bs_bs_banner

A journal to advance the fundamental understanding of food texture and sensory perception

Journal of Texture Studies ISSN 1745-4603

IMPACT OF DRYING PROCESSES ON STRAWBERRY (FRAGARIA

VAR. CAMAROSA) TEXTURE: IDENTIFICATION OF CRISPY AND
CRUNCHY FEATURES BY INSTRUMENTAL MEASUREMENT
MARITZA ALONZO-MACÍAS1,2, GERARDO MONTEJANO-GAITÁN2 and KARIM ALLAF1,3
1
Pole Science and Technology, Laboratory Engineering Science for Environment, (LaSIE FRE 3474 CNRS), University of La Rochelle, Avenue Michel
Crépeau, La Rochelle 17042, France
2
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Queretaro, Queretaro, Mexico

KEYWORDS ABSTRACT
Crispy, crunchy, instant controlled pressure
drop, puncture test, strawberry, texture The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of hot air drying, freeze drying and
analysis swell drying (which is a coupling of hot air drying to instant controlled pressure
drop DIC) on strawberry to compare and contrast its quality in terms of texture,
3
Corresponding author.
such as crunchy and crispy features, correlated with the expansion ratios and the
TEL: +33 5 46 45 87 66;
FAX: +33 5 46 45 86 16;
microstructure’s modification. The obtained results showed that swell-dried
EMAIL: kallaf@univ-lr.fr strawberry had a high crispness behavior. Also, its relative expansion ratio was
thrice more than air-dried samples. Moreover, it was observed that saturated
Received for Publication April 26, 2013 steam pressure of DIC texturing operation compared with the thermal holding
Accepted for Publication April 25, 2014 time had a significant effect on the maximum penetration distance and the
Published online Article Accepted on average of microruptures force on crunchiness and crispness, respectively. Hence,
April 30, 2014
these structural changes provide a versatile swell-dried strawberry as highly func-
doi:10.1111/jtxs.12070
tional snack that was able to be evaluated instrumentally by puncture test.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Puncture test is an instrumental measurement that helps to describe the crispness
of snacks, biscuits, extruded products, etc. Swell-drying process is defined
as instant controlled pressure drop (DIC)-assisted hot air drying. The
thermomechanical effects of DIC are mainly induced by the abrupt pressure drop
toward a vacuum (about 5 kPa) after shortly subjecting the material to saturated
steam pressure (from 0.1 up to 0.6 MPa). The abrupt pressure drop rate (ΔP/
Δt > 0.5 MPa/s) causes an autovaporization of product’s water, promoting instant
cooling of the product, which immediately decrease the product’s temperature
under its Tg allowing to cross the glass transition Tg, which immediately stops the
thermal effects avoiding any resulting degradation. The impact of DIC on straw-
berry can be observed in expansion ratio and much better through texture content
as crispy and/or crunchy snacking. Hence, it is necessary to instrumentally
describe the mechanical behavior of such a brittle-dried strawberry. The texture
measurements allow using it as one of multicriteria optimization of DIC texturing
processing parameters.

consumption is recognized by its potential benefits for

INTRODUCTION
human health; thanks to its content of bioactive phenolic
From a commercial point of view, strawberry is widely con- compounds (Oszmiański et al. 2009; Giampieri et al. 2012).
sumed fresh or in processed forms. In addition, strawberry Also, it has a very soft and fragile texture, which tends to

