FIS 4703

PROCESSING OF AQUATIC PRODUCT

ASSIGNMENT: GELATIN

GROUP 6

UK30612 KO SHUI PING

UK30616 NUR AMALINA BINTI BAHARIN

UK30659 KUANG CHU YAN

UK30675 NUR AZWA BINTI MD JONET

UK30792 PANG WAY MEEN

UK31045 CHUA CHIEN WEN

UK31250 MUHAMMAD FARIS WAFIQ BIN SUHAIMI

UK31536 NOR NADIA BINTI HAMSA

UK32181 NOR HIDAYAH BINTI IDRIS

PROGRAMME: SMSG PERIKANAN

LECTURER: DR. NURUL ULFAH KARIM & DR. NOR FAZLIYANA MAHTAR @ MOHTAR

DATE: 14/05/2015

  1  
INTRODUCTION OF GELATIN

The name of gelatin is taken from the Latin ‘gelatus’ that defined as firm or frozen.
US Pharmacopeia (1990) defined that gelatin is the product that can be obtained by partial
hydrolysis of collagen that extracted from animal by product such as skin, connective tissue
and bones. About 200 years ago, the connective tissues and their extracted products were
widely known. Therefore, people that live in nineteenth century had thought some ways to
improve the technique of gelatin processing. By improving the knowledge about amino acid
and protein, they wanted to develop gelatin manufacture business.

Gelatin is a high molecular weight polypeptide and an important hydrocolloid, which

has proved popular with the general public and finds its uses in a wide range of food
products (Mariod & Adam, 2013). The main property of gelatin is to form a thermoreversible
gel. Thermoreversible is a property of certain substances to be reversed when exposed to
heat. Gelatin can be obtained by heating the triple helix structure of collagen whereas
collagen can be obtained by cooling the gelatin. Gelatin is produced by denaturing the
soluble collagen. The transformation of collagen into gelatin involves hydrolysis catalyzed by
enzymes, acid and alkali.

Gelatin is one of the most popular biopolymers. It is widely used in food,

pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and photographic applications because of its unique functional
and technological properties (Karim & Bhat, 2009). Gelatin is very important in food
production and this is because gelatin is one of the water-soluble polymers that can be used
as an ingredient to improve the elasticity, consistency and stability of foods (Tavakolipour,
2011). According to Karim & Bhat (2008), gelatin usually used as gelling and foaming agent
in food industry, soft and hard capsule in the preparation of pharmaceutical products as well
as wound dressing and three-dimensional tissue regeneration in the biomedical field.

There are no plant sources of gelatin, and there is no chemical relationship between
gelatin and other materials referred to as vegetable gelatin, such as seaweed extracts (GMIA
2012). Gelatin can found from all animals, for example, the animal that are widely used as
source of commercial gelatin are cattle and pork. Due to gelatin is derived from animal hide
and bone, there are some problems that regard to kosher and Halal status. In these cases,
marine source gelatin and insect gelatin can act as alternative gelatin source.

  2  
HISTORY OF GELATIN PRODUCTION

Gelatin was once considered a sign of wealth. Before the advent of prepared gelatin,
only members of the elite classes could afford it. It took hours to produce gelatin, clarify it,
and turn it into fancy aspics, molded salads, desserts and others. The use of gelatin was a
sign that the host had the means to support a kitchen staff with the skill and time to create
such a dish. When gelatin became available commercially, it still was a symbol of culinary
sophistication.

Gelatin was first used in Egyptian times. In addition, traces of gelatin were found in a
pharaoh grave, in the second age before our time, in the form of glue. On top of that, many
ingredients of consumption of meat, fish or fruit in aspic, during the ancient banquets, were
discovered. Nevertheless, the definition of the gelatin is made clear some centuries after,
around 1400. However, in 1754, England discovered that the first patent was submitted and
it concerned the manufacturing of the gelatin. This patent was about the manufacturing of
glue, in the sector of adhesive matters. During the Continental Blockade, the gelatin was
recognized in France for its nutrition content.

