VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

JNANASANGAMA, BELAGAVI - 590018

AN INTERNSHIP REPORT

“Basic Telecom Technology”

Submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted by
HEMANTH P

4VM17EC413
Under the guidance of
Guruprasad M
RTTC Mysore
Internship carried out
at

REGIONAL TELECOM TRAINING CENTRE, MYSORE

A STATE LEVEL TRAINING INSTITUTE OF BSNL

Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi

Vidya vikas institute of engineering and technology Mysore

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
JNANASANGAMA, BELAGAVI - 590018

DECLARATION

I, student of 7th Semester, studying at Vidya vikas institute of engineering and

technology Mysore, hereby declare that the training report on “Basic telecom
technology ” submitted to Visvesvaraya, Belagavi in partial fulfilment of
Degree of bachelor of engineering is the original work conducted by us.

The information and data given in the report is authentic to the best of my
knowledge. This internship training report is not being submitted to any other
University for award of any other Degree, Diploma and Fellowship.

Place: Mysuru
Date:14/8/2019
HEMANTH P
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

1. ABOUT BSNL

2. ABOUT RTTC MYSORE

3. CONTENTS STUDIED

a) OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

⮚ ADVANTAGES, APPLICATIONS & DIS-ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTCS
⮚ PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
⮚ OFC TYPES
⮚ SPLICING

b) DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEM

⮚ BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE
⮚ PCM PRINCIPLES
⮚ COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALING SYSTEM
⮚ DIGITAL SPACE SWITCHING
⮚ TELECOMMUNICATION TRAFFIC
⮚ OVERVIEW OF NGN & IP-TAX

c) MOBILE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

⮚ MOBILE ANTENNA SYSTEM
⮚ FEATURES OF DIGITAL CELLULAR SYSTEM
⮚ FUNDAMENTAL GSM
⮚ GENERATION OF MOBILE

d) COMPUTER COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

⮚ OSI REFERENCE MODEL
⮚ TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
⮚ IP ADDRESSING
 CHAPTER 1
ABOUT
BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED (BSNL)
 CHAPTER 1
ABOUT
BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED (BSNL)
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. was incorporated on 15th September 2000. It took over the
business of providing of telecom services and network management from the erstwhile
Central Government Departments of Telecom Services (DTS) and Telecom Operations
(DTO), with effect from 1st October 2000 on going concern basis. It is one of the largest &
leading public sector units providing comprehensive range of telecom services in India. 

BSNL has installed Quality Telecom Network in the country & now focusing on improving
it, expanding the network, introducing new telecom services with ICT applications in villages
& winning customer's confidence. Today, it has about 36.42 million line basic telephone
capacity, 7.13 million WLL capacity, 95.96 million GSM capacity, 34,727 fixed
exchanges, 1,17,090 GSM BTSs, 9,594 CDMA Towers, 102 Satellite Stations, 7,73,976
RKm of OFC, 4751 RKm. of microwave network connecting 646 districts,
4519cities/towns & 6.25 lakhs villages.
 
BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts & planned initiatives to bridge the
rural-urban digital divide in ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom operator in the country to
beat its reach with its wide network giving services in every nook & corner of the country &
operates across India except New Delhi & Mumbai. Whether it is inaccessible areas of
Siachen glacier or North-Eastern regions of the country, BSNL serves its customers with a
wide bouquet of telecom services namely Wireline, CDMA mobile, GSM mobile, Internet,
Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP, IN Services, FTTH, etc. 

BSNL is one of major service provider in its license area. The company offers wide ranging
& most transparent tariff schemes designed to suit every customer. BSNL has 94.36
million cellular & 1.02 million WLL customers as on 31.10.2016. 3G Facility has been given
to all 2G connections of BSNL. In basic services, BSNL is miles ahead of its rivals,
with 13.88 million wireline phone subscribers i.e. 56.96% share of the wireline subscriber
base. 

BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure that
provides convergent services like voice, data & video through the same Backbone &
Broadband Access Network. At present there are 21.86 million broadband customers
including both wireline & wireless broadband. 

The company has vast experience in planning, installation, network integration &
maintenance of switching & transmission networks & also has a world class ISO 9000
certified Telecom Training Institute.
During the 2015-16, turnover of BSNL is around Rs. 32,919 Crores.

 
VISION:

● Be the leading telecom service provider in India with global presence.

● Create a customer focused organization with excellence in customer care, sales and
marketing.

● Leverage technology to provide affordable and innovative telecom. Services/products

across customer segments.

MISSION:

Be the leading telecom service provider in India with global presence.

