IX / X.4 O.S.

SEARCHING
Ugolnikov
FOR A DISTANT PLANET

Condition. Currently, searches are underway for a possible ninth planet in the solar system, which may have a
diameter of 10 Earth diameters and be located at 280 AU. from the sun. An asteroid of what diameter in the main
belt will have the same brightness on Earth in opposition as this planet? Consider the reflectivity of the surface of
an asteroid to be similar to the lunar, and the planet to be similar to Neptune. Both bodies are located in the plane
of the ecliptic.

Decision. Let the body have a diameter D and spherical albedo A and revolves around the Sun in a circular orbit at
a distance L From him. Then the solar energy flux density around this object will be J / 4 π L 2, Where J - the luminosity
of the sun. Intercepting this energy with an area π D 2 / 4, the body will reflect into space its part corresponding to the
albedo A.
We will assume that light is reflected by the body isotropically. Since the body, when viewed from the Earth, is in opposition
to the Sun, its distance from the Earth is ( L - L 0), Where L 0 - the distance from the Earth to the Sun. As a result, the density of
the energy flux from the body on Earth will be

2 2
JD LLADLJ1j A
44 ...
(64 - Lll )
20 2 20
)
2
ππ π4 =( - ⋅ ⋅ = π

Let us now compare the main belt asteroid (index 1) and the hypothetical ninth planet of the solar system (index
2). Since we are not interested in the absolute values ​of brightness, we can express distances in astronomical
units, and then L 0 = 1, and also omit all constants in the previous expression. The condition for the same apparent
brightness on Earth is expressed as

DA 21 1
DA 22 2
...
LL ( = LL
2
121
1) - ( 22 - 1) 2 2

From here we get an expression for the diameter of the asteroid

(1 1
1)
...
1 2 =
LLLLDD
2
( - -1)
2
AA
12

As the distance from the Sun to the main asteroid belt L 1 let's take 2.8 a.u. or
L 2 / 100. Magnitude D 1 turns out to be equal to 15 km.

Evaluation system (from one jury member). The basis for solving the problem is the dependence of the planet's
brightness in opposition to its diameter, albedo, and distance from the Sun. It can be deduced or taken as known,
its correct complete record is estimated at 4 points. If the albedo factor is not taken into account, the score is
reduced by 2 points, but further calculations (with an answer of about 7-8 km) are fully estimated. If distance
dependence is incorrectly taken into account L - omitted one of the factors L or ( L –1) and the answer was about
2000 km - no more than 2 points are given for the whole solution. If the dependencies are obtained correctly, but
the term "–1" is omitted, then this is not an error
for a planet, but decreases the estimate by 2 points in the case of an asteroid. The participants can take values ​from
2.0 to 3.3 AU as the distance from the Sun to the main asteroid belt, otherwise the estimate decreases by 2 points.
When the asteroid leaves the space between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, the estimate decreases by 4 points.

Calculating the diameter of the asteroid is estimated at 4 more points. If, when solving, the diameter is confused with the
radius, the score is reduced by 2 points.

X / XI.1 E.N.GROUND
Fadeev
PHOTOMETRY

Condition. In the focal plane of a telescope with a 20 cm objective lens, the image of a star looks like a uniformly
illuminated spot 20 μm in diameter. The CCD-matrix installed in the focal plane detects that 40 times more light
quanta are recorded in the star spot than in the background area of ​the same area. Determine the magnitude of
the star and the relative aperture of the telescope. The diameter of the atmospheric jitter disk of a point source is 2
″, and the brightness of the sky background is 4.5 m from a square degree.

Decision. The star is a point source. The condition says that due to the influence of the atmosphere, each point is
visible as a disk with an angular diameter of 2 ″ or 10 -five radian. Linear diameter of the object image in the focal plane a
related to its angular size α according to the formula:

α = a / f.

