Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151

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Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ifset

Towards understanding the enhancement of moisture diffusion during T

intermediate-infrared drying of peach pomace based on the glass transition
theory
Mo Zhou, Cong Li, Jinfeng Bi , Xin Jin, Jian Lyu, Xuan Li
⁎

Institute of Food Science and Technology, CAAS, Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100193, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The aim of this study is to understand the moisture diffusion during intermediate-wave infrared radiation (IWIR)
Glass transition based on glass transition theory. Peach pomace was subjected by IWIR and hot air (HA) drying at 60, 70 and
Intermediate-wave infrared radiation 80 °C. Compared to HA drying, IWIR showed high dehydration performance characterized by shorter drying
Moisture diffusion time, higher drying speed and higher effective moisture diffusivity (Deff). The variations of sample temperature
Peach pomace
and Deff were presented in different patterns between HA and IWIR. The state diagram of peach pomace showed
State diagram
higher ΔT (T – Tg) of IWIR compared to HA in all conditions. A significant increase of ΔT value was observed
during the mid-stage of IWIR process. These results demonstrated that IWIR is an effective method for pomace
drying, which can keep high drying rate and a uniform dehydration process during the whole process by
overcoming the diffusion-inhibitory effect.
Industrial relevance
This paper investigated the drying behavior and water diffusion between intermediate-infrared drying and
hot air drying on peach pomace. The results revealed that compared to hot air drying, which is commonly used
in industrial drying of pomace, intermediate-infrared drying is a more effective drying method for pomace
characterized by shorter drying time, higher drying speed and higher effective moisture diffusivity. It can keep
relative high drying rate during the whole dehydration process via overcoming the diffusion-inhibitory effect
caused by case-hardening phenomenon. The results of this study suggested that intermediate-infrared radiation
would be an effective method in industrial drying of fruit pomace alternative to hot air drying.

1. Introduction
Fruit pomace is the major part of the wastes from fresh fruit pro-
cessing of wine, juice and soft beverage production, and accounts for
25% of the volume of the raw material processed (Nawirska &
Kwaśniewska, 2005). Fruit pomace is a good source of functional food
ingredients due to its high contents of bioactive compounds and dietary
fibre fractions (O'Shea, Arendt, & Gallagher, 2012). However, fruit
pomace is usually prone to microbial spoilage which limits the trans-
portation and further exploitation. To overcome this problem, a thermal
drying process is commonly used prior to further processing for redu-
cing moisture content of fruit pomace.
Drying is a complicated process involving heat and mass transfer
simultaneously. Glass transition is an important phenomenon that oc-
curs during drying process which affects significantly on water diffusion
and drying characteristics (Kasapis, 2005). The glass transition is a kind
of phase transition from a soft, rubbery state to a hard, glassy state
which relates closely to drying temperature and moisture content of the
material (Katekawa & Silva, 2007). The glass transition temperature
(Tg) is the temperature of the material when the phase transition occurs.
If the temperature of the material is higher than Tg, it is in the rubbery
state, otherwise it is in the glassy state. According to the glass transition
theory and the typically state diagram of potato starch described by
(Benczédi, Tomka, & Escher, 1998), the Tg value of a given material is
increased with a decrease of the moisture content following a non-
linear function (Champion, Le Meste, & Simatos, 2000). Therefore the
water loss in the drying process always results in the phase transition of
the material from rubbery state to glassy state. As the drying of fruit
material is a non-isothermal process of heat and mass transfer, which
leads the surface losing moisture faster than core and transform to
glassy state firstly. It results in the formation of a dry and hard shell on
the materiel outside that seals the core of the material, forming a