●  Becoming the most trusted, preferred and admired telecom brand

●  Providing reliable telecom services that are value for money

●  Generating value for all stakeholders – employees, shareholders, vendors & business
associates

●  Excellence in customer service -friendly, reliable, time bound, convenient and courteous
service

●  Offering differentiated products/services tailored to different service segments

●  Developing a marketing and sales culture that is responsive to customer needs

●  To explore International markets for Global presence

●  Maximizing return on existing assets with sustained focus on profitability

●  Changing policies and processes to enable transparent, quick and efficient decision
making.

 
OBJECTIVES:

●  To increasing sales revenue with focus on subscriber retention & acquisition by way of
strengthening sales & marketing, quality of service and customer delivery

●  Accelerate the pace of expansion of mobile & data services with up-gradation of
technology
●  Increasing BSNL visibility in urban, sub-urban and rural areas

●  Developing sales and marketing team with attitude towards customer

care

●  To improve customer care by reducing fault rate, upgrading Customer

service Centres (CSCs) and introducing convergent billing

●  Providing a conducive work environment with strong focus on performance to enhance

customer delight towards BSNL services

●  Leverage data services to increase BSNL’s customer’s base & revenues by providing
higher bandwidths capabilities for wire line and wireless broadband customers

●  To strengthen company’s finances by gainful utilization of its assets through sharing /
monetization of existing infrastructure like land, building and sharing of passive
infrastructure like towers etc.

●  Creating Wi-Fi Hot Spots and replacing Legacy wire line exchanges by Next Generation
Network.

●  Expanding the reach of fiber network near to the customer premises particularly in
apartment complexes through FTTH in order to meet the even increasing bandwidth
requirement for data & video applications.

●  To leverage the existing infrastructure of BSNL thereby contributing towards nation
building by facilitating the execution of government programmes and initiatives viz.
National Optical Fiber Network (NOFN), Network for Spectrum (NFS), and dwelling on
Smart City concept

●  To improve productivity by training and skill development and redeployment of legacy
manpower

●  Developing knowledge pool exposed to latest technological advancements

To explore opportunities in international telecom in developing markets 

 CHAPTER 2
ABOUT
REGIONAL TELECOM TRAINING CENTRE, MYSORE
 CHAPTER 2
ABOUT
REGIONAL TELECOM TRAINING CENTRE, MYSORE

REGIONAL TELECOM TRAINING CENTRE, MYSORE

The Regional Telecom Training Centre (RTTC), Mysore is one of the pioneer Telecom
Training Centres in India serving for the training needs on different fields of
Telecommunication, Accounts, Computers, Civil, Electrical, Management and Information
Technology for the officers/Staff of e Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, India.

Offers training in telecom technology to reputed IT companies such as Infosys, Cable and
Wireless, Nano Cell and Engineering students.

RTTC, Mysore has been recognized as the "Centre for excellence in Computers" by the
Telecom directorate as a result of its excellent infrastructure in the field of Computers.

Engineering colleges, technical institutions are welcome for training in latest Telecom
Technologies
Any Central Govt/State Govt or private firms who are interested in getting their staff trained
in office automation are welcome.

VISION & MISSION

RTTC aspires to be one of the best telecom training centres in India by being responsive and
participant-centred institution dedicated to academic excellence, thereby enabling participants
to think critically, work creatively, communicate effectively and become technologically
competent so as to make BSNL a vibrant company.
 CHAPTER 3
ABOUT
CONTENTS STUDIED
 CHAPTER 3
ABOUT
CONTENTS STUDIED

OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Introduction:

An Optical fiber is a flexible, transparentfiber made by drawing glass(silica) or plastic to a

diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.

Optical fibers have a wide number of applications. They are used as light guides in
medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a
clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers route sunlight from the roof to other
parts of the building (see non imaging optics). Optical-fiber lamps are used for illumination
in decorative applications, including signs, art, toys and artificial Christmas
trees. Swarovski boutiques use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many
different angles while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the
light-transmitting concrete building product LiTraCon.
Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used,
sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is
used to view objects through a small hole.
Fiber optical cables are highly transparent, cylindrical conduits for light.. When light enters
the fiber made of material With higher refractive index than the cladding surrounding it, it
stays inside the material due to total internal reflection and is thus transmitted forward.

Index of refraction:

The refractive index or index of refraction of a material is a dimensionless number that

describes how fast light propagates through the material. It is defined as
N=c/v,
Where c is the speed of light in vacuum
V is the phase velocity of light in the medium
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER :
The advantages are
⮚ OFC are non-conductive(dielectric)
⮚ Electromagnetic Immunity
⮚ Large Bandwidth
⮚ Low loss
⮚ Small light weight cable
⮚ Available in long length
⮚ Security
⮚ Universal medium

APPLICATION OF FIBER OPTICS:

o Medical
o Defence / Government
o Data storage
o Telecommunications
o Networking
o Industrial/Commercial
o Broadcast/CATV
o Classified (secured) communications.
o Inexpensive light sources available.
o Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low loss fiber are
used at high data rates.

DISADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS:

o Limited application
o Low power
o Fragility
o Distance

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
The principle of optical fiber is in the sending end, to transfer the information (such as
voice) into electrical signals firstly, then send to laser modulation of the laser beam,
strengthen the light signal with the amplitude (frequency) change, and send out through the
optical fiber; At the receive end, after receiving light signal, the detector transforms it into
electrical signals, recover to original information after demodulation.
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non-conducting waveguide) that
transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a
core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To
confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that
of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in the
step-index, or gradual, in graded-index fiber.

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBER

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner core is
the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive index that
allows total internal reflection of light through the core. The index of the cladding is less than
1%, lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47
and a cladding index of 1.46.
FIBER TYPES:

Step Index fiber:

Step index fiber is a multimode or singlemode optical fiber with a uniform refractive index
throughout the core.The step is shift between the core and cladding.

The path of light propagation is zig-zag manner.

Graded index fiber:

In fiber optics, a graded index is an optical fiber whose core has a refractive
index that decreases with increasing radial distance from the optical axis of the
fiber.
This type of fiber is normalized by the International Telecommunication Union ITU-Tat
recommendation.

Unlike graded index optical fiber, the step index fiber has a constant refractive index at the
core as well as cladding.The path of light is helical in manner.By this classification there are
three types of fibers:

o Multimode step index

o Single mode step index
o Multimode graded index
PARTS OF THE OPTICAL FIBER CABLE:

1. Optical Fiber
2. Optical Fiber
3. Strength member
4. Jacket
5. Filling Compound
6. Sheath
Transmission Sequence:

(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.

(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.

(3) Light Travels down the Fiber.

(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

(5) Electrical signals are decoded into information

OFC SPLICING :
Fiber optic splicing involves joining two fiber optic cables togerher.

Splicing is also used to restore fiber optic cables when a buried cable is accidentally severed.

SPLICING METHODS :

There are Three types are available

o Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.

o Mechanical splicing.
o Fusion splicing.

Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing

Adhesive bonding describes a wafer bonding technique with applying an intermediate
layer to connect substrates of different types of materials.

Those connections produced can be soluble or insoluble.

This is the oldest splicing technique used in fiber splicing. It has the advantage of relatively
low temperature as well as the absence of electric voltage and current.

Mechanical Splicing :
A Mechanical splicing is a junction of two or more optical fibers that are aligned and held in
place by a self-contained assembly (usually the size of a large carpenter’s nail ). The fibers
are not permanently joined, just precisely held together so that light can pass from one to
another.

A very good mechanical splice The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components
:
(i) An alignment surface for mating fiber ends.
(ii) A retainer
(iii) An index matching material.
(iv) A protective for M.M. fiber can have an optical performance as good as fusion
spliced fiber or glue spliced. But in case of single mode fiber, this type of splice cannot have
stability of loss.
Fusion Splicing :

Fusion splicing is the act of joining two optical fibers end-to-end. The goal is to fuse the two
fibers together in such a way that light passing through the fibers is not scattered or reflected
back by the splice, and so that splice and the region surrounding it are almost as strong as the
intact fiber.

If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the splicing loss
can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the splicing joint should be
provided with a proper protector to have following protections:
(a) Mechanical protection
(b) Protection from moisture

The splicing machines imported by BSNL begins to the core profile alignment
system, the main functions of which are :

(1) Auto active alignment of the core.

(2) Auto arc fusion.
(3) Video display of the entire process.
(4) Indication of the estimated splice loss. The shape of the cut can be monitored
 (5) on the video screen, some of the defect noted while cleaving are listed below :

(i) Broken ends

(ii) Ripped ends.

(iii) Slanting cuts.

(iv) Unclean ends.

(A) Route indicator

At every 200 m route length of showing name of route & no of indicators.

(B) Joint indicator

At every joint (Splice) generally it is placed at every 2/4 Km(Drum length)
(C) Branch (Root diversion) indicator
Provided at route diversion or branching from the main root.

OTDR ( Optical Time Domain Reflect meter )

An OTDR may be used for estimating the fiber's length and overall attenuation,
including splice and mated-connector losses. It may also be used to locate faults, such as
breaks, and to measure optical return loss.
 4. DIGITAL SWITCHING SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION:

To overcome the limitations of manual switching, automatic exchanges, having Electro-

mechanical components, were developed. Stronger exchange, the first automatic
exchange having direct control feature, appeared in 1892 in La Porte (Indiana).