246 Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF
disintegrate when incorporated in fresh form into food
products such as yoghurts, ice creams as well as other pro-
cessed products. Food industry commonly uses strawberry
in dried form to extend its shelf life and to handle it easily as
ingredient. Up to now, solar drying, HAD, FD and vacuum
drying are the conventional methods used to process fruits
and vegetables. However, they present some disadvantages
for the product quality, such as significant deterioration of
bioactive compounds and structural textural damages.
Indeed, the shrinkage of product is usually produced by
very long time exposure of HAD. In addition, the difficulties
in processing, as the low ability of grinding and rehydration,
are barriers to adopt hot air process for a large range of
fruits and vegetables (Mounir et al. 2012). Furthermore, FD
is a costly process in terms of manufacturing, mainly due to
high energy consumption coupled with loss of flavor and
color, which greatly reduces its acceptability and end uses
(Ratti 2001).
A new drying operation has been proposed as an alterna-
tive to the following: (1) improve the texture and quality
attributes of dried foods and (2) reduce the energy con-
sumption, resulting in low manufacturing cost. It also has
the ability to handle ranges of food products, regardless
of their heat sensitivity (e.g., strawberry, cranberry,
blackberry, guava, mango, onion, carrot, pepper, potato,
apple, etc.) (Albitar et al. 2011; Mounir et al. 2011, 2012;
Alonzo-Macías et al. 2012; Téllez-Pérez et al. 2012). This
operation of SD couples the conventional HAD to the tech-
nology of instant controlled pressure drop, called in French,
Détente Instantanée Contrôlée (DIC).
DIC was defined in 1988 by Allaf and Vidal as a high-
temperature short-time treatment followed by an abrupt
pressure drop toward a vacuum (pressure drop rate higher
than 0.5 MPa/s). DIC-assisted HAD is a texturing stage
between pre and final HAD operation. This coupling is
better known as SD (Kamal et al. 2008; Albitar et al. 2011;
Mounir et al. 2011; Alonzo-Macías et al. 2012). Therefore,
the SD products have a controlled texture expansion with
higher sensorial quality and functional properties. This
texture change results in higher porosity, increasing the spe-
cific surface area and reducing the diffusion resistance of
moisture during the final dehydration step (Mounir et al.
TABLE 1. A COMPILATION OF POLYGLOT LIST
Language
OF THE TERMS CRUNCHY AND CRISPY FROM
DRAKE (1989), DACREMONT (1992) AND English
NISHINARI ET AL. (2008) French
Spanish
Italian
Portuguese
Japanese
Chinese
Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES
2012). Moreover, this structural change provides a highly
functional snack; thanks to a preservation of vitamins,
bioactive compounds, color and flavor.
However, texture is a very important feature of all kinds
of foods that directly impacts in the consumer acceptability.
More specifically, texture has a specific importance in such a
snacking. Texture is primarily the response of tactile senses
to physical stimuli that results from contact between some
part of the body and the food (Bourne 2002a). Food mate-
rial structure at both macro (porosity and relative density)
and micro (cell wall thickness, cell diameter and distribu-
tion) scales as well as having closed or open pores affects the
mechanical properties (Sozer et al. 2011; Van Vliet and
Primo-Martín 2011).
The new concept of snacks from dried fruits and veg-
etables is defined with crunchiness and crispiness as the tex-
tural features that better describe their quality and even
freshness (Luyten et al. 2004). They are related to foodstuff
as brittle materials, which mean absence of plastic behavior;
only elastic behavior until rupture exists. They relatively
easily break, producing a sharp sound (Al Chakra et al.
1996; Luyten et al. 2004; Saeleaw and Schleining 2011). The
distinction between crispy and crunchy features is not so
clear. Indeed, different works suggest that crispness and
crunchiness are usually differently identified (Table 1),
although they belong to the most frequently used texture
descriptors in United States, Japan, France and Austria
(Bourne 2002a; Roudaut et al. 2002; Nishinari et al. 2008;
Saeleaw and Schleining 2011; Van Vliet and Primo-Martín
2011).
The question is still open (Roudaut et al. 2002). The defi-
nitions given vary between different studies and likely
between countries and products (Roudaut et al. 2002;
Luyten et al. 2004; Nishinari et al. 2008). Sometimes, the
panelists as well as consumers found it very difficult to dis-
tinguish between crispy and crunchy terms and needed con-
stant probing. However, all insisted that they could perceive
a difference between the two concepts, although struggling
to describe this difference, indicating that it was only slight
(Saeleaw and Schleining 2011).
By this research, crunchiness and crispness were defined
according to French language and culture. Crunchiness,
Feature Food example
Crunchy Crispy Crunchy: raw carrot, apple,
Croquant Croustillant pickled ginger
Crocante/crujiente Crujiente/quebradizo
Croccante Crispy: breakfast cereals,
Quebradiço (com ruido) Quebradiço/crocante biscuit, snack
Karikarisuru Paripari/baribari
Cui beng Cui
247
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES
“croquant,” is defined as a linear elastic behavior until the
complete fracture (brittle; e.g., hot air-dried products,
almonds). On the other hand, crispness, “croustillant,” is
understood as the same but small continuous linear elastic
behavior until the successive fractures during chewing (e.g.,
SD and FD products, biscuits). At the same time, to carry
out measurements of the physical aspects of texture percep-
tion in foods, different methods have been proposed. They
involve two main categories: sensory and instrumental
analysis. These last measurements include mechanical mea-
surements (e.g., compression, penetration) and acoustical
procedures (Roudaut et al. 2002; Van Vliet and
Primo-Martín 2011), and sometimes, a combination of
acoustic analysis with mechanical testing for analyzing the
crispness is used. Nonetheless, instrumental measurements
are generally preferred to objectively evaluate the attributes
related to the mechanical properties (Altamirano-Fortoul
et al. 2012).
To describe the texture (i.e., crunchiness and crispness
features) in the swollen food products, a puncture test has
been widely applied (Van Hecke et al. 1998) (Roudaut et al.
2002). This test measures the force required to push a punch
or probe into a food. It is characterized by the following: (1)
a force measuring instrument; (2) penetration of the probe
into the food causing irreversible crushing (i.e., to fracture
separately the different cell walls constituting the product)
or flowing of the food; and (3) the depth of penetration
usually held constant (Bourne 2002b). Hence, the deforma-
tion behavior of crunchy/crispy food products is often
studied as a function of time/displacement at lower rates of
deformation in order to be able to study the possible differ-
ent fracture events separately (Van Hecke et al. 1998;
Saeleaw and Schleining 2011). It means that for crispy prod-
ucts, the force-deformation pattern is characterized by a
series of sharp force peaks corresponding to the rupture of
individual cell walls (Van Hecke et al. 1998; Roudaut et al.
2002).
Regarding the different instruments and settings to punc-
ture test, there is no information or any criteria to select
them. The model including the diameter and velocity of the
probe (i.e., cylindrical or needle) depends on the food
product (Altamirano-Fortoul et al. 2012).
Therefore, instrumental methods, as puncture test,
and microstructure analysis could be an alternative for
DIC
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P (MPa) 0.60 0.35 0.35 0.53 0.53 0.35 0.17 0.17 0.10 0.35 0.35
t (s) 20 30 20 27 13 20 13 27 20 10
DIC, instant controlled pressure drop; DoE, design of experiments; P, saturated steam pressure; t,
thermal holding time.
248
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF
providing more information about different snack food
texture attributes.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of SD,
which is DIC-assisted HAD, compared with other drying
processes such as conventional HAD and FD on the two
types of texture (i.e., crunchy and crispy behavior) in the
specific case of strawberry (Fragaria var. Camarosa).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample Preparation
The strawberries (Fragaria var. Camarosa) were purchased
from a local market (La Rochelle, France). They were cut in
4- to 5-mm transverse slices. Afterward, the total quantity
was divided in three batches to carry out different tech-
niques of HAD, FD and SD.
Treatment Drying Methods
HAD. The slices of strawberries were dried in a hot air drier
(Universal Oven UNB Model 800, Memmert Company,
Germany.) at 50C. The initial relative humidity of air was 2.2%
and an air flux rate of 1.2 m/s. Slices were dried until attaining
3.0% of moisture content db for around 24 h. Afterward, the
samples were analyzed and recorded as HAD.
FD. An FD equipment (model RP2V, Serail Company, Le
Coudray Saint Germer, France) was used for drying the batch
of strawberry slices. The conditions were divided in three
steps: external freezing (at −20C/2 h), sublimation (−20C,
0.66 Pa/12 h) and desorption (25C, 0.66 Pa/12 h). Subse-
quently, the samples were analyzed and recorded as FD.
SD. As SD is a DIC-assisted HAD, the batch of strawberry
slices was partially hot air dried at the same conditions
described in HAD method (50C with an initial relative
humidity of 2.2% and an air flux rate of 1.2 m/s) until 18%
db. This first step needed about 8 h. Subsequently, the slices
were placed in airtight bags and stored in a cold chamber at
5C by 24 h to homogenize their moisture content (18% db).
Afterward, the partially hot air-dried strawberries were
treated by DIC equipment (ABCAR-DIC Process, La
Rochelle, France) according to the DoE (Table 2). Finally,
TABLE 2. TRIALS IN THE DESIGN OF
EXPERIMENTS DoE FOR DIC PROCESS
9 10 11
20
Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF
FIG. 1. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE DIC REACTOR
It is composed of three main elements: (1) processing vessel; (2)
vacuum tank; and (3) instantaneously opening valve that ensures the
instant connection/separation between the vacuum tank and the
processing vessel. The vacuum tank volume is 130 times greater than
the processing vessel. The initial vacuum level was maintained at 5 kPa
in all the experiments. It is capable of producing the abrupt pressure
drop within the reactor in less than 200 MS. The other elements
shown are: (4) steam generator; (5) air compressor; and (6) vacuum
pump.
after DIC treatment, a traditional convective HAD at 50C
was performed for approximately 1 h to get 3.0% db as final
moisture content. These samples were recorded as SD.
DIC technology was initially developed by Allaf and Vidal
(1988). Thus, the experimental setup of DIC equipment
(Fig. 1) has been largely described in several papers
(Maache-Rezzoug et al. 1998; Louka and Allaf 2004;
Haddad and Allaf 2007; Ben Amor and Allaf 2009;
Berka-Zougali et al. 2010 and Mounir et al. 2012).
Briefly, DIC process is based on the thermomechanical-
coupled effects induced by subjecting the strawberry
samples for a short time (13–27 s) to high-pressure satu-
rated steam (0.17–0.53 MPa). This high-temperature–
short-time stage is followed by an instant pressure drop
toward a vacuum (5 kPa), inducing a mechanical effect;
such an abrupt pressure drop (ΔP/Δt > 0.5 MPa/s) pro-
vokes simultaneously an autovaporization of a part of
water contained in the product and an instantaneous
cooling of the products which stops their thermal effect,
crosses the glass transition and gives a controlled expan-
sion of the product (Fig. 2).
Assessment Methods
Water Moisture Content. Moisture content was deter-
mined using a slightly modified Karathanos method (1999).
Briefly, the strawberry samples were quantified gravimetri-
cally by triplicate. Samples of mi = 2.5 ± 0.1 g were dried at
65C for 48 h in an adequate oven UFE 400 (Memmert),
thus reaching the final mass md:
Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES
mi − md
Wdb % = . Eq. (1)
md
Puncture Test. To measure the mechanical properties of
the cellular structure of dried strawberries sliced (i.e., HAD,
FD and SD batches), a puncture test was performed with
INSTRON (Model 5543, Instron Corporation, USA). The
probe used was a 1-mm diameter stainless steel needle
(VICAT needles ISO 6873-EN26873, Petrotest, Dahlewitz,
Germany) moving at a constant speed of 1 mm/s. The test
consisted in recording the puncturing force versus time for
each dried sample of the strawberry slices. The penetration
in the dried fruit was until 3 mm for FD and SD samples
and only 2 mm for HAD because of their high compactness
(Fig. 3A). Five repetitions were done by each batch (i.e.,
HAD, FD and the 11 SD samples).
Fundamental Approach to Analyze the Force–Time
Curve. The obtained force-displacement curves were ana-
lyzed in two parts by different parameters (Fig. 3B,C).
Figure 3B describes the first part, the crunchy behavior.
Figure 3C represents the second part, crispy behavior. The
method reported by Van Hecke et al. (1998) was used and
modified to measure and better identify the crispy and
crunchy features in dried strawberry:
Crunchy (Croquant) Description Parameters. Crunchy
parameters are defined from Fig. 3B. They concern the
highest puncturing position (Xmax, Fmax), as well as the total
work until this position: Wmax. It is also worth identifying
the <F> in Table 3.
Crispy (Croustillant) Description Parameters. The total
number of peaks is one of the main important crispy identi-
FIG. 2. SCHEMATIC TIME–PRESSURE PROFILES OF A DIC PROCESS
(A) Vacuum establishment; (B) steam injection; (C) high steam pressure
for thermal treatment time; (D) instant controlled pressure drop
toward vacuum; and (E) atmospheric pressure establishment.
249
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF

