AN INTRODUCTION TO

COASTAL ENGINEERING
PROCESSES, THEORY, HAZARDS AND DESIGN PRACTICE

J. J. WIJETUNGE
Faculty of Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

GODAGE INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS

Colombo, Sri Lanka
Published by
Godage International Publishers
661 Maradana Road, Colombo 10

An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

Processes, Theory, Hazards and Design Practice
© 2013 J. J. Wijetunge

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means
without written permission from the author.

ISBN 978-955-44714-0-5

Cover photo: Dikkowita Fishery Harbour: breakwaters during construction.

Contents

Preface v

1. Introduction 1
1.1 General background 1
1.2 Basic definitions and concepts 2
1.3 Coastal zone management in Sri Lanka 7

2. Mathematical Description of Wave Motion 11

2.1 Water wave problem 11
2.2 Boundary conditions for water wave problem 14
2.3 Solution of linearised water wave problem 17
2.4 Deep and shallow water waves 19
2.5 A closer look at L = (gT 2/2π) tanh(kh) 20
2.6 Water particle kinematics for progressive waves 24
2.7 Pressure field under a progressive wave 31
2.8 Wave energy 32
2.9 Further worked examples 34

3. Coastal Processes 40
3.1 Transformation of waves entering shallow water 40
3.2 Nearshore currents 56
3.3 Coastal sediment transport 59
3.4 Further worked examples 62

4. Coastal Structures 69
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Erosion mitigation structures 70
4.3 Inlet stabilisation structures 79
4.4 Flood protection structures 81
4.5 Harbour structures 81
4.6 Design of rubble-mound structures 89
4.7 Other types 100
5. Coastal Hazards 103
5.1 Basic concepts in disaster management 103
5.2 Tsunami 108
5.3 Cyclone-induced storm surges 135
5.4 Sea level rise 147
5.5 Coastal erosion 151

Appendix A. Notation 155

Appendix B. Abbreviations 157
Appendix C. Bernoulli equation for unsteady flow 158
Appendix D. Solution of linearised water wave problem 159
Appendix E. A note on group velocity of progressive water waves 162
References 164
Index 168
Preface

The objective of this book is to provide senior undergraduate and graduate students with an
introduction to the field of coastal engineering. The book will also be a useful reference for
engineers and scientists working in areas related to coastal engineering, coastal zone
management as well as management of the risk of coastal hazards such as tsunami, storm
surges, beach erosion and sea level rise.
The book is based on over 20 years of author’s experience in teaching, research and
consultancy work in the field of coastal engineering. The lecture notes prepared to teach
coastal engineering and coastal hazards to undergraduate and graduate students have been the
initial basis in compiling this book. Worked examples have also been incorporated where
applicable in order to further reinforce the readers’ grasp of the concepts and theory presented
in the book.
Coastal engineering and management is a highly interdisciplinary field. Engineers,
geologists, geographers, oceanographers, earth scientists and disaster managers all have an
interest in various aspects of the topics discussed in this book. All have different requirements
about the choice and presentation of these topics, thus some degree of compromise is
inevitable.
The coastal zone is a highly complex and dynamic natural environment in a delicate
balance. Coastal engineers and scientists should, therefore, strive to find optimum ways to
interact with the coastal zone with the least disturbance to the prevailing natural equilibrium.
This requires, first of all a good understanding of what is going on in a particular coastal zone,
and then, the development of appropriate and sustainable engineering solutions and designs
that are holistic in approach.
Finally, I should like to thank all authors and institutions who have kindly allowed the use
of some of the figures from their publications.
J. J. WIJETUNGE
Peradeniya
June 2013

v
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 General background

Coastlines, the narrow corridor between the land and the sea, have always been a favoured
location for human settlements as well as for various activities ranging from industrial to
recreational. Coastal areas also provide habitat to many animal, bird and plant species and
nurture vital eco-systems such as mangrove forests and coral reefs.
However, as the transition zone between the land and the sea, coastlines constitute a
highly dynamic environment with constant change. The natural physical processes that take
place in this environment include the waves generated by the wind blowing over the surface
of the ocean; the fluctuating water levels due to the tide caused by the gravitational and
rotational effects of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun; as well as the currents generated by the
waves and the tide. These hydrodynamic forces and the wind interact with the geo-
morphological structure of the coastal zone leading to processes of erosion, transport and
deposition of beach sediment.
Such wave- and current-induced hydrodynamic forcing on the coast, particularly during
storm events, could also cause excessive erosion resulting in loss of beach-front property.
Furthermore, extreme events capable of causing coastal flooding such as cyclone-induced sea
surges and seismically-generated tsunami pose a threat to the people’s lives and their property
in some coastlines around the world including in Sri Lanka.
Nevertheless, human settlements as well as activities and interventions in or near the
coasts have continued to increase with rapid population growth, particularly during the last
several decades. Moreover, unfortunately, there have also been instances of such
interventions adversely affecting the prevailing dynamic equilibrium in the coastal zone
leading to undesirable consequences such as excessive erosion in adjacent stretches.
Coastal engineering thus involves finding optimum ways to interact with the coastal zone
with the least disturbance to the prevailing natural equilibrium whilst also giving due
consideration to potential impacts of natural hazards. This requires, first of all a good
understanding of what is going on in a particular coastal zone, and then, the development of
appropriate and sustainable engineering solutions and designs that are holistic in approach.
Accordingly, the primary objective of this book is to provide senior undergraduate and
graduate students with a basic understanding of the behaviour of water waves as well as
related physical processes particularly in regard to the nearshore sea. The book also provides
the reader with information on different types of coastal structures and potential natural
hazards in coastal regions.
2 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

First of all, some introductory remarks on the water waves and the tide as well as a brief
discussion of the issues, concerns and strategies in regard to the management of the coastal
zone with particular emphasis on Sri Lanka are given in the remainder of this chapter.
Chapter 2 develops a versatile mathematical tool in order to be able to understand as well as
predict the behaviour of water waves. Various wave, current and sediment transport
processes of importance to the coastal engineer are discussed, and where applicable, necessary
analytical formulae developed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 identifies and briefly describes the
functional, structural and construction aspects of different types of coastal structures. The
origin, occurrence and mitigation of several coastal hazards, particularly with regard to the
coastline of Sri Lanka, are discussed in Chapter 5.