The first electronic exchange employing Space-Division switching (Analog

switching) was commissioned in 1965 at Succasunna, New Jersey. This exchange used
one physical path for one call and, hence, full availability could still not be achieved.

BASIC PRINCIPES OF ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE

The prime purpose of an exchange is to provide a temporary path for

simultaneous. bi-directional transmission of speech between
(i) Subscriber lines connected to same exchange (local switching)
(ii) Subscriber lines and trunks to other exchange(outgoing trunk call)
(iii) Subscriber lines and trunks from other exchanges(incoming trunk calls) and
(iv) Pairs of trunks towards different exchanges (transit switching)

These are also called the switching functions of an exchange and are
implemented through the equipment called the switching network.
i)Exchange of information with the external environment (Subscriber lines or
other exchanges) i.e. signalling.
ii)Processing the signalling information and controlling the operation of
signalling network, i.e. control.
iii)Charging and billing
PCM PRINCIPES
A long distance or local telephone conversation between two persons could be
provided by using a pair of open wire lines or underground cable as early as
early as mid of 19th century. However, due to fast industrial development and
increased telephone awareness, demand for trunk and local traffic went on
increasing at a rapid rate

MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques
i. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
ii Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM)

The FDM technique is the process of translating individual speech
circuits (300-3400 Hz) into pre-assigned frequency slots within the bandwidth
of the transmission medium.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM)
Basically, time division multiplexing involves nothing more than sharing
a transmission medium by a number of circuits in time domain by establishing a
sequence of time slots during which individual channels (circuits) can be
transmitted

Time division multiplexing

COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALLING SYSTEM

Communication networks generally connect two subscriber terminating equipment
units together via several line sections and switches for message exchange (e.g. speech, data,
text or images). Control information has to be transferred between the exchanges for call
control and for the use of facilities. In analog communication networks, channel-associated
signalling systems have so far been used to carry the control information.
The CCITT has, therefore, specified the common channel signalling system no.7 (CCS-7).
CCS-7 is optimised for application in digital networks. It is characterised by the following
main features :

● internationally standardized (national variations possible).

● suitable for the national, international and intercontinental network level.
● suitable for various communication services such as telephony, text services, data
services digital network (ISDN).
● high performance and flexibility along with a future-oriented concept which well
meet new requirements.
● high reliability for message transfer.
● processor-friendly structure of messages (signal units of multiples of 8 bits).
● signalling on separate signalling links; the bit rate of the circuits is, therefore,
exclusively for communication.

Concepts of Space and Time Switches :

Time and Space Switching

Generally, a digital switching system contain several time division multiplexed
(PCM) samples. These PCM samples are conveyed on PCM highways (the common path
over which many channels can pass with separation achieved by time division.). Switching of
calls in this environment , requires placing digital samples from one time-slot of a PCM
multiplex in the same or different time-slot of another PCM multiplex.

Fig :DIGITAL SWITCH

DIGITAL SPACE SWITCHING

Principle

The Digital Space Switch consists of several input highways, X1, X2,...Xn and
several output highways, Y1,Y2,...Ym, inter connected by a crosspointmatrix of n rows and
m columns. The individual crosspoint consists of electronic AND gates.
Practical Space Switch
In a practical switch, the digital bits are transmitted in parallel rather than serially, through
the switching matrix.
In a serial 32 time-slot PCM multiplex, 2048 Kb/s are carried on a single wire
sequentially, i.e., all the bits of the various time-slots follow one another. This single wire
stream of bits, when fed to Serial to Parallel Converter is converted into 8-wire parallel
output
TELECOMMUNICATION TRAFFIC
Telephone traffic is originated by the individual needs of different subscribers and so it is
beyond the control of telephone administration. Any and every subscriber can originate a call
at any and every moment without giving any previous information and the duration of calls
is also not previously known.
MEASUREMENT OF TELEPHONE TRAFIC
Traffic Measurements are used in many fundamental activities such as

● Identification of traffic patterns and trends

● Calculating the traffic intensity in a specific circuit or group
● Monitoring the service
● Dimensioning and managing the network
● Calculating tariffs
● Performing forecasting
● Dimensioning and managing the SS7network
● Checking the performance of the common channel signalling network

OVERVIEW OF NGN & IP TAX

PSTN :The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the aggregate of the world’s
circuit-switched telephone networks that are operated by national, regional, or local
telephony operators, providing infrastructure and services for public telecommunication.
The PSTN consists of telephone lines, fiber optics cables, microwave transmission
links, cellular networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables, all
interconnected by switching centers, thus allowing most telephones to communicate with
each other.
PLMN : In telecommunication, a Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) is a combination of
wireless services offered by a specific operator in a specific country. A PLMN typically
consists of several cellular technologies like GSM/2G, LTE/4G, offered by a single operator
within a given country, often reffered to as a cellular network.
Data link : Data link service is based on packet switching. Where the data are transmitted in
the form of packets from one station to other station.
NGN Vision:
Next Generation Network is the framework where operator will have a common
transport network based on Internet Protocol for providing all kinds of telecommunication
services.

