SEMICONDUCTOR MICROWAVE DEVICES

OBJECTIVE : BASICS

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES USED IN MICROWAVE SYSTEMS ALSO UTILISE CARRIER

TRANSIT TIME (LIKE IN VACUUM TUBES)

POWER HANDLING CAPACITIES ARE LIMITED BUT ARE IMPROVING & SOME TUBES HAVE
BEEN REPLACED WITH THESE DEVICES

ACCURATE THICKNESS & CONCENTRATION OF DOPING TAILORS THE TRANSIT TIME &
DECIDES 𝑷 & 𝒇 OF OPERATION

VARACTOR DIODES ARE USED FOR PARAMETRIC AMPLIFICATION

TUNNEL DIODES & GUNN DIODES ARE USED AS OSCILLATORS

IMPATT & TRAPATT DIODES ARE USED AS AMPLIFIERS

PIN DIODES ARE USED FOR ATTENUATION, MODULATION, DETECTION, SWITCHING &
LIMITING

SCHOTTKY DIODES ARE USED FOR MIXING & DETECTION

 TUNNEL DIODE
OBJECTIVE : BASICS
HIGH CONCENTRATION 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 /𝒄𝒎𝟑 OF CARRIERS IN A OTHERWISE NORMAL DIODE
DECREASES WIDTH OF THE DEPLETION REGION

CONDUCTION BY QUANTUM MECHANICAL TUNNELLING OF 𝒆−

TUNNEL DIODES HAVE –ve RESISTANCE REGION & CONDUCT AS HIGH VALUE RESISTANCES
IN REVERSE BIAS

LOW COST, LOW NOISE, HIGH SPEED, HIGH PEAK TO VALLEY CURRENT RATIO etc MADE
DIODE VERY POPULAR FOR RF APPLICATIONS

THE NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION CAN BE USED TO OPERATE THE TUNNEL DIODE AS AN
OSCILLATOR OR AS AN AMPLIFIER

TUNNEL DIODES WERE POPULAR DUE TO LOW COST, DEEP –ve RESISTANCE REGION &
SPEED OF OPERATION (ON/OFF TIME ~1nS)
 CONDUCTION BAND

OBJECTIVE : BASICS
TUNNEL DIODE 𝒆− ON n SIDE ALIGNED
TO VALENCE BAND OF p
P N 𝑬𝑪 SIDE CAUSING
𝑬𝑪
CONDUCTION TUNNELLING
FORBIDDEN 𝑬𝒈 BAND CONDUCTION
BAND FORBIDDEN BAND
𝑬𝒗 BAND
𝑬𝒗
EMPTY STATE
𝑬𝑭 𝑬𝑭 EMPTY STATE FILLED STATE
𝑬𝑭 𝑬𝑭
FILLED STATE
𝑬𝑪
VALENCE 𝑬𝑪
BAND 𝑬𝒈 VALENCE
BAND 𝑬𝒈
𝑬𝒗
𝑬𝒗
AT ZERO VOLTAGE NO CONDUCTION POSSIBLE AS SEEN FROM THE DIAGRAM

