mechanical properties, and clinical
limitations. Also discussed are product design considerations in processing of
biomaterials into a final form (e.g., gel, membrane, matrix) that will effect the desired
tissue response.
Polylactic Acid, most commonly known as PLA, is a polymer made from renewable
resources. Contrary to other thermoplastics which are petroleum-based, some of the
raw materials used for PLA’s production include corn starch, tapioca roots, or
sugarcane. Its properties, however, are comparable to other plastics in the industry.
These characteristics and consumers’ desire to use a less impactful material have
triggered its rapid entrance to the plastic market as a competitive commodity.
All of the varieties of PLA share that they are made up of lactic acid (C3H6O3). Their
difference, despite having the same molecular formula is the orientation of their atoms
in space. They include poly L-lactide (PLLA), poly D-lactide (PLDA), and poly-DL-
lactide (PDLLA).
3.2 HOW IT IS MADE
PLA is a polyester produced by fermentation under controlled conditions of a
carbohydrate source like corn starch or sugarcane. Its building blocks can either be
lactic acid or lactide monomers. They will later be polymerized into PLA.
Initially, corn goes through wet milling. Here’s were the starch gets separated. The
starch is then mixed with acid or enzymes and heated. This process “breaks” starch
into dextrose (D-glucose), or corn sugar. Finally, fermentation of glucose produces L-
Lactic acid, which will be the basic constituent of PLA.
Two methods for manufacturing PLA plastic from lactic acid are applied. The first
one uses lactide as an intermediate state, which results in greater molecular weight.
The second method consists in the direct polymerization of lactic acid.

3.3 BENEFITS
PLA is bio-based and biodegradable. These are the most outstanding properties,
especially considering that one does not automatically imply the other. Being bio-
based implies that the material is derived from biomass. As for being biodegradable,
PLA undergoes a transformation into natural material, such as water, carbon dioxide,
and composite. This process is carried out by microorganisms in the environment and
is strongly dependent on conditions such as temperature and humidity.
PLA is a thermoplastic, meaning that it can be melted and reshaped without
significantly degrading its mechanical properties. Hence, PLA is mechanically
recyclable.
It is derived from renewable resources, a sharp contrast to the petroleum-based
plastics, which have a finite availability.
 Carbon neutral: its renewable sources actually absorb carbon.
 It does not release toxic fumes when oxygenated.
 Economic Potential: bioplastics offer a growing market, with opportunities for
job creation and development of rural areas .
PLA plastic is recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug
Administration. Additionally, it is safe for all food packaging applications.
Its non-toxicity has allowed its incorporation in medical applications.
3.4 PROPERTIES

3.4.1 Rheological Properties

PLA is a pseudoplastic, non-Newtonian fluid. This means that its viscosity (resistance
to flow) will change depending on the stress that it is subjected to. Specifically, PLA
is a shear-thinning material, which means that the viscosity decreases with applied
stress.

3.4.2 Mechanical Properties

PLA plastic has good mechanical properties compared to traditional polymers like
polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyurethane. Especially when it comes to Young’s
modulus (the ability to tolerate elongation under tension or compression), tensile
strength (force needed to pull something), and flexural strength (stress needed to start
plastic deformation).

3.4.3 Thermal properties

Even though its thermal properties depend on its molecular weights, PLA can be
classified as a semi-crystalline polymer. Its glass transition temperature at ~55°C and
melting temperature at ~180°C are comparatively low, for example when thinking of
other thermoplastics such as ABS. And, just like oil-based plastics, PLA can burn.
Precautions should be taken.