FIG. 3. (A) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF PUNCTURE TEST. (B) THEORETICAL FORCE-DEFORMATION CURVES OBTAINED BY PUNCTURE TEST:
CRUNCHY BEHAVIOR: MAXIMUM PENETRATION FORCE, Fmax (N); MAXIMUM PENETRATION DISTANCE, Xmax (MM) AND TOTAL WORK, Wmax, (J).
(C) THEORETICAL FORCE-DEFORMATION CURVES OBTAINED BY PUNCTURE TEST: CRISPY BEHAVIOR: THE PENETRATION DISTANCE FOR EACH
MICRORUPTURE PEAK, ΔX (MM); THE INDIVIDUAL FORCE DROPS FOR EACH MICRORUPTURE PEAK (ΔF, N) AND THE AVERAGE WORK FOR
MICRORUPTURES, wrupture (J). (D) REAL FORCE-DEFORMATION CURVE RECORDED BY PUNCTURE TEST: CRUNCHY AND CRISPY BEHAVIOR

fication parameters (Fig. 3C). Calculating the ratio of n
divided by the maximum penetration distance (Xmax) is to
have the spatial microrupture frequency. The workload of
each puncturing until the microrupture wrupture worth to be
identified as well as the mean of each micropuncturing
rupture force f = <ΔF> (Table 4).
Where ΔX is the penetration distance for each
microrupture peak (mm) and ΔF is the individual force
drop for each microrupture peak (N). All of these param-
eters (i.e., Xmax, Wmax, <F>, N, f, wrupture, ΔX and ΔF) were
TABLE 4. CRISPY DESCRIPTION PARAMETERS

Total number of peaks n –

n
Spatial frequency of structural N= Eq. (5)
TABLE 3. CRUNCHY DESCRIPTION PARAMETERS X max
microruptures (m)
Maximum penetration force (N) Fmax –
Maximum penetration distance (mm) Xmax –
Average of microrupture f = ΔF =
∑ ΔF Eq. (6)
X
n
Total work (J) W = ∫ Fdx Eq. (2) force (N)
ΔF .ΔX
0
Xmax
w rupture =
2
Total work at Xmax (J) Wmax = ∫ Fdx Eq. (3)
1 1 X f
0
Average work for microruptures = ΔF .ΔX = f . max = Eq. (7)
W 2 2 n 2N
Average puncturing force (N) F = max Eq. (4) (J)
X max