@ 𝟎 < 𝑽 < 𝑽𝑷 CONDUCTION BAND OF n SIDE & VALENCE BAND OF p SIDE GET ALIGNED

𝒆− CROSS OVER FROM n TO p SIDE REGISTERING CURRENT. THIS IS DUE TO QUANTUM

MECHANICAL TUNNELLING & NOT DUE TO CURRENT OVER POTENTIAL BARRIER

AS 𝑽 > 𝑽𝑷 THE BANDS CROSS EACH OTHER & CURRENT STARTS TO DROP UNTIL THEY
CROSS EACH OTHER COMPLETELY

@ 𝑽 > 𝑽𝑽 POTENTIAL BARRIER IS OVERCOME & FREE 𝒆− CONTRIBUTE TO CURRENT

 CONDUCTION BAND

OBJECTIVE : BASICS
TUNNEL DIODE 𝒆− ON n SIDE ALIGNED
TO VALENCE BAND OF p
P N 𝑬𝑪 SIDE CAUSING
𝑬𝑪
CONDUCTION TUNNELLING
FORBIDDEN 𝑬𝒈 BAND CONDUCTION
BAND FORBIDDEN BAND
𝑬𝒗 BAND
𝑬𝒗
EMPTY STATE
𝑬𝑭 𝑬𝑭 EMPTY STATE FILLED STATE
𝑬𝑭 𝑬𝑭
FILLED STATE
𝑬𝑪
VALENCE 𝑬𝑪
BAND 𝑬𝒈 VALENCE
BAND 𝑬𝒈
𝑬𝒗
𝑬𝒗
THERE EXISTS A PROBABILITY THAT CARRIERS WILL CROSS THE BARRIER DUE TO
QUANTUM MECHANICAL EFFECTS AND IS 𝑷 ∝ 𝒆−𝑨𝑬𝒃𝑾𝒃 WHERE 𝑬𝒃 & 𝑾𝒃 ARE
BARRIER ENERGY AND BARRIER WIDTH

FERMI LEVELS ARE NOT IN FORBIDDEN BAND DUE TO HIGH DOPING & TUNNELLING OF
𝒆− WILL HAPPEN DUE @ 𝟎 < 𝑽 < 𝑽𝑷 ACROSS TO p TYPE TO FILL EMPTY VALENCE BAND
STATES @ SAME ENERGY LEVELS. 𝑰𝑷 INCREASES

@ FORWARD BIAS OF 𝑽 > 𝑽𝑷 TUNNELLING CURRENT STARTS TO DROP TILL 𝑽 > 𝑽𝒗

FROM THEN ON NORMAL FORWARD BIASED DIODE CURRENT WILL FLOW

 TUNNEL DIODE
OBJECTIVE : VI CHARACTERISTICS

HIGH CONCENTRATION OF CARRIERS IN A OTHERWISE NORMAL DIODE

THIS DECREASES WIDTH OF THE DEPLETION REGION

TUNNEL DIODES HAVE –ve RESISTANCE REGION & CONDUCT AS HIGH VALUE RESISTANCES
IN REVERSE BIAS

REVERSING OF CURRENT IS VERY FAST AND HENCE LENDS ITSELF TO RF APPLICATIONS

𝐼𝑝

𝐼𝑣

𝑉𝑝 𝑉𝑣
 TUNNEL DIODE
OBJECTIVE : USE OF –ve RESISTANCE REGION FOR OSCILLATIONS
𝑰𝒑 d R
a

𝒅𝒊
V L 𝑳
𝒅𝒕

𝑰𝒗 c
b

𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒗

𝒅𝒊
WHEN V IS INCREASED TO 𝑉𝑝 , I INCREASES UP TO 𝐼𝑝 . VOLTAGE ACROSS INDUCTOR IS 𝑳 𝒅𝒕
CURRENT STARTS TO DROP & CHANGE IN SLOPE OF CURRENT CAUSES 𝑳 TO REACT TO
SUSTAIN 𝑽 AND SLAMS THE VOLTAGE TO POINT a
THE VOLTAGE IS MUCH HIGHER THAN WHAT IS AVAILABLE BEFORE THE DIODE & V ACROSS
THE INDUCTOR STARTS TO DROP.
𝒅𝒊
AS V DROPS TO VALLEY POINT, AGAIN CHANGE OF CURRENT SLOPE IS DETECTED @ c & 𝑳 𝒅𝒕
TRIES TO MAINTAIN THE VOLTAGE BY SLAMMING THE VOLTAGE TO POINT b
 SCHOTTKY DIODE

SHOTTLY DIODE IS A METAL ON SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION CONSISTING OF ONLY n+

SUBSTRATE, n INTRINSIC LAYER AND METAL

THE METAL (MOLYBDENUM, PLATINUM, CHROMIUM, TUNGSTEN OR SILLICIDES) LAYER

ACTS AS THE ANODE
 VI CHARACTERISTICS - SCHOTTKY DIODE
I

SHOTTKY DIODE
pn JUNCTION DIODE

LOWER TURN ON VOLTAGE (150 mV COMPARED TO 700 mV IN PN DIODES)

USED FOR FAST SWITCHING APPLICATIONS OR AS RECTIFIERS (EVEN IN RF DOMAIN)
 SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : BASICS