NGN Architecture

NGN is a layered architecture consisting of transport, access, control and application

layer. It is important to note that all the layers are independent from each other. Change in
one layer should not affect other layers.

PSTN to NGN Migration

PSTN is a circuit-switched based telephone network, which has been evolving over
the last 50 years. Today majority of service providers around the world are using PSTN for
providing telecommunication services. Success of Internet has led to the deployment of huge
packet-switched networks worldwide to carry voice, data and video resulting in OPEX and
CAPEX savings.
Phase – I: Migration of TAX:
In first phase of implementation operators can replace their transit network with soft-
switch architecture. Operators can make use of the Soft-Switch architecture for the National
Long Distance calls.
 Current setup for PSTN
Conclusion It is understood that in near future operators will migrate to complete IP
communication. But it is to be ensured that during this migration should be smooth. At
present there should not be any hurry to implement NGN immediately. Operators first work
out for building reliable IP backbone and then process of migration can be started.

5. MOBILE WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

The history of mobile phones covers mobile communication devices that connect wirelessly

to the public switched telephone network.
While the transmission of speech by radio has a long history, the first devices that were
wireless, mobile, and also capable of connecting to the standard telephone network are much
more recent. The first such devices were barely portable compared to today's compact hand-
held devices, and their use was clumsy.
Along with the process of developing a more portable technology, and a better
interconnections system, drastic changes have taken place in both the networking of wireless
communication and the prevalence of its use, with smartphones becoming common globally
and a growing proportion of Internet access now done via mobile broadband
.
MOBILE ANTENNA SYSTEM

Electromagnetic Waves
The transmission and reception of information using Electro Magnetic waves is
known as Radio or Wireless communication. An Electro Magnetic wave consists of an
Electrical component and a Magnetic component. The directions of the Electric component,
the Magnetic component and Propagation are mutually perpendicular to each other.

What is an antenna?
An antenna in the communication system behaves like an interpreter between the
transmitter and free space as well as the free space and the receiver.
Antennas are metallic structures designed for radiating and receiving Electro
Magnetic waves. Antennas transform wire-propagated waves into space-propagated waves. A
receiving antenna receives electromagnetic waves and passes them onto a receiver. A
transmitting antenna transmits electromagnetic waves in to space. One side of the antenna is
connected to RF cable and the other side it is the environment, therefore the surroundings of
the antenna have a strong influence on the antennas electrical features.

Types of Antenna
⮚ Omni-directional antenna
⮚ Directional Antenna

Radiation Pattern

Radiation pattern is the Graphical representation of the radiated power as function of

direction. In most cases the propagation characteristic of an antenna can be described
horizontal and vertical radiation patterns. Very often a 3-dimensional description is chosen to
describe a complex antenna.

Half Power Beam Width

This term defines the aperture of the antenna. The Half Power Beam Width is defined
by the points in the horizontal and vertical diagram, which show where the radiated power
has reached half the amplitude of the main radiation direction. These points are also called 3
dB points. Normally only the major lobe is considered for this.

Antenna Gain
An antenna without gain radiates energy in every direction. An antenna with gain
concentrates the energy in a defined angle segment of 3-dimensional space. A dipole is used
as a reference for defining gain. At higher frequencies the gain is often defined with reference
to the isotropic radiator. The isotropic radiator is a non-existent ideal antenna, which has also
an Omni directional radiation characteristic in the E-plane and H-plane.

Impedance

The impedance of the antenna is simply equal to the voltage applied to its input
terminals divided by the current flow. Input impedance of the antenna and transmission
impedance of the feeder cable should be equal. It is 50 ohm.

COMPOSITION AND INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS OF THE ANTENNA

FEEDER SYSTEM

Composition of the Antenna Feeder System

The antenna feeder system is composed of antennas, antenna jumpers, primary feeder cables,
lightning arresters, cabinet-top jumpers and grounding parts.
Tower mounted amplifier
Most base stations (BTS) can transmit a signal to a mobile device further and stronger than
they can receive the signals coming back from it. This is known as link imbalance and is
made worse by the feeder loss between the base station and the antennas.
This imbalance can be as high as 20% or more, so system designers need to correct the
balance in order to improve coverage.
In Mobile antenna system, the electrical parameters VSWR, Azimuth angle, down tilt
and antenna height plays a major role for getting proper coverage. Tower Mounted
Amplifiers increase the sensitivity of the base station and increase its range by up to 40%.