250 Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF
calculated until Fmax was reached (Fig. 3D). Measurements
were carried out with five repetitions, and the final values
were the arithmetic mean.
Expansion Ratios
For porous materials, two expansion ratios are normally
defined: the absolute expansion ratio (εabsolute) and the rela-
tive expansion ratio (εrelative). εabsolute is the ratio of the appar-
ent volume of the product and the volume of the solid itself,
while εrelative reflects the final volume after processing (FD
and SD) compared with the HAD. The εabsolute and the
εrelative are strictly linked to the product’s density (ρ,
g/cm3), and they were calculated to each sample as follows:
ρintrinsic
Absolute expansion ratio: ε absolute = Eq. (8)
ρspecific
ρspecific of HAD product
Relative expansion ratio: ε relative =
ρspecific of SD or FD product
Eq. (9)
where ρintrinsic is the intrinsic (or true) density of solid itself.
To measure the intrinsic density (ρintrinsic, g/cm3) of each
sample (HAD, FD and SD), a gas Pycnometer Micromeritics
AccuPyc 1330 (Quantachrome Instruments, Florida, USA)
with helium was used.
ρspecific is the apparent density of dried samples. In the
present work, it was not possible to adopt the Archimedes
method for measuring ρspecific because of the possible inter-
actions between product and water. Thus, to determine such
specific density (ρspecific, g/cm3), a tapped method was carried
out. Briefly, 71/200-μm diameter sand (ρsand = 909.2 g/cm3)
was poured into the cylinder (100 mL and 37.018 ± 0.001 g
of weight). The sand-filled cylinder was then tapped for
1,000 times on an Autotap Quantachrome DA-3 (Boynton
Beach, Florida, USA). During the tapping, the sand volume
was decreased, and a quantity of sand was added during the
operation in order to refill the cylinder. Then, the weight
was registered, and the mass of sand (ms,1, g) was calculated.
Subsequently, this method is repeated adding a known mass
dried sample (msample about 2 ± 0.001 g) into the cylinder
with the sand included. The weight was recorded, and the
new mass of sand (ms,2, g) was calculated. Thus, the specific
density of each sample (HAD, FD and SD) was calculated as
follows:
Specific density (g cm 3 ) : ρspecific =
(msample ) (ρsand )
Eq. (10)
ms ,1 − ms ,2
Scanning Electronic Microscopy
The microstructure of different dried strawberry samples,
HAD, FD and SD with only two treatment conditions (DIC
Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES
8 and 11) was observed; thanks to a scanning electronic
microscope (SEM) JEOL 5410LVFEI Quanta 200F (Philips,
Croissy-sur-Seine, France). Each sample was placed on a
covered support using carbon adhesive, and the scanning
was carried out under partial vacuum (7 Pa) with an accel-
erating voltage of 20 kV.
DoE and Statistical Studies
To study the effect of saturated steam pressure and thermal
holding time of DIC treatment on the crunchiness and
crispness features, and the expansion ratios of dried straw-
berries, a two-parameter, five-level central composite rotat-
able design was used (Table 2). The DoE yielded 4 = 22
factorial points, 4 = 2 × 2 axial points and three center
points for replications (Table 5). This central composite
design of 11 experiments was run in random in order
to minimize the effects of unexpected variability on the
studied responses due to external factors (Table 2).
The different crunchiness parameters retained as
responses (dependent variables) were the maximum pen-
etration force (Fmax, N), the maximum penetration distance
(Xmax, mm), the total work at Xmax (Wtotal, J) and the <F>
(<F>, N). Crispness was evaluated through the total
number of peaks (n), the spatial frequency of structural
microruptures (N, m), the average of microrupture force (f,
N) and the average work for microruptures (wrupture, J).
These parameters as well as the expansion ratios considered
at both aspects of absolute (εabsolute) and relative (εrelative) were
added to the initial dependent variables.
In terms of texture parameters, this response surface
methodology was used to optimize the treatment condi-
tions to meet the consumer requirements. The statistical
analyses were performed with Statgraphics (Centurion XV,
Statpoint Technologies, Inc., Warrenton, Virginia, USA),
thus inserting for each dependent variable Y, Pareto Charts
to show the relevance of each independent variables
(P < 0.05), response surface to identify their impact and a
mathematical empirical model:
TABLE 5. CODED AND REAL LEVELS FOR INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
USED IN TWO-VARIABLE, FIVE-LEVEL ROTATABLE EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
P: processin t: processing
Coded level g pressure (MPa) time (s)
−α 0.10 10
−1 0.19 13
0 0.35 20
1 0.53 27
+α 0.60 30
α = 4 2k ; α is the axial distance, and k is the number of experiments of
orthogonal design. In this case, k = 2 and α = 1.4142.
251
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF

n n n −1 n
Y = β0 + ∑ βi χi + ∑ βii χi2 + ∑ ∑ βij χi χ j + ε Eq. (11)
i =1 i =1 i =1 j = 2

where βi, βii, βij are the regression coefficients, Xi and Xj are
the independent variables, ε is random error, i and j are the
indices of the factors. R2 value was also evaluated to accurate
fitting models to real data.
Depending on various responses, a multicriteria optimi-
zation can be done.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The present study was performed to evaluate the effect of
various drying techniques (HAD, FD and SD) on the
strawberry’s texture. This is instrumentally evaluated
through different crunchy and crispy attributes generally
coupled to structural parameters. Therefore, the interpreta-
tion and discussion of the obtained results are presented as
follows.

Expansion Ratios
Strawberry’s expansion ratios are parameters that allowed
analyzing globally the effect of drying technique (HAD, FD
and SD) on the product’s structure. The results gathered in
Table 6 shown that FD strawberry had the highest value of
expansion ratios, εabsolute and εrelative, completely opposite to
HAD parameters. Therefore, SD samples had intermediate
expansion ratios between HAD and FD samples. More-
over, under certain conditions of DIC process (DIC 5:
P = 0.53 MPa and t = 13 s), SD relative expansion ratio was
thrice more than HAD samples (εrelative = 3.62 compared
with 1).
In this sense, expansion greatly depends on the DIC
saturated steam pressure, while the thermal treatment time
has negligible effect (Figure 4). The empirical model we
obtained through Statgraphic statistical evaluation was with
R2 = 83.62%:

ε relative = 0.622 + 8.6114 P − 0.0069t − 5.412 P 2

− 0.0337 Pt + 0.00035t 2.
The highest optimized expansion ratio εrelative = 3.60 was
obtained at (P = 0.6 MPa and t = 10 s), whereas the intrinsic
density remains invariable (results not shown).
FIG. 4. EFFECT OF DIC OPERATING PARAMETERS; SATURATED STEAM
PRESSURE (MPa) AND TIME PROCESSING (S) ON THE RELATIVE
EXPANSION RATIO
(A) Pareto chart, (B) general trends, and (C) response surface.