Here f - the focal length of the lens, which turns out to be 2 m.Relative aperture - the size of the aperture,
expressed in its focal lengths (the ratio of the lens diameter to the focal length), it is equal to 1/10 ( f / ten).

To answer the second question, it should be noted that the image of a star is formed not only by the light of the star, but also by the background.
However, according to the condition of the problem, the star is 40 times brighter, so the contribution of the background to the image of the star
can be ignored. From the area of ​the star tremor disk equal to
πα 2 / 4 or 2.4 10 –7 square degree, the background will give a magnitude

m = 4.5 - 2.5 lg 2.4 10 –7 = 21.

The image from the star is 40 (to be absolutely accurate, 39) times brighter, which corresponds to a difference of 4
magnitudes. So, the star has a magnitude of 17 m.

Evaluation system (from one jury member). The solution to the problem is divided into two independent parts,
which can be performed in any order. Each of them is estimated at 4 points. One of them is related to the definition
of the relative aperture. To do this, you need to find the focal length of the lens, which is estimated at 2 points. The
final conclusion is estimated at 2 more points.

The second part of the solution involves calculating the magnitude of the star. To do this, you need to determine
the area occupied by the star image in arbitrary units, which is estimated at 1 point. It is not set in the absence of a
multiplier ( π / 4) or when adding the radius to the radius of the Airy circle (0.7 ″). Next, the stellar magnitude of the
background from this area is found (2 points) and, finally, the stellar magnitude (1 point). Alternative order

nine
action involves calculating the magnitude of the background from a square second (2 points), the magnitude of a
star from a square second (1 point) and the full magnitude of the star (1 point). Errors made at the initial stages
can lead to a decrease in the marks for subsequent stages in the event of a significant discrepancy between the
numerical answer and the correct one.

SHORT VISIT
X.2 O.S. Ugolnikov
Condition. The spacecraft flew from Earth to some other large planet in the solar system along an energetically
optimal trajectory. Flying close to the planet, he immediately set off on the return journey to Earth. During the entire
mission, the apparatus, not including the engines, made one revolution around the Sun and returned to our planet
at the start point of the mission. For which planet closest to the Sun is this possible? Consider the Earth's orbit
circular, and ignore the planet's effect on the apparatus.

Decision. As you know, the energetically optimal trajectory is an ellipse, the perihelion of which is located in the Earth's
orbit, and its aphelion in the planet's orbit. As soon as the spacecraft, after approaching the planet, continued to move
in the same orbit and reached the Earth at the same point at which it started, we can conclude that the entire flight took
a whole number of years. Obviously, this is not possible in the case of a flight to the inner planet, since in this case the
flight would take less than a year. We need to consider the case of the outer planet. Let's draw a diagram of the entire
mission:

Sun Planet

r0

Earth

Let us denote the distance from the Sun to the planet (in astronomical units) through r.
The semi-major axis of the orbit of the vehicle is ( r + 1) / 2, and the time of the entire mission, expressed in years, is:

3/

rt • •• • + = = N ...
••
212

Here N Is an integer. By expressing t through N, we get:

r = 2 N 2/3 - 1.

ten
We define the value r for integer values N:

t, the years r, a.u. t, the years r, a.u.

1 1.00 7 6.32
2 2.17 8 7.00
3 3.16 9 7.65
4 4.04 10 8.28
five 4.85 11 8.89
6 5.60 12 9.48

We see that such a flight could not have occurred to Mars (range of distances r from 1.38 to 1.67 AU) and to
Jupiter (from 4.95 to 5.45 AU). But to Saturn such a mission is possible, since it can be located at 9.48 AU. from
the sun. The entire round trip would take 12 years.