3.5 APPLICATIONS OF BIODEGRADEBLE PLASTIC

3.5.1 Consumer Packaging Materials

One of the major potential application areas for biodegradable plastics is consumer
packaging. A wide range of plastic consumer packaging materials are not currently
mechanically recycled, and may therefore be suited to the use of biodegradable
plastics; however, life cycle assessment studies are needed to determine the impacts
of biodegradable and conventional polymers for these uses. The various uses and
likely disposal environments of different packaging products would require the use of
different biodegradable plastics with appropriate mechanical and degradation
properties. Another strategic fit for biodegradable plastics is the beverage six-pack
rings market. In the USA almost all plastic six-pack rings have been made of
photodegradable LDPE plastic since the early 1990’s. At least 16 US states—
including Massachusetts, New York and Rhode Island - have passed laws requiring
six-pack holders be biodegradable (these are marked by a small diamond between the
rings). Pepsi for example, has a policy to purchase only photodegradable plastic
sixpack rings. It should be noted that photodegradable plastics are not a complete
solution in themselves as they require 6-8 weeks of sunlight to degrade and will not
degrade if buried. Other related applications include bread bags, bait bags, disposable
food preparation gloves, drinking straws, and loose fill packaging.

3.5.2 Other Applications

Other potential applications for the range of biodegradable plastics include:
 Bait bags

 Fishing line and nets

 Silage wrap

 Body bags and coffin liners

 Nappy backing sheet

 Various sanitary product applications

 Cling wrap.

3.6 Classification of Maize

Maize or corn is classified commercially into four main classes as follows:
1. Dent varieties, which, when mature have a pronounced depression or dent at the
top of the kernel. These have hard patches of densely packed endosperm cells at the
outer edges of their endosperm and soft, opaque cells toward their center. Their
shapes vary from long and narrow to wide and shallow.
2.      Flint varieties, which have a continuous hard layer surrounding the endosperm.
When these kernels dry, they dry evenly and therefore do not form a dent.

3.      Flour or soft varieties, which are almost entirely opaque and soft. It is the soft
maize varieties that are normally used to make corn flour.

4.      Waxy maize varieties that have a waxy  appearance especially when broken.

The starch consists of very little amylose and is effectively 100% amylopectin (maize
starch is normally about 30% amylose and 70% amylopectin).

3.6.1 ROLE OF WHEAT AS BIO PLASTIC

The Native Starch Market in India is expected to reach a volume of around 3.5
Million Tons by 2022.
The native starch market in India is currently at a nascent stage, however, it is
projected to develop rapidly. The majority of native starch goes into the production of
sweeteners, ethanol, paper and textiles. A growth in the demand for these products is
anticipated to drive the market. Moreover, native starch is now being used in the
production of biodegradable polymers and plastics which will further encourage its
demand.
Maize (Zea mays L) is one of the most versatile emerging crops having wider
adaptability under varied agro-climatic conditions. Globally, maize is known as queen
of cereals because it has the highest genetic yield potential among the cereals. It is
cultivated on nearly 150 m ha in about 160 countries having wider diversity of soil,
climate, biodiversity and management practices that contributes 36 % (782 m t) in the
global grain production. The United States of America (USA) is the largest producer
of maize contributes nearly 35 % of the total production in the world and maize is the
driver of the US economy. The USA has the highest productivity (> 9.6 t ha-1 ) which
is double than the global average (4.92 t ha-1). Whereas, the average productivity in
India is 2.43 t ha-1
In India, maize is the third most important food crops after rice and wheat. According
to advance estimate its production is likely to be 22.23 M Tonnes (2012-13) mainly
during Kharif season which covers 80% area. Maize in India, contributes nearly 9 %
in the national food basket. In addition to staple food for human being and quality
feed for animals, maize serves as a basic raw material as an ingredient to thousands of
industrial products that includes starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food
sweeteners, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, film, textile, gum, package and paper industries
etc.
The maize is cultivated throughout the year in all states of the country for various
purposes including grain, fodder, green cobs, sweet corn, baby corn, pop corn in peri-
urban areas. The predominant maize growing states that contributes more than 80 %
of the total maize production are Andhra Pradesh (20.9 %), Karnataka (16.5 %),
Rajasthan (9.9 %), Maharashtra (9.1 %), Bihar (8.9 %), Uttar Pradesh (6.1 %),
Madhya Pradesh (5.7 %), Himachal Pradesh (4.4 %). Apart from these states maize is
also grown in Jammu and Kashmir and North-Eastern states. Hence, the maize has
emerged as important crop in the non-traditional regions i.e. peninsular India as the
state like Andhra Pradesh which ranks 5th in area (0.79 m ha) has recorded the
highest production (4.14 m t) and productivity (5.26 t ha-1 ) in the country although
the productivity in some of the districts of Andhra Pradesh is more or equal to the
USA.
Maize can be grown successfully in variety of soils ranging from loamy sand to clay
loam. However, soils with good organic matter content having high water holding
capacity with neutral pH are considered good for higher productivity. Being a
sensitive crop to moisture stress particularly excess soil moisture and salinity stresses;
it is desirable to avoid low lying fields having poor drainage and also the field having
higher salinity. Therefore, the fields having provision of proper drainage should be
selected for cultivation of maize.
All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on maize was launched in 1957 with
the objective to develop and disseminate genetically superior cultivars and
production/protection technologies. AICRP organizes interdisciplinary,
interinstitutional, co-operative and systematic testing of newly developed cultivars of
both public and private sectors for different agro-climatic zones of the country. The
project resulted in refining efforts in varietal improvement. Since 1961, a total number
of 187 cultivars including single cross hybrids, composites and multiple parent
crosses have been released nationwide. In India, maize is traditionally grown in
monsoon (Kharif) season, which is accompanied by high temperature (<35° C) and
rainfall. However, with the development of new cultivars and appropriate production
technology, winter cultivation of maize has emerged as a viable alternative.