⁎
Corresponding author at: Institute of Food Science and Technology, CAAS, Yuanmingyuan West Road No. 2, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China.
E-mail address: bjfcaas@126.com (J. Bi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2019.04.003
Received 29 October 2018; Received in revised form 27 February 2019; Accepted 7 April 2019
Available online 09 April 2019
1466-8564/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Zhou, et al.
barrier for heat and moisture transport (Gulati & Datta, 2015).
Up to now, convective hot air (HA) drying is still the prevailing
method for pomace drying including drying of apple pomace (Wang
et al., 2007), carrot pomace (Kumar, Sarkar, & Sharma, 2012), olive
pomace (Ahmad-Qasem, Barrajon-Catalan, Micol, Cárcel, & Garcia-
Perez, 2013) and apricot pomace (Kayran & Doymaz, 2017). However,
it has been found that the case-hardening phenomenon was more ser-
ious for convective drying with the parameters of higher drying tem-
peratures, higher air velocities in the drying chamber and lower relative
humidity of the surrounding air (Mayor & Sereno, 2004). Therefore the
above parameters have dual effects on drying. They are necessary for
obtaining high drying rate, but also contribute the case formation
which makes the moisture in the core of the material is difficult to dry
out in the late stage of the whole drying process. This double effect pose
a challenge for pomace drying that is how to overcome the diffusion-
inhibitory effect which is caused by case-hardening phenomenon.
Infrared radiation (IR) has been widely investigated as a novel
drying method of foodstuff. As infrared energy is directly absorbed by
the material rather than requiring the transfer of heat from air, there-
fore compared to convective hot air drying, IR drying has the ad-
vantages of lowing drying time, high quality of dried product, uniform
temperature distribution, high energy efficiency and saving of energy
(Riadh, Ahmad, Marhaban, & Soh, 2015). Based on the wavelength, the
IR can be divided into short-wave IR (SWIR, 0.75–2 μm), intermediate-
wave IR (IWIR, 2–4 μm) and long-wave IR (LWIR, 4–100 μm) (Wang,
Zhang, Fang, & Xu, 2014). Particularly, as the wavelength of IWIR
covers the absorption wavelength of hydroxyl group in water molecule
(2.7–3.3 μm), IWIR is therefore believed strong in penetrability and
more effective in foodstuffs drying. Previous studies have described the
drying characteristics and water diffusion of IWIR on some fruits, in-
cluding Chinese jujube (Chen et al., 2015), apple slices (Toǧrul, 2005)
and seedless grape (Çaǧlar, Toǧrul, & Toǧrul, 2009), however few
studies have investigated the IWIR process on pomace, even less is
known regarding the characteristics of water diffusion and glass tran-
sition appeared during IWIR process.
Based on the good permeability and drying uniformity of IWIR, we
hypothesized that IWIR is a more effective method for pomace drying,
which can overcome the diffusion-inhibitory effect caused by case-
hardening phenomenon while keeping a relatively high drying rate
during the whole drying process. Therefore, to gain an in-depth un-
derstanding of the high dehydration efficiency of IWIR in pomace
drying, we selected peach pomace as the material in this study, in-
vestigated the drying characteristics and water diffusion in IWIR and
HA drying processes and explained the differences between the two
drying methods from the perspective of glass transition theory.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The samples of fresh peach pomace were obtained from Beijing
Huiyuan Beverage and Food Co. Ltd. (Beijing, China). Fresh peach
pomace showed an initial moisture content of 84.23 ± 0.50% (wet
basis), that value was determined after a drying process in an oven at
105 °C for 12 h until obtaining a constant weight.
2.2. Drying experiments
The IWIR drying experiments were performed in a laboratory-scale
infrared dryer (Senttech Infrared Technology Co., Ltd., Jiangsu, China),
and its schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 1. This infrared dryer was
equipped with six infrared quartz glass lamps (tube type) which gen-
erated infrared radiation at the wavelength of 3 μm. A stainless-steel
tray with dimensions of 31 cm × 37 cm was fixed below the infrared
tubes in the distance of 14 cm. The temperature inside the drying
chamber was measured by a Type-K thermocouple. HA drying
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Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151
experiments were carried out in an electric thermal blast dryer (DHG-
9140, Yiheng, Shanghai, China). The samples of fresh peach pomace
(100 g) were evenly spread on the tray in the chambers of IWIR dryer
and HA dryer with the thickness of 1 cm. The experiments of IWIR
drying and HA drying were both conducted in triplicate at 60 °C, 70 °C
and 80 °C with air flow at 2.5 m/ s, respectively. The temperatures of
samples were measured by J-type thermocouples (OM-DAQ-USB-2401,
Omega Engineering Inc., Stamford, CT, USA) and recorded every 10 s.
The weight of the sample was recorded at selected drying times by a
digital balance after switching off air flow, which took about 30 to 60 s
for each determination. The samples were dried until its moisture
content was reduced to 7% (wet basis) or less. The moisture content
was determined by the oven method. The samples were put into the
oven and dried for 7–8 h at 105 °C until a constant weight was obtained.
2.3. Drying kinetics
Five different thin-layer mathematical models were tested in the
present study for describe the drying curves of peach pomace during HA
drying and IWIR drying (Table 1). In these commonly used models, MR
represents the dimensionless moisture ratio which was calculated from
Eq. (1), and L is the half thickness (0.005 m) of pomace slab.
Mt Me
MR =
M0 Me (1)
where Mt is the moisture content at drying time t, g water/g dry matter;
M0 is the moisture content at initial time, g water/g dry matter; Me is
the equilibrium moisture content, g water/g dry matter. Because Me is
relatively small as compared with Mt and M0 for long drying time, the
Eq. (1) can be simplified to Eq. (2) as
Mt
MR =
M0 (2)
The fitness of a model to experimental data was evaluated with the
correlation coefficient (R2), the reduced chi-square (χ2) and the root
mean square error (RMSE) which were all analyzed by OriginPro 9
(OriginLab Corp., Northampton, MA, USA). The higher R2 value and the
lower χ2 and RMSE values, the better is the goodness of fit.
2.4. Effective moisture diffusivity
Moisture diffusivity is used to characterize moisture transfer which
appears mainly by molecular diffusion in the falling rate period of
drying. Pomace can be regarded as a slab with the thickness of 10 mm.
The effective moisture diffusivity (Deff, m2/s) for infinite slab was cal-
culated by Eq.(3) proposed by Crank (1979) which is based on the
following assumptions:
1. Moisture is initially uniformly distributed throughout the mass of a
sample.
2. Mass transfer is symmetric with respect to the centre.
3. Surface moisture content of the sample instantaneously reaches
equilibrium with the condition of surrounding air.
4. Resistance to the mass transfer at the surface is negligible compared
to internal resistance of the sample.
5. Mass transfer is by diffusion only.
6. Diffusion coefficient is constant and shrinkage is negligible.
Mt Me 8 Deff t
MR = = 2 exp 2
M0 Me L2 (3)
where L is the half thickness of the pomace slab, 0.005 m; t is the drying
time, s.
Eq. (3) can be evaluated numerically for Fourier number, F0 = Deff
·t/L2, for diffusion and thus can be rewritten as:
M. Zhou, et al. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the infrared radiation dryer. 1, Drying chamber; 2, control panel; 3, temperature probe; 4, blower; 5, air scoop; 6, infrared generator; 7,
mesh tray; 8, air inlet; 9, air outlet.

