Memory and Models of

Memory
Introductory Psychology
 What is Memory?
• Mental ability to retain and recall past
experience

• Based on mental processes of

– Learning
– Retention
– Recall and Retrieval
 The Basic Memory Process

Encoding Storage Retrieval

 Part 1 - Encoding
The process of converting physical
stimuli into a form that the brain’s
memory system can interpret and use

Physical stimuli Encoding

 Types of Encoding
1) Acoustic: Sounds, spoken words

2) Visual: Images, “mental snapshots”

3) Semantic: “General meanings”

– Concepts and ideas

• Dual Coding: Using 2+ types of encoding

– More effective
What type of encoding would be
used to memorize this picture?

Visual encoding, of course!

How about this problem…?

Semantic encoding – the idea of

addition is conceptual
 What about this last one…?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMzlm9OVpvU&feature=plcp&context=C3f0f838UDO
EgsToPDskKvmmlg5165l9EZxd1uYEaK

Trick question! It’s visual AND acoustic

(dual coding)
 Part 2 - Storage
The process of keeping memories
intact in the brain’s memory system
over time
 Types of Memories
1) Episodic – Specific events or “episodes”

2) Procedural – Information on how to do

things
– Repetition is key
– How to ride a bike, tie shoes, walk, etc

3) Semantic – Generalized knowledge of

concepts
– NOT based on specific events
 Checkpoint! What types of
memories are described in
the following?

1) Knowledge of how to take a shower

– Procedural memory

2) Information about Newton’s three laws

of motion
– Semantic memory

3) Memory of going to Disneyland the

summer before 3rd grade?
– Episodic memory
 Part 3 – Retrieval
The process of “locating” specific
memories in storage and bringing
them into consciousness
 Types of Retrieval

1) Recall – Unaided retrieval of

memories
– Free response questions, oral exams

2) Recognition – Retrieval with help

of hints
– Easier than recall
– Multiple choice tests
Categories of Memories Retrieved

• Explicit – Deliberately remembered

• Implicit – Unintentional recollection

– Influence of prior experiences
– Unconscious, you have no control over
this
– “Good guys” and “bad guys”
Models of Memory
1. Levels of Processing (LoP)
States that the quality of memory is based
on the degree that information is processed
• More examples
• Last night’s TV show

Quality means that memories are…

– Properly stored
– Easily recalled
– Not quickly forgotten
 Two Types of Rehearsal
• Rehearsal – Mental techniques used to
remember information

• Maintenance – Repeating information over

and over
– No connections
– Rote memorization of facts

• Elaborative – Relating new and old

information
– Builds connections
– More effective over time
 Connection Questions
Consider the following situation…

Questions:
1. What type of rehearsal is each student using?

2. Who will (most likely) remember the prefixes

longer?

3. How can you use your knowledge of rehearsal

and the LoP model to study more effectively?
2. Transfer Appropriate Processing
(TaP)

States that memory quality increases if

retrieval process matches original encoding
process
 3. Parallel Distributed Processing
(PDP)
Memories exist in a “network.” New
experiences alter this network and change
one’s knowledge base
Robin Squirrel
Roadrunner

Flamingo Birds Elephant

Mammals

Platypus
Parrot

Lay Eggs
Crocodile
 PDP Model, Continued
• More connections, information stored longer

• Parallel processing – Portions of network activate

simultaneously
– Helps draw inferences

Robin Squirrel
Roadrunner

Flamingo Birds Elephant

Mammals

Platypus
Parrot

Lay Eggs
Crocodile
4. Information Processing Model
Stimuli must pass through sensory memory,
short-term memory, and long-term memory
in order to be stored well in memory

Sensory STM LTM

Stimuli
 Stage 1 – Sensory Memory

• Holds large amounts of information very briefly

• Sensory Registers – Store incoming stimuli

long enough for further processing
– 1 or 2 seconds

• Perception – When information is encoded

– Forgotten if not percepted

• Selective Attention – Focusing mental

resources to specific stimuli
– Filter
– Prevent against brain overload
 Memorize the following
sequence in 10 seconds…

• 1, 5, 3
• 2, 7, 9, 3
• 2, 1, 3, 5, 6, 0, 7
• 5, 3, 2, 1, 7, 9, 8, 9, 9
• 2, 0, 3, 2, 9, 8, 7, 5, 3, 2, 8, 9, 5, 2
 Stage 2 – Short Term Memory
(STM)
• 7 +/- 2 item memory span

• Chunking – Grouping items meaningfully

– Thinking of two 9’s as one item
– Increases STM capacity

• 18 second duration

• Uses mainly acoustic and partially visual

encoding
Stage 3 – Long Term Memory
(LTM)

• Unlimited capacity (hypothetically)

• Duration: 18+ seconds to forever

• Mainly semantic, partially visual

encoding
 Serial Position Effect
Relating STM and LTM

• Serial means “in order”

• Given a list of items in a certain order…

Why?
Serial Position Effect, continued

• Primacy Effect – Good recall for 1st

few items
– More time to commit to LTM

• Recency Effect – Good recall for

final items
– Item still accessible in STM
– Not as strong as primacy effect
– “Cramming”
So which model is correct…?

• What do you think?

• Most likely, each theory has some

truth
Tune in next class for “Remembering and Forgetting”
 Sources
Image, slide 1: http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-
stpf5Ne2Qds/TmofNF_Cz8I/AAAAAAAADec/gR26IbT6oQ0/s1600/Pump+memory.jpg

Image, slide 6:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Keqs_young_european_hedgehog1.jpg

Video (created by me), slide 8:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMzlm9OVpvU&feature=plcp&context=C3f0f838UDOEgsT
oPDskKvmmlg5165l9EZxd1uYEaK

Image, slide 9: http://www.learningsuccess.com/memory_bank1.jpg

Image, slide 14: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-

PVAImJGSvbE/TrXfdH9Cj3I/AAAAAAAAAH0/ah4rnlfwVEQ/s1600/badguy_snidelywhiplash.jpg

Image, slide 15:

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_b3zeGvTktAU/TUvgDANyjJI/AAAAAAAABec/lquwRVNzLog/s1600/C
ogs+memory.jpg

Graph, slide 27: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/94/Serial_position.png

Note: Pictures on slides 4, 7, 11, 12, 17, and 18 are Microsoft Office clip art pieces