Fig 1.5 Availabilty of wheat across India

3.7 Corn Processing

Maize is processed by dry or wet milling. Dry milling may or may not include de-
germing as a preliminary step. Non-de-germing dry milling is carried out on a local
basis in small grist mills or in modern roller mills using sifters and purifiers. The
maize is ground to make coarse wholemeal of 85 to 95% extraction rate.
This wholemeal is highly susceptible to the rancidity as the germ is retained which
has a high oil content. Wet milling and dry milling involving de-germing are carried
out in large commercial mills.

3.7.1 Dry milling

 Two different systems are used for dry milling of corn.

 The non-degerming system grinds corn into mill with hardly any separation of
germ. This corn meal has comparatively shorter shelf-life, as the germ is
retained, which contains 32 to 35% oil. This oil in presence of oxygen and
lipolytic enzymes is prone to oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity.
 Hence, it is necessary to remove the germ from corn to produce corn products
with much lower fat content and greater shelf-life.

 Tempering and degerming system remove most of the germ and hull and leave
the endosperm as free of oil and fiber as possible to recover maximum yield of
endosperm and germ as large clean particles.

 Corn is cleaned to remove dirt, stones, insects, tramp iron, broken kernels and
extraneous plant materials.

 The corn is then conditioned by adding water to increase the moisture content
to 20%, and the moistened corn is allowed to equilibrate for 1 or 3 hrs. The
objective of conditioning is to loosen the germ and toughen the bran and to
mellow the endosperm so as to obtain a maximum yield of grits and a
minimum yield of flour in the subsequent milling.

 Degerming and dehulling is carried out in one of the three ways:

1.      Beall de-germinator (De-germer and corn huller)

2.      With roller mills and sifters
3.      With impact machines such as entoleters and gravity separators

 Once the germ and hull are removed, the endosperm is reduced in size to grits
with roller mills. A complex array of additional roller mills and particle size
separating equipments is used to purify and size endosperm particles. All
products must be dried prior to packaging or bulk storage.
 Fig 1.6 Maize to Starch convertion

3.7.2 Wet milling

 Wet milling of corn is achieved by a combination of chemical and mechanical

means. Wet milling begins with steeping of cleaned corn for 30 or48 hours
with water. Sulfur dioxide is added to the water at the rate of 0.1 or 0.2% and
the solution is heated to about 50 degree. This condition prevents growth of
putrefying microorganisms.

 During steeping, the kernel absorb solution and swell, activating enzymes
native to the kernel to assist in breaking down the structure; the bisulfite ion
reduces disulfide bonds in the protein matrix, increasing protein solubility and
diminishing interactions between starch and protein; the lactic acid and/or
exogenous enzymes produced by the lactobacilli help soften the endosperm.