Table 1
Five thin layer models tested for modeling.
No. Model name Model References

1 Lewis MR = exp(−kt) Bruce (1985)

2 Page MR = exp(−ktn) Page (1949)
3 Henderson and Pabis MR = a exp(−kt) Henderson and Pabis (1961)
4 Verma et al. MR = a exp(−kt) + (1 − a) exp.(−gt) Verma, Bucklin, Endan, and Wratten (1985)
5 Midilli et al. MR = a exp(−ktn) + bt Midilli, Kucuk, and Yapar (2002)

MR =
8
exp( 2F )
0
2
2
1
F0 = ln MR + ln
2 8
F0 = 0.101 ln MR 0.0213
where F0 = Deff ·t/L2, and the Deff could be computed from Eq. (5) as
(F0 )
Deff =
(t / L2)
The effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) was estimated by sub-
stituting the positive values of F0 and the drying time t along with the
half thickness of the pomace slab in Eq. (5) for each corresponding
moisture content under different drying conditions.
2.5. Modeling of water sorption isotherm
For estimating the water sorption isotherm of peach pomace, the
data were obtained from gravimetric water content measurements of
steady state water contents at a series of water activities in peach po-
mace. Fresh peach pomace was kept at −80 °C overnight and then
subjected to freeze drying for 48 h with vacuum kept at 12 Pa to obtain
the lyophilized pomace powder. Samples of 1 g lyophilized powder
were placed in glass dish and stored in vacuum desiccators at room
temperature (25 °C) for three weeks in the presence of various saturated
salt solutions. The saturated salt solutions used in this experiment were
LiCl, CH3COOK, MgCl2·6H2O, K2CO3, MgNO3·6H2O, NaNO2, NaCl and
KCl, with equilibrium water activities of 0.11, 0.23, 0.33, 0.43, 0.53,
0.66, 0.75 and 0.85, respectively. All the salt solutions were added
thymol to avoid microbial growth. The samples were weighed at 24-h
intervals until there was no weight variation of ± 0.0005 g. Water
sorption isotherms of lyophilized peach pomace powder were modeled
by using GAB (Guggenheime-Andersonede-Boer) model (Eq. (6)) which
can be fitted for a range of water activity up to 0.9, in order to corre-
lation water activity to the corresponding equilibrium water content.
Mg CKa w
Mw =
[(1 Ka w )(1 Ka w + CKa w ] (6)
(4)
where Mw is water content (g water/g dry solid), aw is water activity, Mg
is monolayer water content, C and K are constants.
(5)
2.6. Determination and modeling of glass transition
The samples of lyophilized peach pomace with a series of water
activities were subjected to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC
Q200, TA instrument, New Castle, DE, USA) to determine the glass
transition temperature by the thermal transition curves of heat flow.
5 mg of samples that had been equilibrated at desiccators by various
saturated salt solutions for three weeks were prepared and sealed in
standard aluminum hermetic pans. The temperature and melting en-
thalpy (ΔHm) of the instrument were calibrated with distilled water
(melting point = 0.0 °C, ΔHm = 333.88 J/g) and indium (melting
point = 156.6 °C, ΔHm = 28.45 J/g). High purity nitrogen was used as
the carrier gas during the whole scanning process with the flow rate of
50 mL/min. An empty sealed aluminum pan was used as a reference.
For the samples with low moisture, samples were cooled to −90 °C
from room temperature (25 °C) at 10 °C/min and kept at −90 °C for
10 min to attain equilibrium. After equilibration, samples were scanned
from −90 to 90 °C at 10 °C/min. For the samples with high moisture,
their glass transition and ice formation are more complicated processes
due to the exothermic overshoot may be existed during DSC scan.
Annealing is necessary to avoid this phenomenon for obtaining the
actual Tg and eliminate the exothermic peak if present (Rahman, 2004).
Samples were initially cooled to −90 °C from room temperature at