1.2 Basic definitions and concepts

1.2.1 Wave parameters
First of all, it is helpful to identify the basic physical parameters of a travelling surface wave, as
sketched in Fig. 1.1. The Mean Water Level (MWL) would be the still water position if there
were no waves. The water depth, h, is measured from MWL down to the sea bed.
Clearly, a wave has a high point and a low point: the highest point of the wave is known as
the crest and the lowest point the trough. Moreover, that part of the wave that is above the
Mean Water Level may be identified as the positive half of the wave and that below as the
negative half.
The spatial dimensions of the wave may be quantified by two basic parameters: the wave
height (H) which is the vertical distance between a crest and a trough of a wave; and the wave
length (L) which is the horizontal distance between successive wave crests or wave troughs.
Wave is periodic in time and space, so another important parameter is the wave period (T)
that quantifies the time required for two successive wave crests to pass a fixed point in space.
It follows, therefore, that a wave moves a distance L in the time T. So, the speed of
propagation of waves (also known as phase velocity or wave celerity) is given by, c = L/T. The
inverse of the wave period gives the number of waves per unit time, i.e., the wave frequency, f
=1/T.
We also identify two parameters that are directly related to the wave length (L) and the
wave period (T), namely, the wave number (k) and the wave angular frequency (ω),
respectively:
k = 2π / L and ω = 2π / T.

Fig. 1.1 Basic physical parameters of a surface wave.

Introduction 3

Table 1.1 Types of waves on the surface of the ocean.

Category
Type Description and cause Wave
period

Sea Waves propagating in an area under the direct Typically,

Short-period

influence of the wind. 3–25 s

waves

Swell Waves that have travelled out of the wind field or Typically,
the wind has ceased. 10–40 s

Tide Periodic fluctuations (rise and fall) of water level Approx.,

in oceans caused by the interaction of gravitational 12 h or
and centripetal forces mainly between the Earth, 24 h
the Moon and the Sun.
Long-period

Tsunami Due to submarine (under-sea) earthquakes, 5–60 min.

waves

landslides and volcanic eruptions.

Seiches Resonance of long-period wave components on 1–30 min.
lakes, bays and harbour basins, often induced by
the wind.
Surf-beat Periodic fluctuations in water level at the coast due 0.5–5 min.
to arrival of wave groups.

1.2.2 Waves on the surface of the ocean

Waves are carriers of energy across a medium through particle oscillations. In a longitudinal
wave (e.g., sound waves) the particle displacement is parallel to the direction of wave
propagation. On the other hand, in a transverse wave (e.g., light waves) the particle
displacement is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Water waves are an
example of waves that involve a combination of both longitudinal and transverse motions.
Several types of waves can be seen on the surface of the ocean (Table 1.1). These may be
broadly classified as short-period waves (sea and swell) and long-period waves (e.g., the tide,
tsunami, seiches and surf-beat) based on the wave period. The time-scale of short-period
waves is several seconds whilst that of long-period waves varies from a few minutes to several
hours.

Sea and swell

A typical record of the water level oscillations due to short-period waves on the sea surface is
shown in Fig. 1.2. Waves of irregular form with different heights and periods can be seen in
this record of the natural sea state which usually comprises waves arriving from different
directions. In natural sea, wave parameters such as wave height (H) and the wave period (T)
vary randomly in space and time, so statistical quantities of such parameters ought to be
employed to describe them. For example, mean values of the wave height and the wave
period, respectively, can be computed by taking the average of all wave heights and wave
periods in a record of sufficient length. However, the mean value of the wave heights is
usually not used in the design of coastal structures since the mean is likely to be exceeded, on
4 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

Fig. 1.2 Irregular wave form depicting the natural sea state which usually comprises waves
arriving from different directions (modified from an image courtesy of Prentice-Hall).

average, 50% of the time during the design storm event. Therefore, in coastal engineering
practice, it is more common to use the significant wave height (Hs) which is the average of the
highest one-third of all wave heights in a record (arrange the wave heights in descending
order and then take the mean of the top one-third of wave heights). Similarly, we can
compute the ‘10% wave height’ (H10%) by taking the average of the highest one-tenth of all
wave heights in a record, and also, the ‘2% wave height’ (H2%) by taking the average of the
highest 2% of all wave heights in the record. For instance, if we use H2% as the design wave
height corresponding to a storm event lasting 3 hours to design a coastal structure, then the
design wave height is likely to be exceeded only 2% of the time during the design storm. On
the other hand, if significant wave height (Hs) is chosen, the design wave height will be
exceeded, on average, 33.3% of the time during the design storm event.

Tide
Of the long-period oscillations on the sea surface, the tide is always present everywhere in the
ocean. Tides are the periodic fluctuations (rise and fall) of the water level in oceans caused by
the interaction of gravitational and centrifugal forces mainly between the Earth, the Moon
and the Sun.

(a) Semi-diurnal tide (b) Diurnal tide (c) Mixed semi-diurnal tide
3 High Tides 3 3 High Tides
2 2 2
Height (m)
Height (m)

Height (m)

High Tide
1 1 1
0 0 0
-
-1 --1 Low Tide
--1
Low Tides Low Tides
12 24 12 24 12 24
Time (hours) Time (hours) Time (hours)

Fig. 1.3 The types of tides: (a) semi-diurnal, (b) diurnal, and (c) mixed semi-diurnal.
Introduction 5

Height (m)

Fig. 1.4 Typical monthly variation of the tide at Colombo, Sri Lanka.