In 1682, a Frenchman named Denis Papin had recorded his research experiments on
this subject. His experiments resulted in a method of removing the glutinous material from
animal bones by boiling. It is tasteless and odorless. When combined with liquid, it shows
colorless but it is pure protein. Besides, “A jelly made of bones of beef” was mentioned in
the diary of Englishman John Evelyn when describing the results of a demonstration of the
first pressure cooker. Around 1800 to 1815, the nutritional value of gelatin was recognized
as a source of protein during the English blockade. According to J and G Company of
Edinburgh, Scotland, they discovered that unflavored dried gelatin became available in
1845.

In the same year, the J and G Company began exporting its Cox's Gelatin to the
United States. Peter Cooper secured a patent for a gelatin dessert powder called Portable
Gelatin, which requiring only the addition of hot water. For many years, food manufacturers
experimented with gelatin but no one was able to come up with an interesting product. It
looked bad and did not taste very good. While Cooper patented its manufacture, he did little
to commercialize it. He packaged it for sales to cook, but there was little interest. He sold
the patent to Pearl Wait, a cough syrup maker. Inventor of the steam locomotive, secured a
patent for a gelatin dessert powder called Portable Gelatin, requiring only the addition of hot
water.

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 Finally, in the year of 1875, due to the modernization of the manufacture of gelatin
in small firms, a largest industrial production of gelatin was possible. Since ancient times,
the handcrafted manufacture doesn't cease to exist. Gelatin is a simple ingredient to
produce, this is because by only boiling up bones or skin, gelatin is produced.

  4  
MANUFACTURING OF GELATIN (METHOD OF GELATIN EXTRACTION)

First step of gelatin extraction is pre-treatment. In pre-treatment, the raw materials

should be cleaned thoroughly. To obtain gelatin, there are two types of process. The type of
process depends on the source of the raw materials. The processes are acid process for
gelatin Type A and alkali process for gelatin Type B. For gelatin Type A, the most common
raw material used is porcine skin. This process is subjected to a 24 hours conditioning
process and involved treatment with acid. Usually, hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid are
used. The typical acid used is 4% hydrochloric acid with a pH of less than 1.5. The
remaining acid is then drained off and the materials are washed several times with cold
water. After that, the gelatin can be extracted.

Meanwhile, for Type B gelatin, the common raw material used is either ossein or
bovine hide. To obtain ossein, the green bone from the slaughter of cattle is cleaned,
degreased, dried, sorted, and crushed to a particle size of about 1-2 cm. Then the pieces of
bone are treated with dilute hydrochloric acid to remove mineral salts. The bovine hide and
ossein need to undergo treatment with alkali for several weeks. The common alkali used is
lime and potassium or sodium carbonate with a pH above 7. During liming, some
deamination of the collagen occurs, with evolution of ammonia (GMIA, 2012). This process
removes most of the minerals and bacteria. At the same time, it also facilitates the release
of collagen. Then, they are washed with cold water to remove the excess lime. The product
extracted is washed with hot water to recover the soluble gelatin. This enables its structure
to be gently transformed.

Next process is gelatin extraction. The number of extractions varies, 3-6 is typical.
The first extraction generally takes place at 50-60° C, subsequent extractions being made
with successive increases in temperature of 5-10° C. The initial extraction usually produce
high quality product, compared with next extractions. Earlier extractions have higher
molecular weights, higher viscosity, higher gel strength, and lighter colour. Meanwhile, the
later extractions are made at increasingly higher temperatures, the resulting product has
lower molecular weight, lower gel strength, and darker colour. The extraction solutions
contain approximately 6% gelatine. After first extraction, the remaining materials are
treated with fresh water but at a higher temperature. This sequence is continue until all the
gelatin has been extracted into solution. The final extraction is carried out close to the
boiling point. Extraction procedures are closely controlled in the manufacture of both Type A
and Type B gelatin since they influence both quality and quantity. A variation of this classical

  5  
extraction process is the continuous process. Here, warm water and raw material are
continuously fed into the extraction vessel and the gelatin solution is continuously removed.
The desired properties of the gelatin can be adjusted by means of temperature and pH.

After extraction process, purification process is carried out. In this step, the gelatin
solution obtained from the extraction process is placed in high-performance separators
where it is freed from residual traces of fat from the raw material and from any insoluble
particles. Precoat filters are then employed to remove fine-particle contamination with the
help of (diatomaceous earth), followed by filtration through cellulose plates. Purification of
the gelatin is completed by removing any salts present using an ion exchange process.