145
M. Zhou, et al.
10 °C/min and equilibrated for 10 min. It was then heated from −90 °C
to 40 °C at 10 °C/min to determine the end point of the freezing curve
(Tm) which was given by the intersecting point of the base line with the
given melting endotherm. After that, samples were cooled to −90 °C to
attain equilibrium for 10 min and then heated to (Tm – 1) at 10 °C/min
for annealing 30 min. After annealing, samples were cooled to −90 °C
and again heated to 40 °C at 10 °C/min. TA universal analysis software
was employed to analyze the thermograms for the initial (Tgi), mid-
point (Tgm) and end (Tge) of the glass transition temperature.
The Gordon-Taylor equation is commonly employed to model the
function of Tg to moisture content as given from Eq. (7).
Xs Tgs + kXw Tgw
Tgm =
Xs + kXw
where Xs and Xw (g H2O/g sample wet basis) are the mass fraction of
solid and water, Tgm, Tgs and Tgw are the Tg of mixture, dry solids and
pure water, respectively. k is the Gordon-Taylor parameter. Tgw was
considered to be −135 °C.
2.7. Statistical analysis
All data were yield from at least three independent experiments and
presented as mean ± SD. Student's t-test was used to identify the dif-
ference between two groups. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA,
Tukey test) was used to compare the differences among multiple
groups.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Drying characteristics
The drying curves of peach pomace during IWIR and HA processes
at 60, 70 and 80 °C are shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2a presents the variations of
moisture ratio (MR) versus drying time. The drying times to achieve the
moisture content of 7% (wet basis) by using HA were 530, 390 and
360 min, respectively. However, the drying time of IWIR to reach the
same moisture content were 360, 300 and 240 min at 60, 70 and 80 °C,
respectively, that were reduced 33.33%, 23.08% and 33.33% of drying
time compared to HA at the corresponding same conditions. This result
was consistent with the previous studies on drying of mushroom (Wang
et al., 2014), jujube (Chen et al., 2015) and red pepper (Zhou et al.,
2016), which also reported the saving time effect of infrared drying.
In general, for many fruits and vegetables especially the thin ma-
terial such as pomace and slice, the drying process is mostly dominated
Fig. 2. Drying curves of peach pomace during IWIR drying and HA drying at 60, 70 and 80 °C. (a), Variation of moisture ratio (MR) versus drying time; (b), variation
of drying rates versus moisture content.
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151
by a falling rate periods where the moisture movement is controlled by
internal resistance to heat and mass transfer (Erbay & Icier, 2010).
Fig. 2b shows the variations of drying rates versus moisture content for
different drying conditions, where the drying rate is expressed as the
amount of evaporated moisture over time (g water/g dry matter min). It
was observed that the rate curves of IWIR and HA was presented in
different behaviors. For HA drying, there was an initial slight increasing
rate period before the subsequent falling rate period. Similar result was
reported by Seremet, Botez, Nistor, Andronoiu, and Mocanu (2016)
who found an initial slight constant rate period and subsequent falling
rate period during the drying of pumpkin slices at drying temperature
range of 50 to 70 °C. It could be attributed to the equilibrium air tem-
perature was higher than the temperature of the pomace and the drying
(7) rate was increased with the increasing temperature until the surface
temperature attains equilibrium (Onwude, Hashim, Janius, Nawi, &
Abdan, 2016). However, during IWIR process, the drying rate showed
high values in the initial period and gradually decreased to the end, and
no clear constant-rate period was found in all conditions. It suggested
that the entire IWIR drying of peach pomace could be described as a
falling-rate period. Furthermore, it was noteworthy that the whole
falling rate period could be divided into two parts. The first falling rate
period was continued from the beginning of IWIR to when the moisture
content approximately reached at 3 g water per dry matter. In the first
period, the surface film of the product appears to be dry, and the
moisture content has decreased to its critical moisture content (Onwude
et al., 2016). The drying rates of IWIR were much higher than those of
HA in the first falling rate period. Particularly, the initial drying rates in
HA drying were 0.0284, 0.0310 and 0.0359 g water per dry matter min
at 60, 70 and 80 °C, respectively. And the corresponding values in in
IWIR drying were 0.0765, 0.0927 and 0.1110 g water per dry matter
min, that were 2.69, 2.99 and 3.09 times higher than those in HA
drying. But on the other hand, the drying rates also decreased rapidly in
this period of IWIR, as the values dropped from 0.0765, 0.0927 and
0.1110 g water per dry matter min to 0.0358, 0.0395 and 0.0512 g
water per dry matter min at 60, 70 and 80 °C, respectively. With drying
continues, the material will then experience a change from the first
falling rate period to a phenomenon known as the second falling rate
period (Onwude et al., 2016). During this period, the drying rates of
IWIR were still higher but not much higher than those of HA, and de-
creased slowly to the end of drying. The pattern of two-periods falling
rate drying has been reported in the previous studies on far infrared
drying of apple (Nowak & Lewicki, 2004), peach (Wang & Sheng, 2006)
and longan (Jaturonglumlert & Kiatsiriroat, 2010). According to these
findings, the features of drying behavior during far infrared drying
146
M. Zhou, et al.
Fig. 3. Variations of sample temperature during IWIR drying and HA drying at
60, 70 and 80 °C.
included a relative low initial rate than IWIR, a longer first period and
shorter second period than IWIR, drying rate decreased slowly in the
first period and rapidly in the second period, which indicate that the
particular drying behavior of IWIR was not similar to far infrared
drying. It was ascribe to the high penetrate ability of IWIR which re-
sulted in shortening the drying time and improving drying efficiency
(Bae, Nam, Song, & Kim, 2010). Consequently, the above results of
drying characteristics showed the high dehydration performance of
IWIR drying, especially in the early drying stage.
3.2. Temperature variations
For the purpose of understanding the high dehydration efficiency of