In most places, the tide rises and falls twice a day, reaching a maximum elevation called
high tide on each rise and a minimum level called low tide on each fall. Such a tide with two
highs and two lows of approximately equal size is termed a semi-diurnal tide and the complete
cycle takes 12 hours and 25 minutes (Fig. 1.3a). However, in some parts of the world, there is
only one complete cycle in a day and such tides are termed diurnal (Fig. 1.3b). A transitional
tide known as the mixed tide occurs between areas of semi-diurnal and diurnal tides: a mixed
tide with two high and two low tides of different size is termed a mixed semi-diurnal tide (Fig.
1.3c). Water moves landward (flood current) during high tide and flows seaward (ebb
current) during low tide. This periodic water exchange is more noticeable at tidal inlets such
as estuaries, lagoons and bays.
All three types of the tide occur in the Indian Ocean although the semi-diurnal type is
more predominant. The tide around Sri Lanka is mixed semi-diurnal with two high waters
and two low waters occurring in a day. Fig. 1.4 shows the typical monthly variation of the tide
at Colombo, Sri Lanka. The spring tides are the low and high tides each month with the
highest range and coincide with the full and new moons. On the other hand, the neap tides
are the low and high tides each month with the lowest range and coincide with the first and
last quarter moons. Tidal flats (intertidal zones) are sandy or muddy coastal areas that are
alternately submerged and exposed to the air as the tide rises and falls. They are neither
terrestrial nor aquatic but fall somewhere in between, and are harsh, unpredictable
environments.

Tidal datums
A tidal datum is a reference level based on a certain phase of the tide and is derived from
long-term sea surface elevation measurements. The sea surface elevation is usually recorded
hourly by tide gauges that are installed in stilling wells to filter out wave effects. Commonly
used tidal datums refer to the high water and low water levels as well as their mean. Mean
High Water Level (MHWL) is the average of all the high water heights observed over a period
of time (usually over 19 years) at a certain location. Similarly, Mean Low Water Level
(MLWL) is the average of all the low water levels over a time-period. Mean tidal level or the
Mean Sea Level (MSL) is therefore the average of sea surface elevations over a period of time.

1.2.3 Coastal zone

Coastal zone is the region where the land meets the sea. It is a transition region of indefinite
width and extends both landward and seaward from the waterline. Landward, the coastal
zone extends from the waterline at the beach to the first major change in the physical features
of the land or to the point where permanent vegetation is established, whilst seaward, it
extends from the waterline to just beyond the region in which waves begin to break (Fig. 1.5).
6 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

Fig. 1.5 A typical beach profile and related terminology (modified after CEM1).

As demarcated in Fig. 1.5, the shore extends from the low-water line to the normal
landward limit of storm wave effects, i.e., the coastline. Where beaches occur, the shore can be
divided into two zones: foreshore and backshore. The foreshore is that part of the beach that is
alternately wet or dry as the waves rush up and down, so it extends from the low-tide
waterline to the limit of wave uprush at high tide, i.e., the shoreline. Accordingly, the
backshore is the usually dry and relatively flat upper portion of the beach between the
shoreline and the coastline. The coast is the region inland from the coastline to the first major
change in features of the terrain from coastal (e.g., sand dunes) to terrestrial; further landward
is the coastal hinterland.1
The narrow band of shallow coastal waters where waves break, dissipate energy and rush
up the beach face is a region of great significance in relation to many coastal processes. This
strip of area extending from the shoreline to the seaward edge of start of wave breaking is
known as the breaker zone or the surf zone.
The coastal zone with respect to the vast ocean beyond is identified in Fig. 1.6. The gently
sloping (<1°) platform at the edge of the continental landmass is termed continental shelf.
The average water depth on the shelf is about 75 m, varying from zero at the shoreline to
about 150–200 m near its edge. A typical continental shelf is about 50 km wide, however, it
could range from less than a few kilometres to more than 100 km. The continental slope
marks the transition between the shelf and deep ocean floor. It has an average slope of 3–6°,
which does not sound like much but typically over a distance of 100 km the water depth
increases from 200 m to 4000 m.

Fig. 1.6 Schematic of coastal zone in

relation to continental shelf and slope
(note that the vertical scale is
exaggerated) (modified from an image
courtesy of Precision Graphics).
Introduction 7

1.3 Coastal zone management in Sri Lanka

1.3.1 Background
The coastal areas bordering the 1585 km long coastline of Sri Lanka are generally low-lying
and consist of bays, lagoons, headlands, marshes and dunes. The strip of land along the
coastline is a place of natural dynamism where waves release loads of energy. Moreover, the
coastal belt is a place of primary interest to the people, to the economy, to the military, and to
a variety of industries. On the other hand, it provides habitat to vital eco-systems such as
mangrove forests and coral reefs.
Box 1.1 lists the primary stakeholders of the coastal zone, i.e., those who have an interest of
what is happening in the coastal zone. As identified in Box 1.1, not only people but animal,
bird and plant species who have their habitat in the coastal zone are also important
stakeholders. Therefore, engineers tasked with development activities or other engineering
interventions in the coastal zone should always be mindful of possible adverse implications of
their actions on all of these stakeholders.
In Sri Lanka, coastal regions are defined as Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions with a
coastal boundary. Accordingly, 22% of the total land area and 32% of the population of Sri
Lanka belong to coastal regions. Moreover, coastal regions of Sri Lanka account for 65% of
urban areas, over 80% of tourist hotel rooms as well as two-thirds of all industrial production.
The situation world over is no different with two-thirds of the world’s population living near
the coast.
Many human activities and interventions in the coastal areas, such as urban and industrial
development, harbour development, river outlet works, discharge of industrial effluent,
sewage outfalls, tourism development, sand and coral mining, have all had considerable
impact on the fragile coastal environment leading to its deterioration. Clearly, this ‘linear’
corridor or the narrow strip of land along the coast has been subjected to tremendous
pressure due to increasing overuse of limited resources by a rapidly increasing population as
well as numerous human activities outlined earlier, especially during the last five decades.
The situation in Sri Lanka has been further aggravated by beach erosion, particularly in the
south, southwest and west coasts of the country.

1.3.2 Management strategy

In the backdrop of issues and concerns outlined above, the management of the coastal zone of
Sri Lanka involved erosion mitigation, pollution control, biodiversity maintenance, marsh
land protection, and environmental assessment, among many. But, in the past, prior to the
eighties, these programmes were handled by a variety of agencies and were uncoordinated,
with the result that each agency went its own way disregarding the others. The failure of this
traditional sectoral approach to management convinced the planners of the need to develop an

Box 1.1. Who are the stakeholders of the coastal zone?