Next, concentration process is carried out. In this step, multi-stage vacuum

evaporators are used to remove part of the water from the dilute gelatin extraction solution
in a gentle process. In this way, the gelatin becomes viscous. This highly viscous solution is
then passed through polishing filters made of cellulose plate to remove the particles that
may remain.

Drying process is performed afterwards. Drying involves progressive increases in air

temperature, with exhaustion of moist air and replacement with conditioned air. Drying time
is 1-5 hours, depending on the quality and concentration of the material. The rate of drying
process is carefully controlled to avoid melting and case hardening. The gelatin leaves the
dryer with a moisture content of approximately 10%. The dried bed is then broken into
pieces that are ground to the required particle size. Dried gelatin is tested for quality and gel
strength.

Milling, sieving and blending are the final three processing steps. Here, the dried
gelatine is customized to the requirements of individual customers. If the gelatin is to be
used by the food industry, sweeteners, flavourings, and colourings may be added at this
point. Once the gelatin is filled into bags and after final release from the lab, the products
are transported to the customers.

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TYPES OF GELATIN

Mammalian source

There are many types of gelatin that are made up from mammalian source. For
example bovine, porcine, chicken and many more. Bovine and porcine are widely used as
the gelatin sources compare to other animals. For bovine and porcine, gelatines are
extracted from skin, bones and connective tissues. Gelatin from bovine skin is known as
Type B. This type of gelatin needs to undergo the alkali treatment. Whereas for porcine
skin, the gelatin is Type A. In order to produce gelatin from the skin of porcine, it needs to
undergo the acidic treatment (Mariod et. al, 2011).

Acid treatment process is the process where it is usually used for porcine skin and
bones. During this process, collagen is acidified to about pH 4. Then it is heated, denatured,
defatted, filtered, concentrated and dried by passing the dry air all over it. Lastly, the
products are grinded, blended and packed according to the customer’s requirement. For the
alkali treatment process, it is usually used on bovine skin. During this process, the collagen
from the bovine skin is extracted. Then, it is washed and treated with acid to a desired
extraction pH. After that, the collagen is heated in order to make it denature and converted
to gelatin.,Then, it is vacuum evaporated, filtered, gelated, dried, grinded and blended
(Cole, 2000).

For poultry such as chicken, gelatin is extracted from the bones and skins. Deboned
chicken meat was widely used in food industry since 1960. Therefore, some researchers had
discovered to use the gelatin that can be extracted from the waste of this poultry by-product
such as skins, bones and feet. Gelatin from the chicken feet is extracted by using the
alkaline treatment. Acid treatment is usually used for mature animal that have complex
cross structure such as bones and cartilage of cattle and buffalo. Although this process will
takes a lot of time, acid treatment is still used to extract gelatin from the chicken skin.

There are a lot of differences between the gelatine from bovine, porcine and chicken.
The first difference is that the process that it needs to undergoes. Bovine skin need to
undergo alkali treatment, porcine skin undergoes acid treatment while for chicken skin, it
need to undergo the acid treatment. Besides, the bloom strength of the porcine is much
higher than the bovine. This shows that porcine is much stiffer than bovine. This is due to
the high cross-linkage and the amount of glycine and proline that contain in it. Furthermore,
the foam stability and the foam expansion of bovine is more stable than porcine. The bloom

  7  
strength of chicken is much higher than in bovine. In addition, chicken is much stable in
heat than in bovine due to the amino acid content, protein chain composition and the
molecular weight distribution of the chicken.

Marine source

Squid gelatin, together with other marine gelatins, is offered as an alternative to

mammalian gelatin source due to the socio-cultural and safety considerations associated
with the latter (Giménez et al, 2009). According to Uriarte-Montoya et. al (2011), squid skin
gelatin had high protein content with an amino acid profile similar to that of interstitial
collagen. Among the squid wastes and by-products, around 30% of them are rich in
collagen (Uriarte-Montoya et al, 2011). Collagen of squid can be extracted into gelatin which
is widely used in the food industry. Squid gelatin was extracted by using method of
Jongjareonrak et al (2010) with some modification. According to Uriarte-Montoya et. al
(2011), gelatin yield obtained from the giant squid was similar to the cod.