IWIR, the variations of temperatures were monitored during drying
processes and the results are shown in Fig. 3. There were four stages
appeared during HA drying process, which in sequence included the
initial heating stage, heating holding stage, secondary heating stage and
steadily heating stage. Taking 80 °C HA drying for instance, the sample
temperature was rapidly increased from beginning to 40 °C in 10 min
during the initial heating stage, which was corresponding to the slight
increasing period of drying rate. After this was heating holding stage,
the heating was slow down and sample temperature was slight in-
creased approximately last for 30 min. Similar behavior was also ob-
served by (Ning, Lee, & Han, 2015) in the study of ginseng drying, who
found the sample temperature increasing slowly for drying times of
20–55 and 20–45 min at temperature at 55 °C and 65 °C. It was ascribed
to the most of the heat energy was used as latent heat of evaporation.
Next two stages, the sample temperature increased quickly again for a
period of time and then the temperature increased gradually to the end.
The entire heating histories of HA drying also showed that the sample
temperature did not reach the given temperature until the drying
complete. Consistent finding was reported by Srikiatden and Roberts
(2006) who described the temperature profiles during convective
drying of carrot. This kind of multistage heating process indicated that
the internal resistance which controlled the heat transfer from the
sample surface to the core was uneven during the entire HA drying. It
could be speculated that the sample appeared hardening gradually from
the surface to the core as the water gradually evaporated from the outer
layer of the sample, which lead to the internal resistance was increased
gradually during the HA process. It suggested the low heat efficiency of
HA drying.
The temperature curves of IWIR drying showed two heating stages
clearly, including the initial heating stage and steadily heating stage
(Fig. 3). Compared to HA drying, the initial heating stage of IWIR was
147
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151
longer and the sample temperature rose faster in this stage, as the
sample temperature rose sharply to near the given temperature in the
60 min. It was responsible for the drying behavior appeared in the first
falling rate period. In the steadily heating stage, the sample tempera-
ture was gradually increased to the given temperature and kept un-
changed to the end of drying. During the entire drying process, the
sample temperatures of IWIR were higher than those of HA in the same
conditions, which indicated the higher heating efficiency of IWIR.
Moreover, it is noteworthy that the two-stages heating pattern of IWIR
was different from the heating characteristics of far infrared drying, as
Sui, Yang, Ye, Li, and Wang (2014) reported that the temperature
variations of grape pomace during far infrared drying consisted of four
stages, including the temperature increased rapidly, then increased
slowly, next increased quickly again, and finally became constant. The
results indicated that the heat transfer under IWIR was more uniform
than HA and far infrared radiation, which was ascribed to the high
penetrability of IWIR.
3.3. Effective moisture diffusivities
The effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) of a food material is a
complex function of temperature and moisture content, which char-
acterizes the intrinsic mass transport properties of moisture including
molecular diffusion, liquid diffusion, vapor diffusion, hydrodynamic
flow and other mass transport mechanisms (Karathanos, Villalobos, &
Saravacos, 1990). As it has been reported that the moisture movement
during falling rate period was dominantly controlled by diffusion me-
chanism (Akpinar, 2006), the values of Deff were estimated in this study
for the purpose of further understanding the high drying efficiency of
IWIR. Air velocity is one of the important conditions which affects the
drying process of fruit and vegetables. The effect of air velocity could
depend on the respective heat and mass transfer, which could have
either internal or external resistance (Onwude et al., 2016). Greater
internal resistance exists at a lower air velocity than at a higher flow
rate, meanwhile the resistance of the external mass transfer was also
important and should not be neglected at low velocities. Because an
increase in airflow velocity results in a decrease in external resistance,
external resistance could be neglected at high airflow velocity condi-
tions. In previous studies, authors have successfully applied Crank's
equation on slab geometry by assuming neglectable external resistance
to estimate moisture diffusivity in hot air drying of olive pomace, apple
pomace and grape leather, with the air velocities of 1.5 m/s, 1.2 m/s
and 0.86–1.82 m/s, respectively (Göǧüş & Maskan, 2006; Maskan,
Kaya, & Maskan, 2002; Wang et al., 2007). Therefore according to lit-
erature, an air velocity of 2.5 m/s reported in this study was an ade-
quate condition to neglect the effect of external resistance.
The variations of Deff with moisture content during IWIR and HA
drying at 60, 70 and 80 °C are shown in Fig. 4. The values of Deff in HA
drying were increased from 0.5787 × 10−10 to 2.8506 × 10−10,
1.0477 × 10−10 to 3.4867 × 10−10 and 1.5375 × 10−10 to 4.3565
× 10−10 at 60, 70 and 80 °C, respectively. And those values in IWIR
drying were increased from 1.7545 × 10−10 to 4.2348 × 10−10,
2.9796 × 10−10 to 5.5092 × 10−10 and 4.5118 × 10−10 to 6.4410
× 10−10 at 60, 70 and 80 °C, respectively. The results showed that the
Deff of IWIR were much higher than those of HA in the same conditions,
especially in the initial drying period with high moisture content.
It was mainly due to the rapid heating speed of IWIR, because the
evaporation of water molecules would be accelerated at high tem-
perature (Thuwapanichayanan, Prachayawarakorn, Kunwisawa, &
Soponronnarit, 2011).
Moreover, it was observed from Fig. 4 that the increases of Deff
during HA and IWIR were presented in different patterns. For HA
drying, the Deff was increased continuously from the drying beginning
to the end, which in further indicated that the internal resistance was
continuously changing during the entire HA drying process. However
for IWIR drying, the Deff was nearly keep in constant when the sample
M. Zhou, et al. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151