@ HIGHER FREQUENCIES, THE DIODE BIAS IS SWITCHED FROM FORWARD BIAS TO

REVERSE BIAS VERY FAST

DUE TO FINITE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME & THE PRESENCE OF DEPLETION LAYER,
NORMAL pn DIODE IS INCAPABLE OF SWITCHING OFF & PASSES APPRECIABLE CURRENT
IN THE –ve RF CYCLE

SCHOTTKY DIODE IS A METAL-SEMI CONDUCTOR (n-TYPE) JUNCTION DIODE

MAJORITY CARRIERS IN BOTH METAL & n-TYPE MATERIAL ARE 𝒆− . HENCE NO

DEPLETION LAYER IS FORMED

ADDITIONALLY, THE CARRIERS ARE ALL 𝒆− & THERE IS NO RECOMBINATION.

HENCE, THE DIODE SWITCHES TO ON STATE AT VOLTAGES MUCH LESSER THAN THE
CONVENTIONAL pn DIODE

THERE IS ALSO NO CONDUCTION SEEN IN –ve RF CYCLE (REVERSE BIAS) DUE TO NO

DEPLETION LAYER/STORED CHARGE. THIS ALLOWS FASTER OPERATION
 SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : BASICS

SCHOTTKY DIODES HAVE SMALLER 𝑽𝑭 DUE TO ABUNDANCE OF MAJORITY CARRIERS

THIS ENSURES LESSER DROP ACROSS DIODE AND MUCH LESSER HEATING AND LOWER
DEPENDENCE ON TEMP EFFECTS

SCHOTTKY DIODES ARE USED AS RECTIFIERS @ HIGH FREQUENCIES DUE TO THEIR FAST
SWITCHING

THEY ARE ALSO USED EXTENSIVELY AS DETECTORS AND MIXERS IN THE RF DOMAIN

THERE IS A PROBLEM OF FINITE REVERSE CURRENT

 SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION AS DETECTOR

AT 𝒊Τ𝒑 𝑷 < 𝟏𝟎 𝑾, CHARACTERISTICS OF FWD BIASED DIODE IS APPROX PARABOLIC

HENCE, 𝑰 ∝ 𝑽𝟐 WHERE THE MICROWAVE SIGNAL IS 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)

𝑽ൗ 𝑽ൗ
𝒊 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆 𝒏𝑽𝑻 − 𝟏 ≅ 𝑰𝟎 𝒆 𝒏𝑽𝑻

CONSTANT 𝟏 = 𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟏
ൗ𝒏𝑽𝑻

SERIES EXPANSION OF THE CURRENT GIVES

𝒂𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝒊 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒂𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 + 𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝎𝒕
𝟒
THUS DIODE dc CURRENT 𝒊 INDUCED IN o/p Txn LINE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO RF 𝑷
OR 𝑽𝟐 . HENCE THE NAME SQUARE LAW DEVICE

REVERSE BIASED o/p IS ZERO & ONLY ENVELOPE OF +ve CYCLE IS DETECTED
 SCHOTTKY DIODE DETECTOR
I
DETECTED ENVELOPE o/p

CONDUCTING
PORTION
ENVELOPE OF AMPLITUDE
MODULATED RF SIGNAL

DETECTED o/p
TO CRO

MODULATED RF 𝝀/𝟒 SHORTED END

IN WAVEGUIDE PHYSICAL MOUNT IN
WAVEGUIDE FOR DIODE
 SCHOTTKY DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PRACTICAL ASPECTS IN APPLICATION AS DETECTOR

AT 𝒊Τ𝒑 𝑷 > 𝟏𝟎 𝑾, CHARACTERISTICS OF FWD BIASED DIODE DOES NOT FOLLOW SQUARE
LAW AND IS REQUIRED TO BE APPROPRIATELY ATTENUATED

NOTE THAT THERE IS NO BIASING CIRCUIT & THE DIODE IS JUST MOUNTED IN THE
WAVEGUIDE (REMEMBER REFLEX KLYSTRON EXPERIMENT IN THE LAB)

THE DIODE IS MOUNTED ON A STRUCTURE & REST OF THE WAVEGUIDE CONTAINS

MATCHING ELEMENTS TO KEEP 𝑽𝑺𝑾𝑹 < 𝟏 ∶ 𝟏. 𝟑
 PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : EXTREMELY VERSATILE DIODE USED IN MICROWAVE & FIBER OPTICS