TABLE 6. EXPANSION RATIOS OF HAD, FD AND SD STRAWBERRIES

SD sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 HAD FD
εabsolute 4.09 3.77 3.54 3.64 4.52 3.21 2.44 1.91 1.19 2.90 3.05 1.15 18.26
εrelative 3.48 3.10 2.92 2.97 3.62 2.70 2.07 1.59 1.03 2.49 2.60 1.00 14.13

εabsolute is the absolute expansion ratio.

εrelative is the relative expansion ratio. FD, freeze drying; HAD, hot air drying; SD, swell drying.

252 Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES

This behavior of the process of DIC swelling was also

observed by Louka and Allaf (2004). They found that the
vegetables such as onions, carrots and potatoes had a snack-
ing texture with a swelling of 200–300% compared with
control samples. Additionally, the expansion and density
as response parameters are very important in terms of
assessment of the functional properties and the quality pre-
diction of dried food. They also are essential in the design of
food processes and processing equipment (Rodríguez-
Ramírez et al. 2012). However, expansion and, obviously,
density have to be complemented with instrumental param-
eters to develop foodstuffs according to consumer texture
needs.

Effect of Puncture Test on the Texture of

Dried Strawberries
The force-deformation curves recorded by puncture
test were analyzed in two main parts: crunchy and crispy
behaviors.
Crunchy Behavior. As previously mentioned, the
crunchy behavior in dried strawberry is defined as a linear
elastic behavior until the complete fracture of the struc-
ture. Hence, Table 7 gathers the values calculated for
parameters able to describe the crunchiness behavior of
HAD, FD and different SD samples. Figure 5 exemplifies
FIG. 5. FORCE-DEFORMATION CURVE FROM FRACTURE TESTS ON
STRAWBERRIES DRIED BY DIFFERENT METHODS; HAD, FD AND SD
the main behavior of the time-deformation curves
obtained from HAD, FD and SD (DIC 11: P = 0.35 MPa
and t = 20 s) samples.
In general, Fmax and Wtotal significantly distinguish FD
from HAD and the average of SD strawberry slices
(Table 7). HAD strawberry slices needed a maximum force
and a total work of penetration smaller than the average of
swell-dried samples. In terms of <F>, which means the

TABLE 7. TEXTURE ANALYSIS IN HAD, FD AND SD STRAWBERRIES

Sample Crunchy behavior Crispy behavior

DIC a
Fmax b
Xmax c
Wtotal d
<F> e
n f
N g
f h
wrupture × e−4
1 5.73 2.16 3.59 1.65 160.75 86.27 0.1734 10.06
2 7.65 1.79 5.47 2.57 113.60 73.91 0.1911 13.27
3 6.43 1.59 2.33 1.67 129.83 89.35 0.1043 6.69
4 6.60 2.31 5.49 2.46 164.40 80.93 0.1946 13.56
5 4.88 1.16 2.00 1.65 82.60 79.48 0.1489 9.55
6 5.49 1.76 3.93 2.09 129.00 81.22 0.1708 11.07
7 3.77 1.03 1.39 1.36 71.60 76.97 0.0767 5.10
8 3.81 1.57 1.54 0.97 128.00 93.46 0.0484 3.14
9 8.74 1.13 2.51 2.24 77.25 79.16 0.0907 6.58
10 7.28 1.69 3.08 1.93 99.40 78.22 0.1910 13.95
11 8.16 1.41 2.33 1.60 100.50 84.69 0.1239 7.90
Average DIC 6.00 ± 1.55 1.60 ± 0.41 3.06 ± 1.43 1.84 ± 0.48 114.27 ± 31.51 82.15 ± 5.76 0.1376 ± 0.05 9.17 ± 3.62
HAD 5.09 0.67 1.10 1.50 22.40 56.70 0.2085 22.12
FD 0.59 2.6 0.35 0.23 123 110.59 0.0168 0.82
a
Maximum penetration force (N).
b
Maximum penetration distance (mm).
c
Total work at Xmax (J).
d
Average puncturing force (N).
e
Total number of peaks.
f
Spatial frequency of structural microruptures (m).
g
Average of microrupture force (N).
h
Average work for microruptures (J).
FD, freeze drying; HAD, hot air drying; SD, swell drying.

Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 253
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF

mechanical resistance during puncturing, DIC operation

leads to a slight increase in the mechanical resistance com-
pared with HAD; it was found to be eight times higher than
FD (Table 7).
On the other hand, the impact of DIC operating param-
eters (saturated steam pressure and thermal holding time)
on the different responses to measure the crunchiness of
strawberry is shown in Table 7. The saturated steam pres-
sure had a significant and positive effect (P < 0.05) on Xmax
compared with the thermal holding time (Fig. 6A). Hence,
the higher the saturated steam pressure, the higher Xmax. The
optimized conditions were calculated for an optimum value
of 2.66 mm, with a saturated steam pressure of 0.6 MPa and
30 s of thermal treatment time (Fig. 6B).
The regression model for the maximum penetration dis-
tance was obtained with R2 = 71.69%:

X max = 1.433 − 0.438 P − 0.038 t − 0.521 P 2

Eq. (12)
+ 0.121 Pt + 0.0007t 2.

Such a regression model can be used as one-criterion

optimizing method for controlling DIC operating param-
eters versus desired value of Xmax.
Furthermore, the mean correlations were analyzed
between the four parameters (Fmax, Xmax, Wtotal and <F>) of
crunchiness presented in strawberry dried by HAD, FD and
SD processes.
The highest correlation was found between <F> and Fmax
FIG. 6. EFFECT OF DIC OPERATING PARAMETERS, SATURATED STEAM
with R2 = 0.8083 (Fig. 7). Another important correlation PRESSURE (MPa) AND TIME PROCESSING (S) ON THE MAXIMUM
with R2 = 0.7270 was observed between <F> and Wtotal. The PENETRATION DISTANCE (Xmax, MM), A PARAMETER OF CRUNCHY
last one was between Xmax and Wtotal, with R2 = 0.6257. BEHAVIOR IN THE STRAWBERRY’S TEXTURE
(A) Pareto chart and (B) response surface.