Fig. 4. Variations of effective moisture diffusivity (Deff) during IWIR drying and Fig. 5. State diagram of peach pomace composed of the fitted line for Tg
HA drying at 60, 70 and 80 °C. modeled and temperature variation curves during IWIR drying and HA drying
at 60, 70 and 80 °C.

moisture content approximately decreased from 3 g water/g dry matter

to 1 g water/g dry matter. It indicated that the internal resistance of the sugar-rich foods such as fruits generally show Type III behavior, which
sample changed little during that middle drying stage after the rapid have been reported in green banana (Bezerra, Amante, de Oliveira,
heating in the initial drying stage of IWIR. This result was agreement Rodrigues, & da Silva, 2013) and pineapple (Hossain, Bala, Hossain, &
with the thin-layer infrared radiation drying of onion slices which was Mondol, 2001).
conducted by Sharma, Verma, and Pathare (2005). Different result was
found by Chen et al. (2015) who reported that the variations of Deff was
increased gradually to the maximum value and then declined as the 3.5. Glass transition
decrease of moisture content during IWIR drying of jujube. One reason
for this discrepancy was that the Deff values were estimated from dif- The glass transition temperatures of peach pomace powders which
ferent equations due to the different shape geometries of peach pomace had been stabilized at a series of water activities were measured by
and jujube slice. Another reason was that the peach pomace and jujube differential scanning calorimetry, and the analyzed results of thermo-
were different food material, because the Deff value depends upon the gram including the initial Tgi, mid-point Tgm and end-point Tge of glass
conditions within the material (Dak & Pareek, 2014). In general, for transition are shown in Table 2, where the values of corresponding Xw
higher drying rates or temperature, the difference in moisture content (g H2O/g sample wet basis) were calculated by the optimized GAB
between the sample surface to core are very large, which results in the model. The effect of water content on glass transition was clearly ob-
non-uniform of drying and leads to shell formation on the outside. served from Table 2 as the glass transition decreased from 43.76 °C to
Developing of this shell inhibits moisture loss from the material (Gulati −72.79 °C with the moisture content was increased from 0.0474 to
& Datta, 2015). But the above results of drying behavior, heating curves 0.3382 g H2O/g sample wet basis. Glass transition is primarily a func-
and variation of Deff suggested that IWIR drying could allow peach tion of moisture content but in the complicated food matrix with multi-
pomace to acquire high drying rate while maintaining a uniform drying components, it is meanwhile affected by the compositional variations
process. It was attributed the high heating speed and penetrable ca- and interactions (Mohammad Shafiur Rahman, 2006). Peach pomace
pacity of IWIR. contains highly amount of cell wall polysaccharides in the form of
pectin (Kurz, Carle, & Schieber, 2008). This carbohydrate interacted
with water molecules via hydrogen bonding to achieve the plasticizing
3.4. Moisture sorption isotherm effect (Sappati et al., 2017). The relation of glass transition and water
content was fitted non-linearly using the Gordon-Taylor equation. The
The adsorption isotherm of lyophilized pomace powder which was model constants Tgs = 93.84 °C and k = 5.46. The R2 which were used
fitted by the GAB model is shown in Fig. 5. Although the BET (Bru- to evaluate the fitness of Gordon-Taylor model were 0.9897, showing
nauer-Emmet-Teller) and GAB models are both the common used the goodness of fit of the Gordon-Taylor model.
models for fitting the relation of water content and water activity, the
BET model is only applicable in narrow water activity range from 0.05 Table 2
to 0.45 due to it considers moisture sorption based on monolayer (Basu, Glass transition temperature of dried peach pomace.
Shivhare, & Mujumdar, 2006). Meanwhile, the GAB model is based on aw Xw (g H2O/g Tgi (°C) Tgm (°C) Tge (°C)
theoretical concept of multilayer moisture value which is an extended sample wet basis)
version of the BET model overcoming the weakness of BET model and
0.11 0.0474 43.76 ± 1.35 50.35 ± 1.19 51.81 ± 1.52
fit to a wide range of water activity (0–0.95) (Sappati, Nayak, &
0.23 0.0622 28.87 ± 1.07 42.84 ± 0.51 49.96 ± 0.16
Vanwalsum, 2017). The model constants including Mg, C and K were 0.33 0.0787 8.32 ± 0.68 14.06 ± 0.50 35.07 ± 1.36
obtained from non-linear optimization, which were 0.0933 g water/ g 0.43 0.1000 −3.90 ± 0.16 1.72 ± 0.42 10.44 ± 0.97
dry solid, 4.1848 and 0.9723 respectively. The R2, SSE and RMSE which 0.53 0.1333 −16.67 ± 2.27 −10.19 ± 2.53 −4.48 ± 1.57
were used to evaluate the fitness of GAB model were 0.9969, 0.00039 0.66 0.1693 −28.75 ± 2.29 −23.71 ± 2.59 −17.97 ± 2.08
0.75 0.2415 −53.89 ± 4.86 −48.45 ± 4.04 −43.82 ± 3.75
and 0.00008 respectively, which showed the goodness of fit of opti- 0.85 0.3382 −72.79 ± 0.95 −66.39 ± 1.62 −58.92 ± 1.62
mized model. The type of the sorption isotherm of peach pomace was
matched Type III, which was also known as the Flory-Huggins isotherm Results are presented as mean values ( ± standard error) of three replicates
(Brunauer, Deming, Deming, & Teller, 1940). The sorption isotherms of (n = 3).