 After steeping corn is ready for grinding and fractionating in disc attrition
mill. The ground slurry is then pumped to hydroclones (liquid cyclones) to
separate lighter-weight germs. The germs are dried and processed for oil and
meal. The heavier underflow from the hydroclones is screened, and larger
 particles are finely reground with an impact mill to free the starch, protein, and
fiber from each other.

 Fiber is separated and washed over series of screens.

 The remaining stream of starch and protein is passed through disc nozzle type
centrifuges, where heavier starch is separated from the gluten.

 The gluten is dewatered using additional centrifuges and vacuum filters. The
remaining starch slurry is washed and passed through hydroclones.
Centrifuges and/or vacuum filter dewater the purified starch.

Fig 1.7 Wet Miller

3.8 Additives and Modifiers

Biodegradable polymers are rarely used on their own to make biodegradable plastics.
A range of additives and modifiers (e.g. coupling agents, plasticisers, fillers, catalysts,
dyes and pigments) are generally added to obtain useful performance properties that
approach those of conventional plastics. Once the biodegradable polymer matrix
degrades, the additives and modifiers become liberated into the environment. These
compounds and their potential negative impacts are outlined below. Isocyanate
Coupling Agents Starch and PLA do not have readily reactive functional groups, so
their mutual compatibility is poor.
To overcome this shortcoming a chemical with isocyanate
functional groups such as methylene-diisocyanate, (MDI) is reactively blended with
the starch and PLA. MDI is recognised as a toxic substance, however further studies
are required to assess the problems that could occur if MDI entered the environment.
 Plasticisers Plasticisers are often added to increase
biodegradable plastic flexibility.
Typical plasticisers used in biodegradable plastics include:
 Glycerol

 Sorbitol

 Propylene glycol

 Ethylene glycol

 Polyethylene glycol

 Triethyl citrate

 Triacetine

Most of these are organic and readily fully break down in the
environment. Ethylene glycol, however, is a recognised environmental pollutant.
Direct exposure to the compound can cause skin and eye damage in humans, with a
lethal dose if ingested of 100mL. The lethal concentration for fish has been found to
be 100mg/L. (Material Safety Data Sheet – Ethelyne Glycol, 2001).
Glycerin makes the bioplastic more flexible.
Water plays an important role in the production of bioplastic. First, it acts as a solvent
to dissolve the starch. Secondly, it helps the starch molecules to stay disrupted after
heating
Glycerin (Propan-1,2,3 triol) Glycerin is a hygroscopic liquid
with a high viscosity. It has 3 hydroxyl groups which make it be soluble in water. The
above image shows the structure of glycerin. Glycerin makes the biolastic more
flexible.
                                                        

CHAPTER 4
PREPARATION OF BIO-PLASTIC

In this chapter we will to prepare the preparation of bio-plastic material

4.1 Materials and Methods
For preparing the Bio Plastic film, corn and rice starch were extracted in the
laboratory. The glycerol, citric acid/gelatin were used as a plasticizer.

Fig 1.8 Starch is a polymer of glucose subunits

4.2 Extraction of Starch

The following steps detail extracting the starch from corn by the manual method.
First, 100 g corn was washed and boiled with water for an hour. More corn was
ground in a mortar with 100 mL purified water. The mixture was filtered and the
remaining solid mass was put into the mortar. We repeated the procedure five times
and more starch was obtained. The blend was allowed to settle in the beaker for 5
min. Then, 100 mL of purified water was added and was agitated softly. The water
was removed after repeating the above process 3–4 times and the starch, white in
color, was obtained, as shown in Figure . About 40 g of starch was obtained from 100
g of corn.
  Fig 1.9 Prepared starch

4.3 MOISTURE CONTENT TEST

Moisture in a weighed starch sample is removed by heating in an oven
under specified conditions of time, temperature and vacuum .The weight
loss is then calculated as moisture.