Gelatin can also be extracted from fish. The waste from fish processing after filleting
can account for as much as 75% of the total catch weight (Mariod & Adam, 2013). Fish
gelatin can be obtained from any parts of fish such as skin, bones, swim bladder and fins.
Most common part of fish that used in gelatin extraction is fish skin. According to
Songchotikunpan et. al (2008), a lot of waste in the form of skin and bone of Nile tilapia
were generated each day in the fishery industry of Thailand. The extracted gelatin from Nile
tilapia skin in its dried powder form was free from fishy odour and appeared in yellow-brown
colour (Songchotikunpan et al, 2008). Their study showed that the bloom gel strength of the
extracted gelatin is about 328g.

Fish bone is a form of waste generated from the fish crackers processing industries
that contain the highest content of calcium (Bin et al, 2013). However, there are still many
people do not know the benefits of fish bones. Gelatin extraction of fish bone can be done
by immerse the cleaned fish bones in the citric acid and then is extracted at 65°C
temperature.

According to Chandra & Shamasundar (2015), gelatin was prepared from the swim
bladder of Catla catla (Catla) in their study and they found that the bloom strength of
gelatin gel was found to be 264.4g which can be categorized as high bloom gel. Besides, the
nature of network of gelatin was strong as indicated by frequency sweeps (Chandra &

  8  
Shamasundar, 2015). Gelatin extraction from the swim bladder was carried out by using the
method of Gudmundsson & Hafsteinsson (1997) with slight modification.

Commercial value of gelatin is determined by the gel strength of gelatin. Gel strength
might be different due to the fish species and the part of fish extracted. The higher the
value of gel strength (bloom), the greater the commercial value. The gelatin with higher
bloom strength will have higher melting points, more neutral taste and lighter colour.

Comparison between mammalian source gelatin and marine source gelatin

The main difference between fish and mammalian gelatin is the content of the amino
acids Pro and Hyp, which stabilises the ordered conformation when gelatin forms a gel
network (Haug et. al, 2004). Mammalian gelatin has higher Pro and Hyp content compared
to fish gelatin thus fish gelatin has low melting point and low gel modulus. According to
Haug et. al (2004), it has been found that the gel modulus increases at low ionic strength
and decreases with increasing ionic strength. In addition, according to Shakila et. al (2012),
the stiffness of fish gelatin films are in general lower than the mammalian gelatin films.
Besides, solubility is one of the important characteristic of gelatin films. According to Shakila
et al (2012), solubility of fish gelatin films in distilled water is lower than mammalian gelatin
films. Furthermore, extraction of gelatin from fish may provide an alternative source that is
acceptable for kosher (Jewish) and halal (Muslim) products and serve as an alternative for
the market concerned about bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) (Mariod & Adam,
2013).

  9  
BENEFIT OF GELATIN

One of the benefits of gelatin towards human is skin health. According to Gans
(2007), gelatin has an amazing skin healing property because it is rich in source of dietary
collagen, which is the key protein in the body that made up of amino acids. Gelatin makes
up 25% to 35% of the total protein content of human body. This protein content is vital for
skin elasticity, and tone, plus the continuous renewal of skin cells. Gelatin makes up the
connective tissues of the skin that are responsible for giving skin its strength and firmness.
Glycine and arginine found in gelatin are abundant in the skin and connective tissue. The
combination of these two amino acids can help in wound repair of skin. Hence gelatin can
rapid the wound healing process.

Another benefit of gelatin is it can help in tighten loose skin. Collagen depletion
usually starts when we are in our late 20’s. It is important to add gelatin in our daily diet
after age of 30 to help in fight aging. Taking it internally in the form of collagen is a good
source of dietary collagen can do wonders for the skin.

Proline found in the gelatin is a very important amino acid that abundant in gelatin.
It is widely used in many supplement products by skin experts to keep up a youthful
appearance. Degradation and loss of collagen is the real cause of wrinkles. Gelatin can
stimulate and enhance production of new and non-fragmented collagen, which offers
significant improvement to the look and health of wrinkled skin.