• People who are dependent on the coastal zone for their
living, income and other activities,
• Animal and bird species (fauna) that have their habitat in
the coastal zone (e.g., Fish, Turtles, Coral), and
• Plant species (flora) that have their habitat in the coastal
zone (e.g., mangrove, seagrass).
8 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

integrated approach to the management of the coastal zone of the country. Accordingly, Sri
Lanka launched a centrally operated coastal zone management programme in 1982, with the
Coast Conservation Department (CCD) as the lead agency. Subsequently, the CCD with
external technical assistance prepared a full-scale Integrated Coastal Zone Management
(ICZM) Plan2, which was officially approved in 1990. The ICZM is the strategy that is used to
deal with the many disciplines involved with the coast, i.e., physical, environmental and
biological as well as various laws and regulations governing the use of the coastal zone.

1.3.3 Salient features of ICZM plan

The ICZM plan of 1990 for Sri Lanka primarily deals with the management of lands, water
bodies and eco-systems in the coastal zone, as outlined in Box 1.2.

Priority areas
When there are many issues and concerns, it is often necessary to identify areas that require
the most immediate attention. Accordingly, the ICZM plan of 1990 identified four priority
areas, namely,
• Erosion management and land use,
• Cessation of coral mining and control of sand mining,
• Prevention of loss and degradation of coastal natural habitats, and
• Protection of scenic areas and cultural, religious and historical sites.
Of these, the first two are related as sand and coral mining are causes of erosion.
Accordingly, the erosion management strategy outlined in the ICZM plan also includes: (a) a
public education campaign targeted at coral and sand miners about the impact of their
activities, (b) a programme to identify alternative employment for displaced coral miners, and
(c) a research effort to identify alternative sources of lime for the building industry.
Complementing these management efforts is a programme to build coast protection works in
appropriate areas.

Regulatory mechanism
The regulatory measures in the ICZM plan include a designated setback line to ensure that
structures are not sited so close to the shoreline that they contribute to or are affected by
erosion, and also to ensure public access to the sea including visual access. There is a general
setback 60 m wide, but the demands of development and land ownership patterns in the
coastal zone do not always permit reserving a 60 m wide setback, so there are variations
according to the physical features of the coast, besides some exceptions. Further, setbacks for
some water-dependent activities such as hatcheries for aquaculture and boatyards are
determined on a case-by-case basis.

Box 1.2 The ICZM plan of 1990 for Sri Lanka includes:
• Management of coastal lands: protection of land against erosion.
• Management of coastal waters: fresh water is a precious resource in a
coastal region; however unfortunately, coastal waters have traditionally
been used for disposal of sewage and industrial effluent.
• Management of coastal eco-systems: environmental sensitivities are
concerned with preservation of habitat and its diversity, which is
essential to accommodate many species.
Introduction 9

Fig. 1.7 The official boundary limits of the coastal zone of Sri Lanka3.

The primary mechanism for implementing the ICZM programme in Sri Lanka is a permit
system for development activities in the 300 m wide coastal zone (Fig. 1.7). The coastal zone
is defined in the Sri Lanka Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of 19813 as “That area lying within
a limit of 300 m landward of the Mean High Water Line and a limit of 2 km seaward of the
Mean Low Water Line, and in the case of rivers, streams, lagoons, or any other body of water
connected to the sea either permanently or periodically, the landward boundary shall extend
to a limit of 2 km measured perpendicular to the straight baseline drawn between the natural
entrance points (defined by the mean low water line) thereof and shall include waters of such
rivers, streams and lagoons or any other body of water so connected to the sea.”
Any person wishing to engage in a development activity within the coastal zone is required
to obtain a permit issued by the CCD prior to commencing the activity. A permit may be
issued if: (i) The activity is consistent with management policies, (ii) The activity is not
prohibited by the ICZM plan, (iii) The activity is located outside the designated setback lines,
and (iv) The national standards for the relevant environmental requirements are met.
Examples of development types requiring permits include: residential buildings;
commercial and industrial structures; recreational facilities; public roads, bridges and railway;
sewage treatment facilities; waste and wastewater discharge facilities; harbours and navigation
channels; aquaculture facilities; dredging, filling and mining; removal of sand/shells; removal
of vegetation; and breaching of sand bars.
The following activities are prohibited within the coastal zone, so no permit is issued:
removal of coral other than for research purposes, mining of sand except in areas identified by
the CCD, development within 200 m of designated archeological sites, and any development
activity that will significantly degrade the quality of the officially designated natural areas.
Activities that may be engaged in without a permit within the coastal zone include: fishing,
cultivation of crops, planting of trees and other vegetation, as well as construction and
maintenance of coast protection works by the CCD in accordance with the Master Plan for
Coast Erosion.
10 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

1.3.4 Updates and revisions

The Coast Conservation Act requires the revision of the original ICZM plan of 1990 every
four years. The first such revision was done in 1997 followed by in 2004. Recall from our
preceding discussion that the 1990 plan addressed issues and concerns relating to coastal
erosion, coastal habitat management as well as management of areas of archaeological,
cultural and historical significance. The scope of the priority areas has been broadened in the
revised plan of 19974 to include control of coastal water pollution and special area
management whilst the issue of integrating coastal fisheries and aquaculture has also been
incorporated in the 2004 revision5. The chapters on the existing priority issues have also been
updated in the revised plan of 2004. The pollution of coastal waters has been mainly due to
the release of untreated or partially treated wastewater and toxic substances from industries,
tourist resorts and shrimp farms; the dumping of solid waste in coastal areas; the receipt of
raw sewage; and contamination with waste oil released from fishing crafts, coastal service
stations as well as oil spills. Coastal waters also receive fertilizer and agro-chemical run-off
from agricultural lands, and waste from squatter settlements and other domestic sources4.
The establishment of Special Area Management (SAM) plans was in recognition of the
limitations of the CCD permit system for dealing with issues related to coastal resource use
that occur outside as well as within the coastal zone at specific sites. The SAM is a
collaborative management strategy in which local communities and administrators in a
geographic area are provided with the necessary technical and financial support to develop
and implement site specific plans to manage their own natural resources in a sustainable
manner. Twenty three sites have been identified and ranked in terms of the severity of
resource management issues, biodiversity, viability and economic significance. Based on the
above ranking, eight sites with high priority have been identified and are as follows: Arugam
Bay, Batticaloa Lagoon, Bar Reef off Kalpitiya, Chilaw, Beruwala/Bentota, Hikkaduwa Town
and Sanctuary, Negombo Lagoon, Rekawa Lagoon, and Unawatuna Bay. Of these, three sites,
namely, Rekawa Lagoon, Hikkaduwa, and Negombo Lagoon/Muthurajawela Wetlands have
been selected for implementation as pilot projects.5
The new chapter on integrating coastal fisheries and aquaculture with coastal zone
management in the revised plan of 2004 deals with the requirement to reduce the impact of
coastal capture fishery and aquaculture on the coastal zone as well as to identify and regulate
activities in the coastal zone that have an adverse impact on fishery productivity.
Further, in the immediate aftermath of the tsunami disaster in December 2004, the
Government of Sri Lanka declared buffer zones (‘no-build’ zones) along the coastline. The
width of the buffer zone along the coast was 100 m in the south and west, and 200 m in the
north and east. However, considering the socio-economic implications of large-scale
resettlement of people as well as the scarcity of land outside of the buffer zone, the
government subsequently decided in December 2005 to revert back to the setback distances
stipulated in the ICZM plan of 1997, which vary from 35 m to 125 m.