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M. Zhou, et al. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151

Table 3
Statistical analysis of five thin-layer models for peach pomace drying.
Model name Drying method T (°C) Model constants R2 RMSE χ2(×10−4)

k a g n b(×10−4)

Lewis HA 60 0.0063 0.9995 0.0011 0.49

70 0.0074 0.9992 0.0016 0.84
80 0.0086 0.9982 0.0028 1.76
IWIR 60 0.0112 0.9870 0.0216 9.80
70 0.0134 0.9869 0.0196 9.80
80 0.0163 0.9858 0.0190 10.5
Page HA 60 0.0056 1.0228 0.9997 0.0007 0.34
70 0.0065 1.0285 0.9994 0.0011 0.62
80 0.0065 1.0609 0.9993 0.0010 0.69
IWIR 60 0.0237 0.8350 0.9988 0.0019 0.91
70 0.0277 0.8347 0.9984 0.0023 1.19
80 0.0021 0.0143 0.9983 0.0021 1.24
Henderson and Pabis HA 60 0.0064 1.0097 0.9996 0.0008 0.39
70 0.0075 1.0117 0.9993 0.0013 0.70
80 0.0088 1.0183 0.9986 0.0020 1.37
IWIR 60 0.0103 0.9359 0.9930 0.0111 5.30
70 0.0123 0.9358 0.9927 0.0103 5.40
80 0.0151 0.9347 0.9916 0.0106 6.20
Verma et al. HA 60 0.0063 1.0006 −0.0060 0.9998 0.0005 0.25
70 0.0073 1.0011 −0.0065 0.9996 0.0007 0.42
80 0.0081 1.0189 −0.0018 0.9997 0.0005 0.34
IWIR 60 0.0098 0.8976 6.7567 0.9970 0.0045 2.26
70 0.0116 0.8894 6.2957 0.9977 0.0031 1.75
80 0.0140 0.8761 5.8151 0.998 0.0024 1.50
Midilli et al. HA 60 0.0066 1.0074 0.9914 −0.25 0.9998 0.0004 0.23
70 0.0079 1.0093 0.9852 −0.43 0.9996 0.0006 0.40
80 0.0081 1.0064 1.0076 −0.78 0.9997 0.0003 0.27
IWIR 60 0.0287 1.0051 0.7839 −1.01 0.9996 0.0005 0.26
70 0.0344 1.0028 0.7746 −1.50 0.9998 0.0003 0.18
80 0.0421 1.0017 0.7643 −1.87 0.9998 0.0002 0.16