Gelatin is also a source of protein to human. Its specific amino acids can help in
building muscle. Studies have shown that up to 50% of muscle protein in a meat product
can be replaced with gelatin while keeping the same nutritive value. It is widely used for
nutritional bars and protein drinks. Gelatin is recommended for enhancement of protein
levels in foodstuffs, and especially in body-building foods. When gelatin is added to their
diets, it has the benefit of preserving muscle mass while the person is ill. It can also be very
restorative for athletes that are over training because it contains many amino acids that can
speed up recovery.

Lastly, gelatin can also improve the digestive system in human. Gelatin binds
naturally with water and helps food move more easily though the digestive tract. Gelatin is
considered to be a highly digestible dietary component, ideal for inclusion in certain dietary
supplements. The amino acid glycine in gelatin can help to increase hydrochloric acid in the
stomach which is important for digestion and assimilation of nutrients.

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IMPORTANCE OF GELATIN

Food industry

Gelatin plays an important role and has a large contribution to the food industry. Due
to the high content of protein and amino acid, gelatin has been widely used as food
additives in the application of food industry. The unique hydrocolloidal nature of gelatin has
enabled it to find numerous applications in the food industry (Mariod & Adam, 2013). The
foods that are added with gelatin can be divided into four main groups, namely
confectionery and jelly desserts, dairy products, meat products and hydrolyzed gelatin
applications (Nishimoto et al. 2005). Gelatin can be used as a clarifying agent in beverage
such as beer, wine, fruit juice and vinegar. Besides, gelatin also used in food such as
powdered drink mixes, bouillon, gravies, sauces, soups, puddings, jellies, syrups and other
dairy products to function as a thickener. Gelatin can be further used as a fruit toppings for
pastry, instant sauce, instant gravy and soup. In the cooked or ready-to-cook meals such as
soups and sauces, the addition of gelatin able to modify the texture of cold food by which
the solid foods can be liquefied again by reheating (Weishardt Group, n.d.).

Another unique function of gelatin is that it can be used as a stabilizer in frozen food
products such as ice-cream, cream cheese, cottage cheese, yogurt and frozen desserts. The
gelatin acts as a stabilizer by prevent the growth of ice crystal during freezing and storage
of products (Cole, 2001). The frozen products can also resistance in heat shock and have a
better melt-down performance with the aids of gelatin’s gel structure (Cole, 2001). Apart
from that, foods such as meat products and fruits are usually added with gelatin coat as it
can reduce colour deterioration effectively in either light or dark storage (Antoniewski et. al,
2007). The meat-based coating is to provide a shiny surface and to extend the period of
preservation and avoid drying out of foods (Weishardt Group, n.d.). Moreover, the canned
meat products are added with gelatin to provide a good heat transfer medium for cooking
and to hold juices lost during cooking. The gelatin can also be used as emulsifiers in foods
such as meats, cream soups, sauces, confectionery and dairy products. Gelatin is also widely
used in the fish and seafood-based products which makes the products look attractive and
appetizing (Weishardt Group, n.d.). The application of gelatin also helps to keep the
products in their shape for cutting and prevent deterioration through the exposure to light
and oxygen. The most recent application involves using gelatin is surimi which function to
stick the surimi together (Weishardt Group, n.d.).

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Photography industry

The gelatin also contribute in the application of photographic industrial in plate

coating. In the industry of photography process, the collodion wet process was replaced
with the gelatin process which is also called as gelatin dry-plate process. While there has
been a resurging interest in wet plate collodion photography, partly due to a rising interest
in the American Civil War Era, the silver gelatin dry-plate process has not received much
attention (Pedersen, n.d.). However, developed in 1871, this process is far more practical
than the preceding wet collodion process, and is the direct forerunner of roll film (Pedersen,
n.d.). The gelatin emulsion is a suspension in a colloid, which is of a precipitate mixture of
silver salts such as chlorides, bromides and iodides. Gelatin is used as a component in a
photographic developer during the processing of the exposed film material. A photographic
developer is usually an alkaline solution that contains a reducing agent, which reduces silver
halide rapidly when the reaction is catalyzed by the latent image, formed during exposure,
and slowly when the silver halide has not been exposed (Mariod and Adam, 2013). The
gelatin enhances the ability of the developer to distinguish between the exposed and the
unexposed crystals (Park et. al, 2001). The shape and size of the silver salt crystals and the
property of the sensitive surface is affected by the quality of the gelatin.