𝑝+ 𝑖 𝑛+

PIN DIODE HAS A LARGE INTRINSIC REGION ENCLOSED WITHIN HIGHLY DOPED p & n
REGIONS

IN pn JUNCTION DIODES, CHARGE IS STORED IN THE DEPLETION REGION WHICH

RECOMBINE DURING REVERSE BIAS CONDITIONS

DURING THE RECOMBINATION (REVERSE RECOVERY TIME) THE DIODE CONDUCTS

IN pn DIODES, THE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME IS OF THE ORDER OF 𝟏𝒏𝒔, BUT IN PIN DIODES,
IT IS SEVERAL MAGNITUDES MORE

REMEMBER REVERSE RECOVERY TIME FROM DIODE THEORY WHICH IS A MEASURE OF THE
TIME IT TAKES TO REVERSE THE CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN THE DEPLETION REGION

SINUSOIDS ACROSS A DIODE ALTERNATELY FORWARD & REVERSE BIAS THE DIODE CAUSING
ALTERNATE CONDUCTION & NO CONDUCTION STATES
 PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : EXTREMELY VERSATILE DIODE USED IN MICROWAVE & FIBER OPTICS
𝑝+ 𝑖 𝑛+

AS THE FREQUENCY OF OPERATION INCREASES, THE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME BECOMES

COMPARABLE TO THE RF CYCLE & pn DIODES CONDUCT PART OF THE RF CYCLE

IN PIN DIODES DUE TO VERY LARGE REVERSE RECOVERY TIME, THE ENTIRE RF CYCLE IS
CONDUCTED DUE TO STORED CHARGES THAT HAVE NOT RECOMBINED

PIN DIODES HAVE LOUSY PERFORMANCE AS RECTIFIERS

CHARGES STORED IN THE INTRINSIC REGION DEPEND dc BIAS APPLIED TO THE DIODE

WITH LESSER BIAS, THE DIODE CAN BE MADE TO CONDUCT LESSER

THUS PIN DIODES CAN BE USED AS CURRENT CONTROLLED RESISTOR VARIABLE

ATTENUATOR
EXTENDING THE ARGUMENT, THE PIN DIODE CAN BE MADE TO CUT OFF ALSO (LARGE
INTRINSIC REGION BETWEEN THE p & n REGIONS HAVE NO CARRIERS IF dc BIAS IS LOW)

THUS PIN DIODES CAN BE USED AS AN RF SWITCH THROUGH dc BIAS CONTROL VOLTAGE
 PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PIN AS AN ATTENUATOR

UNDER FORWARD BIAS, CARRIERS ARE INJECTED ACROSS JUNCTIONS TO I REGION BUT DO
NOT RECOMBINE IMMEDIATELY (LOW RECOMBINATION TIME τ)
THIS RESULTS IN A STORED CHARGE 𝒒 = 𝑰𝑭 𝝉

𝑾 𝑾
𝑹𝒔 = =
𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝒑 𝒒 𝝁𝒏 + 𝝁𝒑 𝑰𝑭 𝝉

COMBINING THE EQUATIONS, WE SEE THAT 𝑹𝒔 IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO dc BIAS

𝑹𝒔 IS 𝟎. 𝟏 Ω @ 𝑰𝑭 = 𝟏𝑨 AND 𝑹𝒔 IS 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎Ω @ 𝑰𝑭 = 𝟏𝝁𝑨

THUS VARIATION OF THE BIAS OF THE DIODE FORWARD BIAS CAN CHANGE THE
RESISTANCE LEADING TO USE OF THE DIODE AS AN ATTENUATOR @ RF FREQUENCIES

IT MAY BE NOTED THAT THE DIODE RESISTANCE INCREASES WITH LOWERING OF

FREQUENCIES DUE TO RECOMBINATIONS IN THE INTRINSIC REGION. (𝝉 REDUCES IN
COMPARISON TO THE RF CYCLE)
 PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : RECAP