4.3.1 PROPERTIES CORN STARCH

Moisture 10.82

Density (grams) 2

PH 7

PROCEDURE
Before heating, the starch and water molecules combine physically in a
liquid mixture, but do not permanently attach. Heating causes the water
molecules to move fast enough to penetrate and break up the starch
granules, which then tangle together to form polymers. Because the
polymers are weaker than commercial bioplastics, they readily break
apart in water. Durable commerical bioplastics need heat, microbes, and
much more time to biodegrade, which is just fine with manufacturers.
Weigh accurately about 100 g of sample into a predried, cooled and tared
moisture dish. Place dish and cover (cover removed) in vacuum oven
operating at 120 °C Corn Starch .MOISTURE (Oven) ⎯ continued and
maintain at a pressure not in excess of 100 Tor for 4 hours. While sample
is drying, bleed a small stream of air through the drying train and oven.
Shut off the vacuum line and slowly fill the oven with air drawn through
the drying train. Open oven, quickly close dish with cover, place in
desiccator until cool (30 minutes usually sufficient) and weigh.

4.3.2CALCULATION
% Moisture Sample Wt. (g) (Sample Wt.(g) - Dry Sample Wt. (g) ×100

4.3.3 LITMUS PAPER TEST

Litmus paper is filter paper which has been treated with a natural water-soluble dye
obtained from lichens. The resulting piece of paper, called "litmus paper", can be used
as a pH indicator. Blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions (pH below 4.5)
while red litmus paper turns blue under alkaline conditions (pH above 8.3). Blue
litmus does not change color under alkakine conditions, while red litmus paper does
not change color under acidic conditions. Neutral litmus paper is purplish in color.
Neutral litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions and blue under alkaline
conditions.
While litmus paper may be used to determine whether an aqueous solution is an acid
or a base, it not good for estimating the pH value of the liquid.
Starch is stirred in 100 ml of water and test with litmus paper, Readings are taken
based on litmus paper colour change
 Fig 1.10 Litmus paper to know PH value

4.4 Preparation of Bioplastics Film

In corn starch-based TPS, glycerol is used as plasticizer, due to its better mechanical
properties and good water solubility, ranging from 18 to 25%, though it can increase
up to 36% . It was shown that the glycerol concentration would not affect the glass
transition temperatures. TPS film was prepared according to the following procedure:
The starch, glycerol were added to 100 mL distilled water in various ratios. The
mixture was stirred for 10 min. Then the mixture was heated on a hot plate at 100 °C,
and manual stirring was done for 15 min, continuously . It was then poured onto a
Aluminium foil plate and spread uniformly. It took 2–3 days for the mixture to dry out
and the cast film was removed.

Fig 1.11 Final prepared Bio Plastic

 CHAPTER 5

Here we summarize with standard test methods to be used in bio degradable plastic
and calculations of Tensile test

5.1 STANDARDS AND TEST METHODS

INDIA at present has no standards, or test methods, that specifically apply to
biodegradable plastics. There are however a range of international standards, and test
methods, developed specifically for biodegradability, product safety, and also for
compost derived products. The main international organisations that have established
standards or testing methods are:
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
European Standardisation Committee (CEN)
International Standards Organisation (ISO)
Institute for Standards Research (ISR)
German Institute for Standardisation (DIN)
Organic Reclamation and Composting Association (ORCA) (Belgium).

5.1.1 Biodegradation Standards and Tests

American Society for Testing and Materials A family of ASTM standards addresses
physical property deterioration in a variety of specific environmental conditions
including simulated composting (D5509, D5512), simulated landfill (D5525), aerobic
microbial activity (D5247) and marine floating conditions (D5437). A second group
of ASTM standards addresses CO2 generation in aerobic environments including
sewage sludge (D5209), activated sewage sludge (D5271), and controlled composting
(D5338). A third group of ASTM standards addresses CH4/CO2 evolution in
anaerobic environments such as anaerobic sewage sludge (D5210), anaerobic
biodegradation (D5511), and accelerated landfill (D5526). D6400 differentiates
between biodegradable and degradable plastics, and D5152- addresses environmental
fate.