Box 1.3 Key issues and areas identified in revised ICZM plan of 2004:
• Management of coastal erosion,
• Conservation of coastal habitats,
• Control of coastal water pollution,
• Management of sites of special significance, and public access,
• Integration of coastal fisheries and aquaculture, and
• Special Area Management.
Chapter 2

Mathematical Description of
Wave Motion

An understanding of the behaviour of water waves and the ability to analyse and predict
their effects on beaches and structures are essential in carrying out coastal engineering
studies and designs. For example, coastal engineers often need to estimate the wave
conditions at a given location, the velocity of water particles and the pressure beneath a
wave as well as the forces and the moments generated due to wave action. A
mathematical framework that can describe the wave motion is therefore necessary. We
see in the following that the potential flow concept provides a useful theoretical
framework to derive a beautiful mathematical expression capable of describing the
motion of water waves. However, as in many mathematical analyses of natural
situations, certain simplifying assumptions are inevitable.

2.1 Water wave problem

A sketch of a real sea is shown in Fig. 2.1(a). The Cartesian coordinate system that we adopt
throughout this book is also shown alongside. Note that, the origin of the coordinate system
is at the mean (still) level of the sea-surface with the x-axis in the direction of wave
propagation and the z-axis vertically upwards. The water particle velocity components in x, y
and z directions are u, v and w, respectively. The wave motion is unsteady, so the time (t) is
the fourth independent variable related to the present problem, besides x, y and z.
Fig. 2.1(a) indicates that, typically, both the water surface and the sea bottom are irregular
and three-dimensional in space. The water surface also changes in time, so it is unsteady as
well. Moreover, the sea bed is usually permeable and movable. However, the solution of the
real three-dimensional problem of irregular waves over permeable and movable sea bed is
quite complex. Therefore, it is necessary to make some approximations and assumptions
before we begin our analysis of the wave problem. First of all, we limit our analysis to two-
dimensional wave motion, i.e., wave motion in (x,z)-plane only. This means that, in the
present analysis, any flow parameter due to wave motion (e.g., velocity, pressure) is, in
general, a function of (x,z,t) only. We assume that the fluid (water) is incompressible, which
is a good approximation. However, the next assumption: that the sea bed is horizontal,
impermeable and stationary (i.e., bed material is not movable), is not quite true in nature.
The above simplifications lead us to an intermediate stage shown in Fig. 2.1(b).
11
12 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

(a) Real 3D sea state with irregular

waves over permeable and
movable sea bed.

(b) Real sea state is simplified to a 2D

wave problem with regular waves
on impermeable and stationary
sea bed.

(c) The thin, viscous wave boundary

layer is ignored and only the
much thicker inviscid main flow
under wave motion is considered
in the mathematical analysis.

Fig. 2.1 Simplification of water wave problem prior to mathematical analysis.

Chapter 3

Coastal Processes

Waves, as they approach a coast, undergo various physical processes resulting in

transformation of their spatial dimensions, the direction of propagation as well as the
wave form. Besides these wave processes, there are also hydrodynamic processes involving
water level fluctuations and currents. The coexisting waves and currents in turn, through
shear stresses in the bottom boundary layer, act on the movable sea bed leading to
sediment transport and morphological processes. In this chapter, we discuss various
processes that the waves may undergo during their journey from deep sea into shallow
coastal waters. We also touch on the nearshore current systems and coastal sediment
transport processes.

3.1 Transformation of waves entering shallow water

We all have seen whilst standing on a beach that the waves approaching the coast change or
transform themselves. For example, waves gain height and steepen before breaking
eventually, and then the broken waves run up on the beach face, wet our feet and retreat back
to the sea. Several physical processes are responsible for these transformations which affect
the height, the length and the direction of propagation of waves, among other parameters.
Various physical processes that can affect a wave as it propagates from the deep ocean into
shallow coastal waters are listed in the following.
• Shoaling, • Breaking,
• Refraction, • Additional growth due to the wind,
• Diffraction, • Interaction with structures,
• Dissipation due to bed friction, • Interaction with currents, and
• Dissipation due to percolation, • Wave-wave interaction.
The first two processes, i.e., wave shoaling and refraction, are caused primarily by the
topography of the sea bed, i.e., the bathymetry. Diffraction occurs when sea waves pass
through an opening or encounter an obstacle, the size of which is comparable or larger than
the wave length. Both friction and percolation at the bottom extract wave energy resulting in
waves losing height. On the other hand, the wind, if present, will cause further growth of the
waves.

40
Coastal Processes 41

On approaching a coast, waves eventually break due to limited water depth, and in the
process, lose bulk of their energy. Engineers are also concerned with the hydraulic responses
and loading when waves interact with coastal and offshore structures. Moreover, waves
interact non-linearly with currents as well as with waves of different frequencies.
A brief description as well as the mathematical analysis of each of these processes is given
in the following sub-sections.