Cellular concept
Traditional mobile service was structured similar to television broadcasting. One very
powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in an area would broadcast in a radius of up to
fifty kilometres.

Cells
A cell is the basic geographic unit of cellular system. The term cellular comes from the
honeycomb areas into which a coverage region is divided

Types of cells

The density of population in a country is so varied that different types of cells are used:

⮚ Macro cells
The macro cells are large cells for remote and sparsely populated areas.
 ⮚ Micro cells
These cells are used for densely populated areas. By splitting the existing areas into smaller
cells, the number of channels available is increased as well as the capacity of the cells. The
power level of the transmitters used in these cells is then decreased, reducing the possibility
of interference between neighbouring cells.

⮚ Pico cells
Pico cells are small cells whose diameter is only few dozen meters

⮚ Selective cells
It is not always useful to define a cell with a full coverage of 360 degrees. In some cases,
cells with a particular shape and coverage are needed.

⮚ Umbrella cells
A freeway crossing very small cells produces an important number of handovers among the
different small neighboring cells in case of a fast moving mobile subscriber.

FEATURES OF DIGITAL CELLULAR SYSTEM

Small cells: A cellular system uses many base stations with relatively small coverage radii
(on the order of a 100 m to 30 km).

Frequency reuse: The spectrum allocated for a cellular network is limited. As a result there
is a limit to the number of channels or frequencies that can be used.

Small, battery-powered handsets: In addition to supporting much higher densities than

previous systems, this approach enables the use of small, battery-powered handsets with a
radio frequency that is lower than the large mobile units used in earlier systems.

Performance of handovers: In cellular systems, continuous coverage is achieved by

executing a “handover” (the seamless transfer of the call from one base station to another) as
the mobile unit crosses cell boundaries.
Conclusion the cellular concepts and different types of cells used in GSM technology.
Techniques like cell sectoring and cell splitting are introduced to improve the coverage and
capacity of the mobile network.
FUNDAMENTAL GSM
A cellular mobile communications system uses a large number of low-power wireless
transmitters to create cells—the basic geographic service area of a wireless communications
system.

The important objectives of the mobile communication are

⮚ Any time Anywhere communication
⮚ Mobility & Roaming
⮚ High capacity & subs. Density
⮚ Efficient use of radio spectrum
⮚ Seamless Network Architecture
⮚ Low cost
⮚ Innovative Services
⮚ Standard Interface

GENERATION OF MOBILE

From the early analog mobile generation (1G) to the last implemented third generation (3G)
the paradigm has changed. The new mobile generations do not pretend to improve the voice
communication experience but try to give the user access to a new global communication
reality. The aim is to reach communication ubiquity (every time, everywhere) and to provide
users with a new set of services. The growth of the number of mobile subscribers over the last
years led to a saturation of voice-oriented wireless telephony. From a number of 214 million
subscribers in 1997 to 1.162 millions in 2002 , it has increased to 1700 million subscribers
worldwide in 2010 and increasing day by day . It is now time to explore new demands and to
find new ways to extend the mobile concept. The first steps have already been taken by the
2.5G, which gave users access to a data network (e.g. Internet access, MMS - Multimedia
Message Service). After that there was (3G) multimedia support, spread spectrum
transmission and 2011 the all IP Switched networks (4G) comes. The last few years have
witnessed a phenomenal growth in the wireless industry, both in terms of mobile technology
and its subscribers. There has been a clear shift from fixed to mobile cellular telephony,
especially since the turnoff the century. By the end of 2010, there were over four times more
mobile cellular subscriptions than fixed telephone lines. Both the mobile network operators
and vendors have felt the importance of efficient networks with equally efficient design. This
resulted in Network Planning and optimization related services coming in to sharp focus.
Next generation mobile networks, commonly referred to as 4G, and are envisaged as a
multitude of heterogeneous systems interacting through a horizontal IP-centric architecture.
The 5G core is to be a Re-configurable, Multi-Technology Core

GSM PRINCIPLES
One of the most important conclusions evolved from the early tests of the new GSM
technology was that the new standard should employ Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA) technology.

Most GSM systems operate in the 900 MHz and 1.8 GHz frequency bands, except in
North America where they operate in the 1.9 GHz band. GSM divides up the radio spectrum
bandwidth by using a combination of Time- and Frequency Division Multiple Access
(TDMA/FDMA) schemes on its 25 MHz wide frequency spectrum, dividing it into 124
carrier frequencies (spaced 200 KHz apart). Each frequency is then divided into eight time
slots using TDMA, and one or more carrier frequencies are assigned to each base station. The
fundamental unit of time in this TDMA scheme is called a ‘burst period’ and it lasts 15/26
ms(or approx. 0.577 ms). Therefore the eight ‘time slots’ are actually ‘burst periods’, which
are grouped into a TDMA frame, which subsequently form the basic unit for the definition of
logical channels.