5.1.2 ASTM D5210-92 (Anaerobic, Sewage Sludge)

Anaerobic degradation is biodegradation in the absence of oxygen. A mixed
population of microorganisms is needed for complete degradation of the polymer. In
the first stage, acidogenic bacteria convert organic substances into lower molecular
weight components such as alcohols and short chain fatty acids. Subsequently
acetogenic bacteria further degrade these substances to acetone, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen. In the final phase, methane and carbon dioxide are the end products of
anaerobic degradation. The standard test method for determining the anaerobic
degradation of plastic materials is ASTM D5210-92. This test measures the amount of
biogas released during polymer biodigestion by microorganisms. The biodegradation
percentage is the ratio of biogas produced by the test sample compared with the
theoretical amount produced in the case of complete mineralisation.
ASTM D5511-94 (High-solids Anaerobic Digestion) ASTM D5511-94 is the standard
test method for determining anaerobic biodegradation of plastic materials under high-
solids anaerobic digestion conditions. This method determines the inherent
biodegradability of plastic in an anaerobic solid waste digester or a sanitary landfill
under optimal conditions. In this case the total volume of biogas produced per unit
weight of sample is measured. Knowing the carbon content of the test material, the
percentage of biodegradation can be calculated as the percentage of solid carbon in
the sample which has been converted to gaseous carbon in the form of CH4 and CO2.
ASTM Tests for Specific Disposal Environments Tests to evaluate the generation and
quality of humic substances in landfills, composting or terrestrial or aquatic
environments are beginning to appear. Aerobic composting with activated vermiculite
provides the opportunity to recover and quantify the polymeric residues, allowing
more complete carbon balances as well as assessments of toxic compound generation
and humus quality.

5.1.3 Tensile Test

Tensile strength is the amount of maximum strength needed to break the bioplastics film.
Tensile modulus is defined as the stress change divided by change in strain within the linear
viscoelastic region of the stress/strain curves. Elongation at break is the indication of the
amount of the variation of extreme film length while attaining tensile strength until the film
breaks, related to the original length. The tensile strength of the TPS, Young’s Modulus, and
the elongation of the film at the breaking point were found for the samples and shown in .
Glycerol, as a plasticizer, made the film more flexible as the intermolecular bonds between
the polymer chains were reduced and the mechanical properties were modified. Larotonda et
al. described how the mechanical resistance of the film against rupture was improved by the
impregnation of rice starch, nearly 1.5 times greater than a non-impregnated counterpart. The
starch crosslinking of ether or ester linkages amongst hydroxyl (-OH) clusters in starch
molecules improved mechanical properties, due to the density increased by crosslinking . it is
shown that the S2 has good tensile properties.

Test Values

Sample Tensile Young’s Elongation (in

Strength(MPa) Modulus (Gpa) %)
S1 6.11 0.09 3.38
S2 7.3 0.11 5.1

Fig 1.12 Tensile test equipment

5.2 Injection Molding

Further it can be converted it into required shape by using injection molding process.
In this process, plastic granules are heated and forced under pressure into a die cavity
of desired shape. This process is well suited for producing true three-dimensional
shapes such as bottles, toys etc, which require fine details like holes, snaps and
surface details. Figure schematically presents an Injection Molding set-up for polymer
processing. Design for gating and feed system for the die is crucial to ensure complete
die fill. It is important to design the molding so that solidification does not prevent
complete mold filling. The design and location of the gates for entry of polymer is a
crucial design details. For large part more than one gate may be required for proper
flow of material. o Mold must be designed in such a way that the solid part can be
ejected without distortion. By considering proper orientation at the beginning, in may
be possible to avoid expensive mold cost. If possible, design the part so that it can be
ejected in the direction of mold closure. To minimize the shrinkage fillers like glass
fiber, wood flour, are added during molding. With some part geometries, post mold
shrinkage can lead to generation of high residual stress.

Fig 1.13 Injection moulding Process

 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

1. Different types of plastics had been studied

2. Role of Biodegradebale plastics over Tradional plastic studied
3. Applications and uses of Biodegradeble plastics have been studied
4. Preparation of Bio plastic material completed
5. Test Results have been proved
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