3.6. Modeling of drying curves
The experimental data of HA and IWIR drying of peach pomace
were fitted to five thin-layer drying models listed in Table 1. The model
coefficients and the comparison criteria (R2, χ2, and RMSE) using to
evaluate fitness of model are shown in Table 3. Except for Lewis model,
R2 values of all the other models were higher than 0.99 and the cor-
responding RMSE and χ2 were lower than 0.0111 and 6.2 × 10−4 re-
spectively. Among the five models, Midilli et al. model was the best
model to describe the HA and IWIR drying process of peach pomace due
to the highest R2 values (0.9996–0.9998) and lowest RMSE values
(0.0002–0.0006) and χ2 values (0.16 × 10−4–0.40 × 10−4). Midilli
et al. model is a semi-theoretical model derived from Fick's second law
of diffusion which was successfully used to describe the drying process
of savory leaves (Arslan & Özcan, 2012), purslane (Demirhan & Özbek,
2010), and eggplant (Ertekin & Yaldiz, 2004).
3.7. State diagram of HA and IWIR drying process
Water is the major plasticizer in food material, which is related to
complex mechanism that involved hydrogen bond formation between
water and food component and change of the matrix free volume
(Djendoubi Mrad, Bonazzi, Boudhrioua, Kechaou, & Courtois, 2012).
Glass transition phenomenon, which relates to the moisture content of
material, plays a critical role in the plasticization during drying process.
It contributes greatly to the texture formation of fruits and vegetables.
The diffusion coefficient of a food is material property and its value
depends upon the conditions within the material (Dak & Pareek, 2014).
Therefore it would be got better understanding for water diffusion and
drying behavior in IWIR drying through glass transition theory.
State diagram is the map of different states of a food as a function of
water or solids content and temperature (Rahman, 2004). It is a helpful
tool to understand the complex changes of complicated food matrix
when water content and temperature are changed (Rahman, 2006).
Fig. 5 shows the state diagram of peach pomace which is composed of
the fitted line for Tg modeled by Gordon-Taylor equation and the
temperature variations during HA and IWIR drying versus moisture
content. It was observed that the sample temperatures at any drying
conditions were all higher than the glass transition temperature,
showing that the peach pomace was entirely dried in the rubbery state
and not underwent state transition during the whole processes of HA
and IWIR drying. This phenomenon was also found in the convective
hot air drying of sugar kelp (Sappati et al., 2017) and papaya
(Kurozawa, Hubinger, & Park, 2012; Kurozawa, Terng, Hubinger, &
Park, 2014). In the rubbery state of amorphous material such as food
matrix, the molecular mobility of the food matrix and the reactants are
accelerated, which results in an increased rate of physicochemical
changes in dried products, including sticking, collapse, caking, ag-
glomeration and crystallization (Bhandari & Howes, 1999). Particularly
in fruit drying, these physicochemical changes are presented in form of
shrinkage and case-hardening, which affect water migration from the
core to surface of the materiel. The degree of shrinkage and case-
hardening are negatively correlated with the value of ΔT which is
computed by T – Tg (Gulati & Datta, 2015; Kurozawa et al., 2012). Fig. 6
presents the variations of ΔT values versus to the moisture content
during HA and IWIR drying processes, showing that the ΔT values of
IWIR drying were higher than HA drying in the condition of same
moisture content at the given temperature. This result indicated that
the degrees of shrinkage and case-hardening during IWIR drying were
higher than those in HA drying, which created greater barrier inhibiting
water removal from the material. It seemed to be contradictory with the
experimental results of water diffusivities which indicated that the Deff
values of IWIR were much higher than those of HA in the same drying
conditions (Fig. 4). During drying process, the glass transition affects
the diffusion-controlled chemical reactions such as moisture diffusion
via the decrease of diffusion coefficient (Rahman, 2006). Therefore the

149
M. Zhou, et al.
Fig. 6. Variations of ΔT (T – Tg) values versus to the moisture content during
IWIR drying and HA drying at 60, 70 and 80 °C.
higher ΔT values in IWIR drying resulted in the higher values of Deff.
Moreover, it was noteworthy that the ΔT variation curves of IWIR
drying in Fig. 6 appeared an upward trend from the beginning till the
moisture content approximate at 2.5 g water/g dry matter, which
manner was typically appeared at 80 °C. However, this manner was not
observed in HA drying which present no significant change of ΔT value
in the mid-stage of drying process. With the increase of ΔT value during
the mid-stage of IWIR drying resulted in the enhancement of water
diffusion against the diffusion-inhibitory effect caused by shrinkage and
case-hardening. Consequently, the Deff values were kept at a relative
higher level during IWIR drying which were shown in Fig. 4. This
finding could be ascribed to the high permeability and heating effi-
ciency of IWIR process (Wang et al., 2014).
4. Conclusion
This study investigated the drying behavior and water diffusion in
IWIR and HA drying of peach pomace at 60, 70 and 80 °C. Compared to
HA drying, IWIR showed high dehydration performance due to its
shorter drying time and higher drying speed. The variation curves of
sample temperature which was monitored during drying process
showed different heating manner between HA and IWIR drying. It in-
dicated that the high heating efficiency of IWIR drying and the heat
transfer under IWIR was more uniform than HA process. The Deff values
of IWIR were much higher than those of HA in all conditions, especially
in the initial drying period with high moisture content. The pattern of
Deff variations during IWIR were different with HA drying as Deff almost
keep in constant in the mid-stage of IWIR drying. The results of drying
behavior suggested that IWIR drying could allow peach pomace to ac-
quire high drying rate while maintaining a uniform drying process.
After fitting the relations of water content and water activity, glass
transition and water content and water content and drying time by GAB
model, Gordon-Taylor equation and Midilli et al. model, respectively,
the state diagram of peach pomace composed by Tg modeled line and
temperature variation curves was drawn. IWIR showed higher ΔT va-
lues in all conditions compared the HA drying which lead to the higher
values of Deff. Meanwhile, it suggested the stronger diffusion-inhibitory
effect caused by the high degree of shrinkage and case-hardening
phenomena might be happened during IWIR process. However, the
significant increase of ΔT value observed during the mid-stage of IWIR
process resulted in the enhancement of water diffusion against the
diffusion-inhibitory effect caused by shrinkage and case-hardening. The
results of this study demonstrated that IWIR is a more effective drying
method for pomace, which can keep relatively high drying rate during
150
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 54 (2019) 143–151
the whole dehydration process via overcoming the diffusion-inhibitory
effect.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by the Earmarked Fund for China
Agriculture Research System (No. CARS-30-5-02).
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