DUPLEXING METHODOLOGY

Duplexing is the technique by which the send and receive paths are
separated over the medium, since transmission entities (modulator, amplifiers,
demodulators) are involved.
There are two types of duplexing:
A) Frequency Division Duplexing FDD
B) Time Division Duplexing TDD
MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUE

The technique of dynamically sharing the finite limited radio spectrum by multiple
users is called Multiple Access Technique. By adopting multiple access techniques all users
cannot get the services simultaneously and some amount of blocking is introduced by the
system. This is known as GOS (Grade of Service).
There are 3 types of Multiple Access
A) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
B) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
C) Code Division multiple Access (CDMA)

GSM NETWORK SYSTEM

GSM system basically designed as a combination of three major subsystems:

⮚ Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
⮚ Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
⮚ Operation Support Subsystem (OSS)

GSM NETWORK ELEMENTS

The major network elements are MS, Base Station Controller (BSC), Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) and Mobile Service Switching Centre (MSC) and the four
databases associated with MSC namely HLR, VLR, EIR and AUC
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. COMPUTER COMMUNICATION NETWORK

A Brief History Of Computer Network Technology. A computer network, or simply

a network, is a collection of computers and other hardware components interconnected by
communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information.

Evolving Networks 
Are networks that change as a function of time. They are a natural extension
of network science since almost all real world networks evolve over time, either by adding or
removing nodes or links over time. Often all of these processes occur simultaneously, such as
in social networks where people make and lose friends over time, thereby creating and
destroying edges, and some people become part of new social networks or leave their
networks, changing the nodes in the network. Evolving network concepts build on
established network theory and are now being introduced into studying networks in many
diverse.
INTRODUCTION
THE ISO OSI REFERENCE MODEL
An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. Vendor specific protocols close
off communication between unrelated systems. The purpose of the OSI model is to open
communication between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the
underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for
understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust an
interoperable.

The open systems interconnection model is a layered framework for the design of
network systems that allows for communication across all types of computer systems. It
consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a segment of process
of moving information across a network. Understanding the fundamentals of the OSI
model provides a solid basis for exploration of data communications.
THE OSI MODEL IS BUILT IN SEVEN LAYERS
Layer 1: Physical layer
Layer 2: D ata Link Layer
Layer 3: Network Layer
Layer 4: Transport Layer
Layer 5: Session Layer
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
Layer 7: Application Layer

ORGANIZATION OF THE LAYOUT

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three
subgroups.
Network support Layers
⮚ Physical layer
⮚ Data link layer
⮚ Network layer
They deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another, such as
electrical specification, physical connections, physical addressing and transport timing
and reliability.
User support Layers
⮚ Session Layer
⮚ Presentation Layer
⮚ Application Layer

THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP is an industry-standard suite of protocols designed for large
internetworks spanning wide area network (WAN) links. TCP/IP was developed in 1969
by the U.S. Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the
result of a resource-sharing experiment called Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET). The purpose of TCP/IP was to provide high-speed
communication network links. Since 1969, ARPANET has grown into a worldwide
community of networks known as the Internet.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

TCP/IP protocols map to a four-layer conceptual model known as the DARPA
model, named after the U.S. government agency that initially developed TCP/IP. The
four layers of the DARPA model are: Application, Transport, Internet, and Network
Interface. Each layer in the DARPA model corresponds to one or more layers of the
seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Network Interface Layer

The Network Interface Layer (also called the Network Access Layer) is responsible for
placing TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the
network medium. TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network access
method, frame format, and medium. In this way, TCP/IP can be used to connect
differing network types. This includes LAN technologies such as Ethernet or Token
Ring and WAN technologies such as X.25 or Frame Relay. Independence from any
specific network technology gives TCP/IP the ability to be adapted to new technologies
such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

Internet Layer
The Internet Layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and routing functions. The
core protocols of the Internet Layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
• The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing
and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of the Internet
Layer address to the Network Interface Layer address, such as a hardware address.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible for providing
diagnostic functions and reporting errors or conditions regarding the delivery of IP
packets.
• The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is responsible for the
management of IP multicast groups.