Crispy Behavior. In the case of crispy behavior of dried

strawberry, the crispness (croustillance) feature was used
to describe each successive brittle behavior of different
plans. A small continuous linear elastic behavior until the
microrupture of concerned plan has to be indicated. Hence,
the main parameters analyzed to describe the crispness
behavior in the dried strawberry (HAD, FD and SD) are
presented in Table 7. Therefore, the small fractures recorded
during puncture test were gathered in the total number
of peaks (n) or in the spatial frequency of structural
microruptures (N); however, the last one depends on Xmax.
The intensity of each microrupture is related to the average
of microrupture force (f) and the average work for
microruptures (wrupture).
Thus, SD and FD samples presented specific values of n,
which was found to be five times more than HAD. Other
crunchy parameters, N, f, and wrupture, presented similar
behavior for SD as an intermediate position between HAD
and FD values.
Nevertheless, because of the connection between DIC FIG. 7. MEAN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CRUNCHY PARAMETERS,
operating parameters and texture attributes, it was observed <F> AND Fmax

254 Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES

FIG. 9. MEAN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CRISPY PARAMETERS, wrupture

AND f

Correlations between Crunchiness, Crispness

FIG. 8. EFFECT OF DIC OPERATING PARAMETERS, SATURATED STEAM
PRESSURE (MPa) AND TIME PROCESSING (S) ON THE AVERAGE OF
MICRORUPTURE FORCE (f, N), A PARAMETER OF CRUNCHY
BEHAVIOR IN THE STRAWBERRY’S TEXTURE
(A) Pareto chart and (B) response surface.
and Expansion Ratios
Only two valuable correlations were observed between
crunchiness (Xmax, Fmax, Wmax, <F>), crispness (n, N,
f, wrupture), and expansion ratios (εabsolute, εrelative). The highest
correlations was observed between Xmax and n, with
R2 = 0.8143 (Fig. 10). The second correlation with
R2 = 0.5311 was obtained between <F> and f. In contrast,
there was just one correlation between εrelative and N with
R2 = 0.5445. These results indicate that crunchiness and
crispness are strongly correlated.
The overall of these results could be explained by the
arrangement of cells in fruits and vegetables, which is
strongly marked by the processing conditions. They obvi-

an effect of saturated steam pressure (MPa) and thermal

holding time (s) on the average of microrupture force (f)
(Fig. 8). The higher saturated pressure time, the higher the
microrupture force f (Fig. 8A).
The obtained regression model for the average of
microrupture force is calculated with R2 = 72.26% to be
f = 0.247 + 0.207 P − 0.0194t
Eq. (13)
− 0.3791P 2 + 0.01469 Pt + 0.000365t 2.

Hence, the highest value of f was 0.2447 N with 0.6 MPa

of saturated steam pressure and 30 s of thermal holding
time (Fig. 8B).
With respect to correlations between the crispness
parameters (i.e., n, N, f and wrupture) for the three drying pro-
cesses applied to strawberry, the highest value was obtained
between wrupture and f, with R2 = 0.8442 (Fig. 9). They were
R2 = 0.7172 and R2 = 0.5439 for N versus wrupture and N FIG. 10. MEAN CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CRUNCHY AND CRISPY
versus f, respectively. PARAMETERS, Xmax AND N

Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 255
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF

ously are correlated to the shrinkage phenomena in HAD,

the broken cell walls in FD and the swelling phenomena in
SD strawberries (Hammami and René 1997; Wang et al.
2011; Guiné and Barroca 2012). Each operating parameter
directly influences the textural behavior and, thus, the func-
tionality and the end use of foodstuffs. Therefore, the cell
walls networking are contracted in HAD strawberry, pro-
ducing a hard and brittle structure in the end product. In
contrast, FD strawberries have a disrupted membrane
system that behaves more like a sponge characterized by
network tortuosity (Voda et al. 2012); it provokes a soft
texture and possible many microruptures by puncturing.
However, these microruptures should have small force and
weak work. In case of SD products, the cell arrangement is
better defined due to DIC microalveolation process. The
swelled products are normally crispy, “croustillant,” with
a significant number of microruptures, with weak indi-
vidual rupture force (f ) and work (wrupture); however, all of
them are higher than FD.
As crispness is an important and desirable sensory attri-
bute for snack products, there is a great deal of interest FIG. 11. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROGRAPHS OF CROSS-SECTION
in correlating crispness to instrumental recorded data OF STRAWBERRY TREATED BY DIFFERENT DRYING METHODS
(Tsukakoshi et al. 2007; Arimi et al. 2010). Hence, the (A) Hot air drying, (B) freeze drying and (C) swell drying (DIC 8) at
puncture test method used in this study to define the P = 0.17 MPa and t = 27 s, and (D) swell drying (DIC 11) at
P = 0.35 MPa and t = 20 s of treatment conditions.
force-deformation curves helps strongly to elucidate
crunchiness and crispness features. Such are very impor-
tant attributes in optimizing the SD operating parameters.
It means that is possible to concoct a crispy snack pro-
duced by SD performance accordingly with the consumer both drying and rehydration operations of strawberries as
needs. reported in a previous work (Alonzo-Macías et al. 2012).
This effect is observed not only for strawberries but also for
several types of fruits and vegetables treated by DIC (Ben
Impact of Processes in the Microstructure Amor and Allaf 2009; Albitar et al. 2011; Téllez-Pérez et al.
Figure 11 shows the impact of drying processes on straw- 2012).
berry’s microstructure. The cross-section micrographs of
dried strawberries show structural differences between
CONCLUSIONS
HAD, FD and SD samples. The shrinkage of HAD product
is evident in the image; however, the cell structure is rela- Based on our experimental study, it was possible to
tively organized (Fig. 11A). FD micrograph shows that produce a well-controlled crispy dried strawberry.
strawberry cell walls were broken (Fig. 11B). This should be Moreover, DIC operating parameters could be optimized.
correlated to the possible formation of ice crystals during Thus, this snack product can be confectioned according to
the freezing step, which results in the destruction of the the consumer needs. In the case of strawberries, it was
tissue. Only SD images illustrate an expanded strawberry’s possible to completely face the shrinkage phenomena in
microstructure (Fig. 11C,D). Dark regions identifying the the HAD. Consequently, the swell-dried strawberries
pore cavities indicate that the structure of cell walls was well showed an interesting macro and microstructure. They
preserved with only some swelling. However, in SD samples, had high expansion ratios and significant crispness pro-
the structure modification highly depends on DIC operat- voked by the microalveolation phenomenon induced as a
ing parameters (saturated steam pressure and thermal consequence of the decompression process in the DIC
holding time). These observations corroborate the puncture treatment.
test results. On the other hand, the most important correlations were
In the case of SD samples, this structure modification between Fmax and <F> and between f and wrupture for crunchi-
produced by DIC treatment can intensify the mass transfer ness and crispness features, respectively. There was just one
phenomena, improving the effective water diffusivity during obvious correlation between εrelative and N.