𝑝+ 𝑖 𝑛+

THE DIODE HAS A LARGE INTRINSIC REGION WITH HIGHLY DOPED p & n REGIONS

DUE TO THE LARGE INTRINSIC REGION IT PERFORMS POORLY AS A RECTIFIER BUT THERE
ARE OTHER APPLICATIONS

LARGE DEPLETION REGIONS UNDER FORWARD BIAS STARTS CONDUCTION VERY EARLY
(COMPARED TO OTHER DIODES) & IS THUS SUITABLE FOR HIGH FREQUENCY OPERATIONS

AT LOW FREQUENCIES, DEPLETION REGION CARRIERS GET NEUTRALISED; BUT @ RF, THERE
ISN’T ENOUGH TIME FOR REMOVAL OF CHARGES (BUCKET ANALOGY).
REMEMBER REVERSE RECOVERY TIME FROM DIODE THEORY. HENCE, IT CONDUCTS
DURING THE ENTIRE RF CYCLE

HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE dc BIAS & VARYING

THE dc BIAS CAN CHANGE THE RESISTANCE. HENCE, THE PIN DIODE CAN BE USED AS A
VARIABLE ATTENUATOR
 PIN DIODE SWITCH
OBJECTIVE : PIN DIODE AS A SWITCH

UNDER REVERSE BIAS CONDITIONS, THE PIN DIODE BEHAVES LIKE A PARALLEL PLATE
CAPACITOR WITH A LOW CAPACITANCE 𝑪𝒋 < 𝟎. 𝟐 𝒑𝑭

THIS PRESENTS A VERY LARGE IMPEDANCE TO RF SIGNALS AND THIS PROPERTY ALLOWS
THE PIN DIODE TO BE USED AS A SWITCH

VERY LARGE dc REVERSE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE (500V) ALLOWS LARGE RF SIGNALS

ACROSS PIN DIODES BUT THE BIAS NEEDS TO BE SUFFICIENTLY –ve TO KEEP THE RF
SWITCHED OFF dc bias

RF in RF out

THE DIODE REMAINS IN OFF STATE OR ON DUE TO dc BIAS & ALLOW THE RF THROUGH IN
‘OFF’ STATE AND SHORT THE RF TO GROUND IN ‘ON’ STATE
 PIN DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PIN DIODE AS AN TR / ATR SWITCH
dc bias
A λ/4
TXR c RXR
d
B

WHEN TXR IS TRANSMITTING AND RXR IS OFF

• dc BIAS MAKES A & B FORWARD BIASED
• λ/4 (QUARTER WAVE TRANSFORMER) INVERSES IMPEDANCE OF POINT d @ POINT c
• THUS, POINT c LOOKS LIKE OPEN
• ALL TRANSMIT POWER GOES TO THE ANTENNA & NONE TO THE RXR

WHEN TXR IS OFF AND RXR IS ON

• dc BIAS IS ADJUSTED TO TURN OFF A & B
• POWER FROM ANTENNA SEES POINT c AS A SHORT (SINCE B IS OPEN)
• POWER FLOWS TO THE RECEIVER AND NO POWER TOWARDS THE TXR
 AVALANCHE EFFECT
OBJECTIVE : HISTORY

READ PROPOSED THE READ DIODE (THEORETICAL) IN 1958

CONSISTS OF n+ p i p+ SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE

DIODE OPERATED IN REVERSE BIAS CONDITION AT NEAR BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

EXCESS CARRIERS CAUSE AVALANCHE EFFECT DUE TO

IMPACT IONISATION TRIGGERED TRANSIT TIME OPERATION

TRAPPED PLASMA AVALANCHE TRIGGERED TRANSIT TIME OPERATION

IMPATT dc TO RF EFFICIENNCY – 5% TO 10%

TRAPPAT dc TO RF EFFICIENCY – 20% TO 60%

NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION CREATED IN VI CHARACTERISTICS WHICH IS USED FOR

OSCILLATOR MODE
AMPLIFIER MODE
AVALANCHE REGION
READ DIODE
SPACE CHARGE REGION INACTIVE REGION

n+ p i (or v) p+
E
+
- DRIFT REGION (L)
+
- -
+
- -
+
DOPING -
LEVELS x

1020

5 x 1016

1013
𝜇𝑚
0 0.5 1 2 3
 READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : MECHANISM OF BREAKDOWN

DIODE IS REVERSE BIASED NEAR THE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