3.1.1 Wave shoaling

Let us first note that the lines that may be drawn
perpendicular to the wave crests (H = constant lines)
indicating the direction of propagation of waves are called
wave orthogonal or wave rays (Fig. 3.1).
Now, consider a series of waves approaching
perpendicular to a straight coastline with parallel bottom
contours (Fig. 3.2). Whilst propagating towards the
shoreline, both the wave length and the wave height change
due to change in the water depth, and this process is known as
Fig. 3.1 Wave crests and rays.
wave shoaling.
Our objective here is to derive an expression to quantify the change in wave height due to
shoaling. Consider the wave crest of width b moving from section (1) to (2), in Fig. 3.2.
Assuming that there is no loss of energy laterally and waves do not break, whilst neglecting
bed friction, for conservation of energy:
Mean energy flux through section (1) = Mean energy flux through section (2)
bP1 = bP2
( )
i.e., b Enc
1
( )
= b Enc
2
1
Substituting E = ρ gH 2 using (2.52)
8
H12n1c1 = H22n2c2

H2 n c
= 1 1 (3.1)
H1 n2 c2

Wave crests
parallel to sea
b bed contours
h1

b Sea bed
h2
contours

Shoreline
Fig. 3.2 Definition sketch for wave shoaling.
Chapter 4

Coastal Structures

Coastal structures include those built to facilitate fishing and maritime activities, to
protect coastal settlements and infrastructure from flooding, and to save the coast itself
from erosion. The functional, structural and construction aspects of different types of
such structures used for a variety of purposes in the coastal zone are described in this
chapter. The design of rubble-mound structures in particular is also discussed since
structures built of rock are widely used in Sri Lanka for shore protection and in the
construction of harbours.

4.1 Introduction
Early civilizations in Europe, the Mediterranean and Asia built many harbours and ports to
accommodate merchant ships or fleets of warships. Whilst most ancient ports were located in
naturally sheltered sites, some had to be built in more challenging environments. For
example, over 2000 years ago, Roman engineers developed a method to cast concrete
underwater in order to build breakwaters for harbours in more harsh, open coastal areas.
Moreover, a Roman built harbour in the Mediterranean during the same era had a submerged
reef type breakwater just seaward of the main breakwater to cause waves to break and
dissipate energy before reaching the main breakwater22. Besides harbours, structures were
also built along coasts for flood protection, for example, Venetians and the Dutch built dikes
along their vulnerable coasts over one thousand years ago1.
In more recent times, rapidly increasing use of the coastal areas for a variety of purposes
ranging from residential to industrial stretched city development right up to the ocean-front,
often encroaching and disturbing the sensitive and dynamic overlap between the land and the
ocean. The highly dynamic nature of the land-sea boundary, particularly during extreme
events, necessitated the construction of structures to protect shore-front developments
against coastal hazards. However, construction of such structures on the beach often further
disturbed the prevailing nearshore sediment dynamics resulting in beach erosion in adjacent
areas as well, thus requiring more structures to control downcoast erosion. Meantime, as
mentioned at the outset, various uses of the coast also required building of necessary
infrastructure such as harbours, anchorages, landing jetties, etc, in coastal waters. Such

69
70 Coastal Engineering

structures in some locations on the coast have also resulted in excessive erosion or
sedimentation at the site or in the neighbouring areas.
In summary, engineering interventions in the coast have been for a variety of purposes
including the following: to mitigate beach erosion, to stabilise coastal inlets for water
exchange and navigation, to protect onshore developments against coastal flooding due to
tsunami and storm surges, to provide shelter for harbours, to provide access to marine vessels,
and to dispose waste and sewage.
Accordingly, several primary types of coastal structures may be identified as in the
following:
• Erosion mitigation structures,
• Harbour structures,
• Flood protection structures,
• Inlet stabilisation structures, and
• Piles, pipelines and cables.

4.2 Erosion mitigation structures

4.2.1 Introduction
The action of waves and currents on a beach, particularly during storms, is usually the
primary cause for erosion. Therefore, one thing that could be done to mitigate erosion is to
shield the coastline, fully or partially, from being exposed to the direct action of waves and
currents by providing a front-line defence. Armouring of the coast by placing large boulders
on the beach face or by building a wall-like barrier along the shoreline may almost completely
shield beach material from waves and currents.
Such an array of boulders placed on the beach for shore protection is termed a revetment
whilst a barrier built along the shore is called a seawall. Alternatively, limited or partial
shielding of the beach from waves may be achieved by constructing a shore-parallel barrier in
shallow water just offshore of the eroding beach so that most of the wave energy is dissipated
and reflected back upon striking the barrier, and consequently, only a reduced amount of
energy reaching the beach. Such a structure is known as an offshore breakwater.
Construction of such wave shields or barriers to protect an eroding beach is likely to lessen
the problem of erosion at that location, but will there be any adverse impacts, particularly on
the adjacent unprotected beaches? Engineers designing these structures should therefore be
concerned not only with the stability of the structure but also its potential impact on shoreline
morphology, at the site as well as in the neighbourhood.
None of the hard shore protection structures adds sand to the beach system to compensate
for natural loss through erosion. Clearly, hard mitigation practices address issues specific to
local level erosion problem rather than their underlying systemic causes. In contrast, beach
nourishment is the only engineered erosion mitigation alternative that directly addresses the
problem of a sand budget deficit, since it brings sand from sources outside of the eroding
system.
In recent times, there has been a shift from hard engineering practices to soft engineering
options in relation to beach erosion management. An integrated response comprising both
hard and soft structures may probably be more desirable in most situations.
The structural and non-structural interventions outlined above to mitigate coastal erosion
are listed in Box 4.1. The functional, structural and construction aspects of each of these
erosion mitigation methods are discussed further in the following sections.
Chapter 5

Coastal Hazards

Coastal areas around the world are exposed to a variety of hazards, both natural and
man-made. The coastline of Sri Lanka is vulnerable to four natural hazards, namely,
tsunami, storm surges, coastal erosion and sea level rise, besides the man-made hazards.
The origin, occurrence and mitigation of each of these natural hazards are discussed in
this chapter. We, however, first review some of the basic ideas and concepts of disaster
management as familiarity with such terminology is required to understand the methods
of mitigation of the risk of hazards.

5.1 Basic concepts in disaster management

In the following, let us briefly review some of the basic terminology and concepts employed in
disaster risk mitigation and management.