Transport Layer
The Transport Layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport Layer) is responsible
for providing the Application Layer with session and datagram communication services.
The core protocols of the Transport Layer are TCP and the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).
TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable communications
service. TCP is responsible for the establishment of a TCP connection, the sequencing
and acknowledgment of packets sent, and the recovery of packets lost during
transmission.
UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable
communications service. UDP is used when the amount of data to be transferred is small
(such as the data that would fit into a single packet), when the overhead of establishing a
TCP connection is not desired, or when the applications or upper layer protocols provide
reliable delivery.
The Transport Layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI Transport
Layer and some of the responsibilities of the OSI Session Layer.

Application Layer
The Application Layer provides applications the ability to access the services of
the other layers and defines the protocols that applications use to exchange data. There
are many Application Layer protocols and new protocols are always being developed.
The most widely known Application Layer protocols are those used for the
exchange of user information.

IP ADDRESSING
Each TCP/IP host is identified by a logical IP address. The IP address is a network
layer address and has no dependence on the data link layer address (such as a MAC
address of a network interface card). A unique IP address is required for each host and
network component that communicates using TCP/IP.
Each IP address includes a network ID and a host ID.
The network ID (also known as a network address) identifies the systems that are
located on the same physical network bounded by IP routers. All systems on the same
physical network must have the same network ID. The network ID must be unique to th e
internetwork.
 The host ID (also known as a host address) identifies a workstation, server, router,
or other TCP/IP host within a network. The address for each host must be unique to the
network ID.

IP v4
An IP address is 32 bits long. Rather than working with 32 bits at a time, it is a
common practice to segment the 32 bits of the IP address into four 8-bit fields called
octets. Each octet is converted to a decimal number (the Base 10 numbering system) in the
range 0-255 and separated by a period (a dot). This format is called dotted decimal
notation. Table 10 provides an example of an IP address in binary and dotted decimal
formats.

IP address in binary and dotted decimal format

Binary Format Dotted Decimal Notation

11000000 10101000 00000011 192.168.3.24

00011000

The notation w. x. y.zis used when referring to a generalized IP address

ADDRESS CLASSES
The Internet community originally defined five address classes to accommodate
networks of varying sizes. Microsoft TCP/IP supports class A, B, and C addresses
assigned to hosts. The class of address defines which bits are used for the network ID and
which bits are used for the host ID. It also defines the possible number of networks and the
number of hosts per network.

IP address class summary

Class Value for w1 Networ Host Available Hosts per

k ID ID Network Network
Portio Port
 n ion s

A 1–126 W x. y. z 126 16,777,214

B 128–191 w. x y. z 16,384 65,534

C 192–223 W .x. y Z 2,097,152 254

HOST ID GUIDELINES
The host ID identifies a TCP/IP host within a network. The combination of IP
network ID and IP host ID is an IP address.
Follow these guidelines when assigning a host ID:
⮚ The host ID must be unique to the network ID.
⮚ All bits within the host ID cannot be set to 1, because this host ID is reserved as a
broadcast address to send a packet to all hosts on a network.
⮚ All bits in the host ID cannot be set to 0, because this host ID is reserved to
denote the IP network ID.

SUBNETS AND SUBNET MASKS

The Internet Address Classes were designed to accommodate three different scales
of IP internetworks, where the 32 bits of the IP address are apportioned between
network IDs and host IDs depending on how many networks and hosts per network are
needed. However, consider the class A network ID, which has the possibility of over
16 million hosts on the same network. All the hosts on the same physical network
bounded by IP routers share the same broadcast traffic; they are in the same broadcast
domain. It is not practical to have 16 million nodes in the same broadcast domain.

SUBNET MASK
With the advent of subnetting, one can no longer rely on the definition of the IP
address classes to determine the network ID in the IP address. A new value is needed to
define which part of the IP address is the network ID and which part is the host ID,
regardless of whether class-based or sub netted network IDs are being used.

DOTTED DECIMAL REPRESENTATION OF SUBNET MASK

Subnet masks are frequently expressed in dotted decimal notation. Once the bits are
set for the network ID and host ID portion, the resulting 32-bit number is converted to
dotted decimal notation.

DEFAULT SUBNET MASK IN DOTTED DECIMAL NOTATION

Address Bits for Subnet Mask Subnet

Class Mask

Class A 11111111 00000000 00000000 255.0.0.0

00000000

Class B 11111111 11111111 00000000 255.255.0.0

00000000

Class C 11111111 11111111 11111111 255.255.255

00000000 .0

SUBNETTING
While the conceptual notion of subnetting by utilizing host bits are straightforward, the
actual mechanics of subnetting are a bit more complicated. Subnetting is a three-step
procedure:

⮚ 1. Determine the number of host bits to be used for the subnetting.

⮚ 2. Enumerate the new sub netted network IDs.
⮚ 3. Enumerate the IP addresses for each new sub netted network ID.