DIODE IS MOUNTED IN A RESONANT CAVITY
CAVITY IMPEDANCE IS MAINLY INDUCTIVE AND IS MATCHED TO THE CAPACITIVE DIODE

p REGION IS THIN COMPARED TO THE REST OF THE REGIONS. THIS IS THE HIGH FIELD OR
AVALANCHE REGION

THE i REGION IS CALLED THE DRIFT SPACE & i + p REGION IS SPACE CHARGE REGION

DURING AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN, HIGHEST FIELD OCCURS @ n+- p JUNCTION

THIS DROPS QUICKLY & REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH THE i REGION WELL BELOW THE
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

CARRIERS (HOLES) IN THE HIGH FIELD REGION HAVE ENOUGH ENERGY TO KNOCK OUT
ELECTRONS TO THE CONDUCTION BAND CREATING ELECTRON HOLE PAIRS

𝒆− MOVE TO THE n+ REGION AND HOLES DRIFT TO THE p+ REGION

AVALANCHE REGION
READ DIODE
SPACE CHARGE REGION INACTIVE REGION
RF

n+ p i (or v) p+
E
- + 𝒅𝑬 𝝆
DRIFT REGION (L) =−
- + 𝒅𝒙 𝝐𝒔
-
- +
-
+
DOPING -
3π/2
LEVELS π x
0 π/2

𝑰𝑶 𝒕 𝑸 𝒗𝒅 𝑸
𝑰𝒆 𝒕 = =
HOLE 𝝉 𝑳
CURRENT EXTERNAL CURRENT

τ/2 τ/2 2τ
 READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : MECHANISM OF BREAKDOWN

DURING +ve RF CYCLE, WHEN 𝑽𝒅𝒄 + 𝑽𝑹𝑭 > 𝑽𝒃 A VERY HIGH FIELD IS CREATED @ 𝒏+ 𝒑
JUNCTION

HIGH FIELD CREATES HOLE CURRENT WHICH INCREASES EXPONENTIALLY. THE

AVALANCHE EFFECT TAKES PLACE ONLY @ THE 𝒏+ 𝒑 JUNCTION WHERE A VERY SHARP
PULSE IS CREATED

THE FIELD DROPS QUICKLY AND REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH THE i REGION WHICH IS
WELL BELOW THE BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE

𝒆− MOVE TO THE n+ REGION AND HOLES DRIFT TO THE p+ REGION

DURING THE NEGATIVE RF CYCLE, 𝑽𝒅𝒄 + 𝑽𝑹𝑭 < 𝑽𝒃 . THIS CAUSES THE AVALANCHE
EFFECT TO CEASE & THE HOLE CURRENT DECAYS EXPONENTIALLY
 READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : MECHANISM OF BREAKDOWN

THE AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION PROCESS STARTS @ 𝒕 = 𝟎 & REACHES A PEAK @ 𝐭 =

𝝉/𝟐
BEYOND 𝝉/𝟐 , THE CURRENT DECAYS RAPIDLY.

THE CURRENT PULSE COMMENCES @ MAX RF CYCLE & REACHES ITS PEAK @ 𝑽𝑹𝑭 = 𝟎

THUS HOLE CURRENT 𝑰𝑶 IS ABOUT 𝟗𝟎° OUT OF PHASE WITH THE RF VOLTAGE

THIS APPEARS AS A NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION SINCE V IS REDUCING WHILE THE

CURRENT IS INCREASING

THE CARRIER CURRENT PULSE 𝑰𝑶 𝒕 INDUCES 𝑰𝒆 𝒕 IN THE EXTERNAL CIRCUIT

𝑰𝒆 𝒕 FLOWS IN THE EXTERNAL CIRCUIT IN THE TIME 𝑰𝑶 𝒕 DRIFTS TO THE 𝒑+ REGION

AS SEEN FROM THE DIAGRAM 𝑰𝒆 𝒕 LAGS 𝑽𝑹𝑭 BY 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

 READ DIODE
OBJECTIVE : SUMMARY

DRIFT VELOCITY IS APPROXIMATELY 107 cm/s AND FIELD IS ABOUT 5 kV/cm

𝟏
AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION FACTOR 𝑴 =
𝟏− 𝑽Τ𝑽𝒃 𝒏

𝝅
THE CAVITY MUST BE TUNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE EQUATION 𝟐𝝅𝒇 = 𝝉
𝒗𝒅
𝒇=
𝟐𝑳

𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑽𝒂 𝑰𝒅

WHEN 𝑽𝒂 INCREASES, ENERGY OF OSCILLATION INCREASES FASTER THAN POWER

DELIVERED PER CYCLE AND OSCILLATOR OPERATES IN THE STABLE REGION
 IMPATT DIODE
OBJECTIVE : POWER OUTPUT & EFFICIENCY

MAX VOLTAGE THAT CAN BE APPLIED ACROSS DIODE IS 𝑽𝒎 = 𝑬𝒎 𝑳

𝝐 𝒗𝒅
MAX CURRENT OF THE DIODE IS 𝑰𝒎 = 𝑱𝒎 𝑨 = 𝝈𝑬𝒎 𝑨 = Τ𝒕𝒅 𝑬𝒎 𝑨 = Τ𝑳 𝝐 𝑬𝒎 𝑨

MAX POWER OF THE DEVICE IS 𝑷𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 = 𝑬𝒎 𝟐 𝝐 𝒗𝒅 𝑨

𝑽𝒂 𝑰𝒅𝒄
EFFICIENCY IS GIVEN BY 𝜼 = 𝑽𝒅𝒄 𝑰𝒅𝒄
THE ac CURRENT IS VERY SMALL @ APPROXIMATES 𝑰𝒅𝒄

IMPATT DIODES HAVE AN EFFICIENCY OF 30%

MAX POWER OUTPUT VARIES AS 𝟏

ൗ𝒇𝟐 @ HIGHER

DUE TO AVALANCHE EFFECT IMPATT DIODES ARE NOISY ; GaAs BEING BETTER THAN Si

TRAPPATT ARE p+- n - n+ DIODES IN WHICH A PLASMA OF TRAPPED CHARGES ARE CREATED

THEY HAVE HIGHER EFFICIENCY, LOWER POWER AND LOWER FREQUENCY OF OPERATION
 IMPATT DIODE
OBJECTIVE : PRACTICAL ASPECTS

MOST POWERFUL OSCILLATORS IN THE MICROWAVE DOMAIN UPTO kW

BREAKDOWN VOLTAGES OF THE ORDER OF 70 v REQUIRED & THIS MAY RESTRICT USAGE
TO APPLICATIONS THAT DO NOT HAVE WEIGHT / SPACE CONSTRAINTS

WHILE POWER IS HIGH, THERE IS A LOT OF PHASE NOISE AND IS LIKELY TO BE USED ONLY
IN TRANSMITTER SECTIONS RATHER THAN AS AN LO IN THE RECEIVER

TUNING RANGE IS MUCH LESSER THAN GUNN DIODES

GaAs IMPATTS PERFORM BETTER THAN Si @ < 40 GHz

IMPATTs HAVE BE ENGINEERED TO HAVE 𝜼 < 𝟑𝟎%. READ DIODE PREDIDCTED 10%

MAY BE USED AS PUMP SOURCE IN PARAMETRIC AMPLIFIERS PROVIDED NOISE IS

CONTROLLED
 IMPATT DIODE
OBJECTIVE : RECAP

BASED ON THREORETICAL READ DIODE

AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN OCCURS VERY NEAR THE p REGION

ELECTRIC FIELD AT p-n JUNCTION IS VERY HIGH AND CAUSES ACCELERATION OF CARRIERS

ACCELERATED CARRIERS COLLIDE WITH LATTICE STRUCTURE FREEING UP MORE CARRIERS

AND THE PROCESS CONTINUES EXPONENTIALLY AS LONG AS REVERSE BIAS IS ABOVE VB

dc BIAS IS VERY CLOSE TO VB & RF NOISE IN THE FREQUENCY OF INTEREST TAKES THE
DIODE ABOVE VB OR BELOW

THIS CAUSES CURRENT PULSES TO BE LAGGING VOLTAGE BY 180°

DUE TO _ve RESISTANCE REGION, THE IMPATT MOUNTED IN A CAVITY CAN BE USED AS
AN OSCILLATOR (WITH TUNING OF CAVITY REACTANCE AT ZERO)

INPUT RF CAN ALSO BE AMPLIFIED USING AN IMPATT DIODE