Hazard
In simple terms, a hazard is a ‘disaster waiting to happen’ (Fig. 5.1). However, a better
description is: ‘A hazard is an event or occurrence that has the potential for causing injuries to
life, and damage to property and the environment’. Note that, a hazard only has the potential,
and need not necessarily lead to a disaster.
Now, a more precise definition for technical purposes, particularly in terms of how we
evaluate a hazard, would be: ‘A hazard is the probability of occurrence of a potentially
damaging phenomenon within a specified period of time and within a given area’.34 For
example, one can say that ‘there is a 40% probability of a magnitude 7.5 earthquake occurring
in the Andaman-Sumatra subduction zone in the next 50 years’. In the above statement, note
that the probability of occurrence, the magnitude, the location and the time period concerned
are all specified.
Hazards are either natural or man-made. Natural hazards may be categorized based on
their origin and mechanism of occurrence as: geological hazards (earthquakes, landsides,
volcanic eruptions, etc.); coastal hazards (tsunami, storm surges, sea level rise, erosion,
sedimentation, etc.); hydro-meteorological hazards (floods, storms, tornadoes, cyclones,
drought, lightning, etc.); and wild fire (forest fire, bush fire, grass fire, etc.). On the other
103
104 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

Fig. 5.1 A hazard has the potential for causing injuries to life, and damage to property and the
environment (modified from an image courtesy of ADPC).

hand, man-made hazards (also referred to as anthropogenic hazards) include industrial

hazards such as oil and toxic material spills; pollution of water, air and soil; nuclear hazards;
terrorism; overpopulation; and possibly, climate change and global warming.
Hazards may also be grouped as rapid onset and slow onset hazards. Rapid onset hazards
arrive suddenly, and therefore, their occurrence cannot be predicted far in advance. By
contrast, slow onset hazards unfold over a time-scale of months to years. Rapid onset hazards
include earthquakes, landslides, lightening, floods,
tsunami and cyclones. Examples of slow onset Box 5.1 Types of coastal hazards
(progressive) hazards are drought, epidemics and civil
• Natural hazards
wars. Clearly, slow onset makes adequate early - Tsunami
warning feasible and effective. - Storm surges
This chapter is primarily concerned with four - Sea level rise
natural hazards that the coastal areas of Sri Lanka are - Coastal erosion
exposed to, namely, tsunami, storm surges, sea level • Man-made hazards
rise and beach erosion (Box 5.1).

Vulnerability
Vulnerability is the reduced capacity of an individual or a group to anticipate, cope with,
resist and recover from the impact of a hazard. For the same hazard, some may be more
vulnerable than others. For example, in the case of tsunami hazard, the elderly, women and
children are more vulnerable to inundation flow because they have less physical strength than
men. Nevertheless, in many societies, women are more resilient than men and play a crucial
role in the recovery.
Now, a more formal definition of vulnerability would be: ‘Vulnerability is a condition or
set of conditions that reduces people’s ability to prepare for, withstand or respond to a
hazard’.35 Different facets of vulnerability may be categorised as physical (e.g., potential loss of
housing); social (e.g., age, gender, poverty); economic (e.g., potential loss of business,
investment); and environmental (e.g., location).
Vulnerability may be reduced by means of either structural or non-structural measures. A
few examples of structural mitigation measures are, construction of flood protection dikes
along river banks, use of building codes and appropriate material specifications in the design
Appendices

A. Notation

a amplitude
Ae eroded cross-sectional area
b wave orthogonal spacing, shape factor
b0 wave orthogonal spacing in deep water
B crest width of structure
c wave celerity (phase velocity)
c0 wave celerity in deep water
Cf wind friction coefficient
Cg group velocity
Ct wave transmission coefficient
D damage level (to a sloping-mound breakwater)
Dn50 median grain diameter, equivalent cube length of median rock
Df, Dp mean rate of wave energy dissipation due to bed friction, percolation
Ei,Ed,Er,Et incident, dissipated, reflected, transmitted wave energy
E specific energy (energy density) of a wave
fc Coriolis parameter
g acceleration due to gravity
h water depth
hs water depth at the toe of the structure
H wave height
Hb breaking wave height
Hd,Hi,Hr diffracted, incident, refracted wave height
Hs significant wave height
Ho wave height in deep water
H2% highest 2% of all wave heights in a record
H10% highest one-tenth of all wave heights in a record
Il submerged weight of sediment transported
k wave number
ks surface roughness

155
156 An Introduction to Coastal Engineering

kt layer coefficient
K coefficient in sediment transport equation
Kd wave diffraction coefficient
KD armor unit stability coefficient
Kp pressure response factor
Kr refraction coefficient
Ks shoaling coefficient
L wave length
L0 wave length in deep water
M50 median mass of rocks
n ratio of wave group velocity to phase velocity, sediment porosity
Ns armor unit stability number
p pressure
pc central pressure in a tropical cyclone
pd dynamic (wave induced) pressure
pn neutral pressure (ambient atmospheric pressure away from cyclone)
P wave power per unit crest width; notional permeability
Pl longshore component of wave power
q average overtopping discharge per unit length
Q✳ dimensionless average overtopping discharge per unit length
r radius
R beach retreat due to sea level rise, radius of maximum wind
Rc crest freeboard
Ru , Rd run-up, run-down
Rc∗ dimensionless crest freeboard
s wave steepness (=H/L)
S sea level rise, relative eroded area
Sxx, Syy radiation stress components
t time
T wave period
Tm mean wave period
Tp peak wave period
u, v, w velocity components in x-, y- and z- directions
U, V depth-averaged velocities in x- and y-directions
Vl velocity of longshore current
W wind velocity, weight of individual stones in a sloping mound
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates
α angle between wave crests and bottom contours; structure slope angle
β beach slope angle
γb wave breaker index
γa specific gravity of armour unit material
Appendices 157

γr surface roughness reduction factor

ζ vertical component of water particle displacement
η surface elevation above still water level
θ average slope of active beach profile
κ coefficient of permeability
ξ breaker parameter (surf similarity parameter); horizontal component of
water particle displacement
ξm breaker parameter based on mean wave period
ξmc critical breaker parameter based on mean wave period
ρ density of sediment
ρa density of armour unit material
ρair density of the air
ρw density of water or sea water
τb bottom shear stress
τs surface shear stress
τx ,τ y shear stresses in x- and y- directions
ϕ velocity potential
ϕwave velocity potential for wave motion
φ latitude on the surface of the Earth
ω wave angular frequency; rotational speed of the Earth