Pharmaceutical industry

In pharmaceutical industry, gelatin is mainly used for hard and soft gelatin capsules
(softgels), tableting, tablet coating, granulation, encapsulation and micro-encapsulation
(GMIA, 2012).This is due to gelatin exhibits good film-forming and gas barrier properties.
Gelatin and gelatin derivatives are widely used to encapsulate the medicinal compounds
such as drugs and vitamins (Kandil et. al, 2003). Softgel capsules produced from fish gelatin
have been widely used as nutrition supplements (Karim & Bhat, 2009).

According to Haug and Draget (2011), gelatin is utilized in plasma substitutes used in
emergency medicine and surgery, in vitamin coatings, pastilles, tablets, in the production of
globules, paste dressings, sponges and in the formulation of new vaccines. The medicine
and vitamin that can be found on the market are usually coated by gelatin. This is because
gelatin can protect the capsule contents from the deleterious effects of atmospheric oxygen,
light, moisture, and dust.

In the past two decades, numerous of experimental findings and clinical studies were
carried out, the result strongly suggest that gelatin hydrolysate may have a beneficial effect

  12  
on joint health both in terms of prevention and therapy. Further studies have shown that
osteoarthritis patients who taking gelatin hydrolysate experience significant pain reduction
and consequently, reduced consumption of analgesics. Therefore nowadays gelatin is the
foundation of many nutritional and arthritis / joint care formulas.

Gelatin is excellently compatible with human tissue, hence it is used in products

designed for the treatment of wounds. Gelatin sponges are used routinely in dentistry and
surgery to fill temporary cavities and top bleeding. The sponges that are made of
pharmaceutical gelatin can be fully absorbed by the body, and allow new cells to enter the
wound, accelerating the healing process.

  13  
SIDE EFFECT OF GELATIN

There are some side effects caused by gelatin. Gelatin supplement may cause
stomach upset. When the stomach upset happens, nausea and vomiting will occur. This is
due to contamination of the gelatin product. Besides, gelatin may also lead to burping and
bloating. These side effects are happened because of the dairy product. Dairy product can
make some people bloating or having intestinal distress. Gelatin has been added into
yogurts to stabilize it. From the experiment that had been done, the gelatin was added into
the milk. After that, the microstructure of the product was changed. A flat sheet was formed
and connected granules with chains of milk proteins. Therefore, this formation will make the
yogurts ‘more-solid’ than the yogurts that do not contain gelatin. The adding of gelatin to
the milk products will increase the quality of the milk. It can enhance the firmness and
water retention properties. However, some people are allergic to the presence of gelatin in
the dairy product.

In addition, gelatin injection will bring side effect to human. A gelatin injection is
recommended for the control of hemorrhages on various organs and for aortic aneurism
treatment. Most of these treatments are success, but there are also several deaths that have
been recorded because of the fatal results. There are some complications such as septic
thrombosis, phlegmons, malignant edema, and tetanus. From the statistics that have been
recorded, the deaths that caused by gelatin injection are about 23 cases. This shows that
gelatin injections are risky to some people and may cause death.

Other than that, gelatin will give side effect from the using of medicinal product.
Gelatin is a natural and soluble product that obtained by the partial hydrolysis of collagen
from the bones, hides and skins of animals. Before manufacturing of the gelatin, the proper
selecting of animals should be done. All the history and the animal geographical origin
should be investigated because the animal may have diseases. Quality control steps are
important in gelatin manufacturing. The materials should be put at clean and sterilized place
to avoid cross-contamination with infected materials. Medicinal products that contain gelatin
are good, however if the precautions during animal selection and material processing are
neglected, gelatin content in the products may bring risks to human.

Saw et. al (2012) had determined the risks of gelatin solutions compared to other
intravenous fluids for patients in perioperative and critical care settings. The result showed
that gelatin has a higher risk of requiring allogeneic blood transfusion in perioperative and
critically ill patients. Therefore, gelatin is not suitable for routine plasma expander patient.

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