256 Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES

Hence, the present study opens the possibility to use the REFERENCES
puncture test as an instrumental source to measure the AL CHAKRA, W., ALLAF, K. and JEMAI, A.B. 1996.
crispness and, hence, optimize the SD of fruits and veg- Characterization of brittle food products: Application of the
etables versus texture requirements. acoustical emission method. J. Texture Studies 27, 327–348.
Additionally, DIC technology can compete with FD http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.1996.tb00078.x
process and is a better alternative instead of using the HAD (accessed 7 June 2014).
process to preserve strawberries. ALBITAR, N., MOUNIR, S., BESOMBES, C. and ALLAF, K.
2011. Improving the drying of onion using the instant
controlled pressure drop technology. Drying Technol. 29,
NOMENCLATURE 993–1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2010.507912
(accessed 07 June 2014).
db dry basis ALLAF, K. and VIDAL, P. 1988. Feasibility study of a new
DoE design of experiments process of drying/swelling by instantaneous decompression
f average microruptures force (N) toward vacuum of in pieces vegetables in view of a rapid
FD freeze drying re-hydration. Gradient activity plotting university of
Fmax maximum penetration force (N) technology of compiegne utc. In.
HAD hot air drying ALONZO-MACÍAS, M., MOUNIR, S., CARDADOR-
md material weight after drying (g) MARTÍNEZ, A., MONTEJANO-GAITÁN, J.G. and
mi initial material weight before (g) ALLAF, K. 2012. Comparative study of various drying
msample mass of sample (g) processes at physical and chemical properties of strawberries
msand mass of sand (g) (fragaria var. Camarosa). Procedia Eng. 42, 267–282.
ms,1 initial mass of sand (g) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.07.418
ms,2 final mass of sand (g) (accessed 07 June 2014).
n total number of peaks ALTAMIRANO-FORTOUL, R., HERNANDO, I. and ROSELL,
N spatial frequency of structural microruptures C.M. 2012. Texture of bread crust: Puncturing settings effect
(m) and its relationship to microstructure. J. Texture Studies 44,
SD swell drying 85–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.2012.00368.x
(accessed 07 June 2014).
Wmax total work at Xmax
ARIMI, J.M., DUGGAN, E., O’SULLIVAN, M., LYNG, J.G. and
wrupture average work for microruptures
O’RIORDAN, E.D. 2010. Development of an acoustic
Xmax maximum penetration distance (mm)
measurement system for analyzing crispiness during
mechanical and sensory testing. J. Texture Studies 41,
Symbol
320–340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.2010.00224.x
<F> average puncturing force (N)
(accessed 07 June 2014).
BEN AMOR, B. and ALLAF, K. 2009. Impact of texturing using
Greek letters
instant pressure drop treatment prior to solvent extraction of
ΔX penetration distance for each microrupture peak
anthocyanins from malaysian roselle (hibiscus sabdariffa).
(mm)
Food Chem. 115, 820–825. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
ΔF individual force drops for each microrupture
j.foodchem.2008.12.094 (accessed 07 June 2014).
peak (N)
BERKA-ZOUGALI, B., HASSANI, A., BESOMBES, C. and
εabsolute absolute expansion ratio ALLAF, K. 2010. Extraction of essential oils from algerian
εrelative relative expansion ratio myrtle leaves using instant controlled pressure drop
ρintrinsic intrinsic density (g/cm3) technology. J. Chromatogr. A 1217, 6134–6142.
ρspecific specific density (g/cm3) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2010.07.080
ρsand density of sand (g/cm3) (accessed 07 June 2014).
BOURNE, M.C. 2002a. Chapter 1 – texture, viscosity, and food.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In Food Texture and Viscosity, 2nd Ed. (M.C. Bourne, ed.)
pp. 1–32, Academic Press, London. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
The authors would like to thank the Common Center of B978-012119062-0/50000-0
Analyses CCA of the University of La Rochelle, France for BOURNE, M.C. 2002b. Chapter 4 – principles of objective
providing the analysis by SEM. Thanks also to CONACyT texture measurement. In Food Texture and Viscosity, 2nd Ed.
for the facilities provided to carry out this research and (M.C. Bourne, ed.) pp. 107–188, Academic Press, London.
ABCAR-DIC Process for technical contribution. The http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-012119062-0/5000-0
authors are grateful to Eng. Victor Lefrançois for his valu- DACREMONT, C. 1992. Contribution à la caractérisation de
able collaboration. trois descripteurs de texture: Croustillant craquant et

Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 257
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES
croquant par des approches acoustiques et sensorielles. In
ENSABANA. PhD Thesis, Université de Bourgogne, Dijon,
France. http://aof.revues.org/1227
DRAKE, B. 1989. Sensory textural/rheological
properties – a polyglot list. J. Texture Studies 20, 1–27.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.1989.tb00417.x
(accessed 07 June 2014).
GIAMPIERI, F., TULIPANI, S., ALVAREZ-SUAREZ, J.M.,
QUILES, J.L., MEZZETTI, B. and BATTINO, M. 2012. The
strawberry: Composition, nutritional quality, and impact on
human health. Nutrition 28, 9–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.nut.2011.08.009 (accessed 07 June 2014).
GUINÉ, R.P.F. and BARROCA, M.J. 2012. Effect of drying
treatments on texture and color of vegetables (pumpkin
and green pepper). Food Bioprod. Process. 90, 58–63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2011.01.003 (accessed 07 June
2014).
HADDAD, J. and ALLAF, K. 2007. A study of the impact of
instantaneous controlled pressure drop on the trypsin
inhibitors of soybean. J. Food Eng. 79, 353–357.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.01.066
(accessed 07 June 2014).
HAMMAMI, C. and RENÉ, F. 1997. Determination of
freeze-drying process variables for strawberries. J. Food Eng.
32, 133–154.
KAMAL, I.M., SOBOLIK, V., KRISTIAWAN, M., MOUNIR, S.M.
and ALLAF, K. 2008. Structure expansion of green coffee
beans using instantaneous controlled pressure drop
process. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 9, 534–541.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2008.01.004
(accessed 07 June 2014).
KARATHANOS, V.T. 1999. Determination of water content of
dried fruits by drying kinetics. J. Food Eng. 39, 337–344.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0260-8774(98)00132-0
(accessed 07 June 2014).
LOUKA, N. and ALLAF, K. 2004. Expansion ratio and color
improvement of dried vegetables texturized by a new process
“controlled sudden decompression to the vacuum”:
Application to potatoes, carrots and onions. J. Food Eng. 65,
233–243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2004.01.020
(accessed 07 June 2014).
LUYTEN, H., PLIJTER, J.J. and VAN VLIET, T.O.N. 2004.
Crispy/crunchy crusts of cellular solid foods: A literature
review with discussion. J. Texture Studies 35, 445–492.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.2004.35501.x
(accessed 07 June 2014).
MAACHE-REZZOUG, Z., BOUVIER, J.-M., ALLAF, K. and
PATRAS, C. 1998. Effect of principal ingredients on
rheological behaviour of biscuit dough and on quality of
biscuits. J. Food Eng. 35, 23–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
S0260-8774(98)00017-X (accessed 07 June 2014).
MOUNIR, S., BESOMBES, C., AL-BITAR, N. and ALLAF, K.
2011. Study of instant controlled pressure drop DIC
treatment in manufacturing snack and expanded granule
powder of apple and onion. Drying Technol. 29, 331–341.
258
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2010.491585 (accessed 07
June 2014).
MOUNIR, S., ALLAF, T., MUJUMDAR, A.S. and ALLAF, K.
2012. Swell drying: Coupling instant controlled pressure drop
DIC to standard convection drying processes to intensify
transfer phenomena and improve quality – an overview.
Drying Technol. 30, 1508–1531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
07373937.2012.693145 (accessed 07 June 2014).
NISHINARI, K., HAYAKAWA, F., XIA, C.-F., HUANG, L.,
MEULLENET, J.-F. and SIEFFERMANN, J.-M. 2008.
Comparative study of texture terms: English, french, japanese
and chinese. J. Texture Studies 39, 530–568. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1111/j.1745-4603.2008.00157.x (accessed 07 June 2014).
OSZMIAŃSKI, J., WOJDYŁO, A. and KOLNIAK, J. 2009. Effect
of l-ascorbic acid, sugar, pectin and freeze–thaw treatment on
polyphenol content of frozen strawberries. LWT-Food Sci.
Technol. 42, 581–586. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2008
.07.009 (accessed 07 June 2014).
RATTI, C. 2001. Hot air and freeze-drying of high-value foods:
A review. J. Food Eng. 49, 311–319. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/S0260-8774(00)00228-4 (accessed 07 June 2014).
RODRÍGUEZ-RAMÍREZ, J., MÉNDEZ-LAGUNAS, L.,
LÓPEZ-ORTIZ, A. and TORRES, S.S. 2012. True density and
apparent density during the drying process for vegetables
and fruits: A review. J. Food Sci. 77, R146–R154.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02990.x
(accessed 07 June 2014).
ROUDAUT, G., DACREMONT, C., VALLÈS PÀMIES, B.,
COLAS, B. and LE MESTE, M. 2002. Crispness: A critical
review on sensory and material science approaches. Trends
Food Sci. Technol. 13, 217–227. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/S0924-2244(02)00139-5 (accessed 07 June 2014).
SAELEAW, M. and SCHLEINING, G. 2011. A review: Crispness
in dry foods and quality measurements based on acoustic–
mechanical destructive techniques. J. Food Eng. 105, 387–399.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.03.012 (accessed 07
June 2014).
SOZER, N., DOGAN, H. and KOKINI, J.L. 2011. Textural
properties and their correlation to cell structure in porous
food materials. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59, 1498–1507.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf103766x (accessed 07 June 2014).
TÉLLEZ-PÉREZ, C., MOUNIR, S., MONTEJANO-GAITÁN,
J.G., SOBOLIK, V., MARTÍNEZ-CARDADOR, A. and ALLAF,
K. 2012. Impact of instant controlled pressure drop treatment
on dehydration and rehydration kinetics of green moroccan
pepper (capsicum annuum). Procedia Eng. 42, 978–1003.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.07.491 (accessed 07
June 2014).
TSUKAKOSHI, Y., NAITO, S. and ISHIDA, N. 2007.
Probabilistic characteristics of stress changes during cereal
snack puncture. J. Texture Studies 38, 220–235.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.2007.00095.x
(accessed 07 June 2014).
VAN HECKE, E., ALLAF, K. and BOUVIER, J.M. 1998. Texture
and structure of crispy-puffed food products part ii:
Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
M. ALONZO-MACÍAS, G. MONTEJANO-GAITÁN AND K. ALLAF
Mechanical properties in puncture. J. Texture Studies 29,
617–632. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603
.1998.tb00189.x (accessed 07 June 2014).
VAN VLIET, T.O.N. and PRIMO-MARTÍN, C. 2011. Interplay
between product characteristics, oral physiology and texture
perception of cellular brittle foods. J. Texture Studies 42,
82–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.2010.00273.x
(accessed 07 June 2014).
VODA, A., HOMAN, N., WITEK, M., DUIJSTER, A., VAN
DALEN, G., VAN DER SMAN, R., NIJSSE, J., VAN VLIET, L.,
Journal of Texture Studies 45 (2014) 246–259 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TEXTURE MEASUREMENT OF DRIED STRAWBERRY SLICES
VAN AS, H. and VAN DUYNHOVEN, J. 2012. The impact of
freeze-drying on microstructure and rehydration properties
of carrot. Food Res. Int. 49, 687–693. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodres.2012.08.019 (accessed 07 June 2014).
WANG, Y., XU, P., FENG, L., YANG, X. and QIAN, L. 2011.
Impact of instantaneous controlled pressure drop on
microstructural modification of green tea and its infusion
quality. J. Food Sci. Technol. 51, 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s13197-011-0466-1 (accessed 07 June
2014).
259