B. Abbreviations

ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre

BBC Bottom Boundary Condition
CCD Coast Conservation Department
CEM Coastal Engineering Manual
DFSBC Dynamic Free Surface Boundary Condition
DHWL Design High Water Level
DMC Disaster Management Centre
DS Divisional Secretariat
DTHA Deterministic Tsunami Hazard Assessment
GIS Geographical Information Systems
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management
KE, PE,TE Kinetic, Potential, Total Energy
KFSBC Kinematic Free Surface Boundary Condition
MHWL Mean High Water Level
MLWL Mean Low Water Level
MSL Mean Sea Level
MWL Mean Water Level
PLBC Periodic Lateral Boundary Condition
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Index

amplitude, 25, 37, 66, 134-135, 162 cyclones

armour units, 84-85, 86-87, 89-92, 95 formation, 135-136, 138-139
stability, 85, 87, 91-92, 94 landfall in Sri Lanka, 139-140
weight, 91-94 numerical modelling, 142-144
pressure distribution, 137, 142-143
backshore, 6 structure, 137-138
beach drift, 59 wind speed distribution, 137, 142-143
beach nourishment, 70-71, 74-75, 77-78, 153
Bernoulli equation, 14-15, 31, 158-159 design storm, 89, 90, 92, 95, 98
boundary conditions, 13-18, 159 disasters, 103, 105-107
breakwaters dispersion relationship, 18, 29, 31, 163
berm, 84
composite, 84 earthquakes, tsunamigenic
curtain wall and pile, 102 fault types, 108-109
detached, 75, 83, generation, 108-109
floating, 100-101 scenarios, 131-132
offshore, 70-71, 75-76 subduction, 129-131
rubble-mound, 85-99
submerged, reef, 76-77, 84 flood protection structures, coastal, 81
vertical wall, 81, 83-84, 87 foreshore, 6, 51, 93
bulkheads, 100
group velocity, 34, 162-163
coastal cells, 152-153 groynes, 58, 71, 74-75, 154
coastal zone
management, 7-10 hazards
regulations, 8-9 coastal, 1-2, 69, 103-104
stakeholders, 7 definition, 103-104
terminology, 6 Hudson equation, 91-97, 99
coastal erosion inlet
management, 70, 152-154 hydrodynamics, 79,
mitigation, 7, 70-79 stabilisation structures, 79-80
coastal vegetation, 71, 79, 154 Iribarren number, 49
continental shelf, slope, 6, 111, 113-114, 146,
Coriolis acceleration, 13, 56, 138, 141-144 jetty, 79-80
Coriolis tide, 141
currents landslides, submarine, 104, 108, 110
longshore, 56-57, 59-60, 74-75, 141 Laplace equation, 13, 16-17, 159-160
rip, 56-58, 75 littoral drift, 59
tidal, 56 long wave equations, 116, 143

168
Index 169

Navier-Stokes equations, 158 tsunami

arrival time, 112, 132-135,
particle detection, 122, 124
accelerations, 26 early warning, 113, 118, 122, 124-126, 132
displacement, 28-29 evacuation maps, 125-126
orbit, trajectory, 29-30 generation, 108-111
velocity, 24-26 hazard mitigation, 117-129, 131-135
hazard maps, 120-121, 123
radiation stresses, 50, 56 inundation, 125-126, 128, 131, 147
relative depth, 19-20, 42, 112 inundation distance, 115
return period, recurrence interval, 89, 95, 122- numerical modelling, 115-117
123, 145-146 propagation, 111-114
revetments, 52-53, 66-67, 70-73, 153-154 run-up, 114-115
risk, disaster, 105-106 submarine landslide generated, 110
volcanogenic, 110-111
salient, 76
sediment undertow, 56, 58
budget, 152
bypassing, 74-75, 80 Van der Meer equation
sediment transport run-up, 50-52, 90
CERC formula, 60-61 armour unit stability, 91-93
cross-shore, 59, 61, 75-76, 152 velocity potential, 13, 17, 19, 24, 26, 159-162
longshore, 59-61, 74-76, 80, 83, 151-152 vulnerability, 104-105, 107, 115, 118, 120, 145
sea level rise
implications, 149-150 wave boundary layer, 12-14
mitigation, 151 wave breaking
rates, 147-149 breaker criterion, index, 49, 60
seawalls, 71, 73, 81, 118, 153-154 breaker type, 49-50
shallow water equations, 116-117, 132 wave celerity, 2
Snell’s law, 44 wave classification, 3-5
storm surges wave, design, 4, 74-76, 89-91, 95-96, 99
barriers, 81, 144-145 wave diffraction, 40, 46-48
coastal flooding, 1, 70, 81, 100, 147, 149-150 coefficient, 47
generation, 140-142 wave energy
hazard mitigation, 144-145 energy density, 33
interaction with tide, 141 energy dissipation, 48, 118
inundation, 135, 137, 140, 142, 147, 151 kinetic, 32-33, 50
numerical modelling, 142-144 potential, 32-33, 50
surf similarity parameter, 49 wave frequency, angular, 2
surf zone, 6, 56-57, 75, 141 wave height, definition, 2
swash, 59 wave-induced pressure, 31, 33, 39
swell, 3, 61, 76 wave length, definition, 2
wave number, 2
tidal datum, 5 wave orthogonal, rays, 41
tide wave period, definition, 2
astronomical, 1-6, 144-145 wave power, energy, 33-34, 39, 60-61
diurnal, 4-5 wave reflection, 50-51, 55, 71, 84-85
mixed, 4-5 coefficient, 55
neap, 5 wave refraction, 40, 43-45,
semidiurnal, 4-5, 144 coefficient, 44
spring, 5 wave run-up, run-down, 50-51
tombolo, 76 wave set-up, 58, 141
170

waves, shallow water, 19-21, 26-28, 30, 39, 112-

113, 116
wave shoaling, 41-43
coefficient, 42
wave-structure interaction, 50-55
wave surface profile, 25-26, 34
wave table, 21-24, 34, 39, 42, 45, 62-68
wave theory
linear, 14-19
small amplitude, 17-18, 112, 117
Stokes, 18
wave transformation, 40-41
wave transmission, 50, 54-55, 101
wave overtopping, 53-54
allowable, 53
measurements, 53-54
Owen’s formula, 53-54
wind shear stress, 143-144