Evaluation system (from one jury member). At the beginning of the solution, the participants of the Olympiad must
indicate (by text and picture) that the entire trajectory of the apparatus during the mission is an ellipse with a perihelion
point at the Earth's orbit and an aphelion point at the planet's orbit. This conclusion is estimated at 1 point. The
expression for the duration of the mission in years is estimated at another 3 points. Solving the equation and finding the
nearest possible planet is worth 4 points. This analysis should include the inner planets or contain a conclusion why this
situation is impossible for them, otherwise no more than 2 points are given for the third stage. If the numbers r (N) obtained
correctly, but the planet was not determined correctly due to errors in the calculations of the distance ranges (or
eccentricities were not taken into account at all), then the score for stage 3 is no more than 1 point.

X / XI.3 S.G.NEUTRIN
Zheltoukhov
DETECTOR

Condition. Estimate the mean free path of low-energy neutrinos in gallium if a neutrino detector containing 60 tons
of gallium can record one low-energy solar neutrino per day. When four protons are converted into a helium atom,
26.8 MeV of energy and two neutrinos of approximately 0.3 eV each are released. The density of gallium is 6 g /
cm 3.

Decision. Let one gallium atom interact with a neutrino if it flies at a distance of no more than r from the center of
the atom. In other words, the atom "intercepts" neutrinos with an area σ = π r 2, which is called the effective
interaction section. If a neutrino in a short time Δ t flies at the speed of light c way

Δ l = c Δ t, then the small probability of its interaction with an atom is equal to the average number of atoms in a tube of length Δ l and
section σ:
Δ P = N σ Δ l = N σ c Δ t.

Here N - concentration of atoms. Free path length l Is the distance at which the expected number of encountered
atoms reaches unity:

l = 1 / N σ.

Let solar neutrinos fly to Earth with a flux density F ( the number of neutrinos flying through the site 1 m 2 for 1 sec,
dimension m –2 sec -1). Then the volume concentration of neutrinos will be equal to

eleven
 n = F / c.

Let us denote the volume of the gallium detector as V. At any time, the number of neutrinos inside the detector will
be equal to nV. The total path traversed by all these neutrinos in time T, will be

L = n V c T = FV T.

If in time T only one interaction is recorded, which means that the total path L equal to the free path l, which we need
to find. The volume of a detector is the ratio of its mass M to density r and is 10 m 3 ( the density value must be
converted to the SI system), the time T also known. It remains to find the neutrino flux density F.

The easiest way to do this is as follows. We know that in one cycle of proton-proton reactions energy is released

E = 2.68 10 7 eV = (2.68 10 7 1.6 10 -nineteen) J = 4.29 10 -12 J.

At the same time, two neutrinos are released. Both neutrinos and solar energy propagate from the Sun
isotropically. As a result, each neutrino corresponds to energy E / 2. Knowing the density of the energy flux from the
Sun to the Earth (solar constant) F S, we find the neutrino flux density:

S 2 14 - -1
= =34 ...
6 2 ⋅ 10 cm ...
EFF/

As a result, the free path is equal to

L = FMT / ρ = 5.5 10 20 m = 18 kpc.

It turns out that in order to record all solar neutrinos, a gallium detector with the same density and size of the order
of our Galaxy is needed! Fortunately, for high-energy neutrinos, the probability of their reaction with matter greatly
increases, which makes it easier to detect them.

Evaluation system (from one jury member). The solution of the problem is divided into two main stages, which
can be performed in a different sequence. The first step is to calculate the neutrino flux density near the Earth. It
can be determined by both a number and a mathematical expression, which is substituted further to obtain the final
answer. The flux density can be calculated through the solar constant (as done above) and through the value of
the total number of neutrinos released by the Sun per unit time. The whole stage is estimated at 4 points. If, during
the solution, an error is made in relation to the luminosity and the rate of neutrino emission (for example, 2 times
during the analysis of the proton-proton reaction), then only 2 points are given for this stage, but the remaining
solution is fully evaluated. More gross errors (in particular,

The second stage of the solution consists in the relationship between the mean free path, the neutrino flux density
and the volume of the detector. This connection can be derived from various principles (including the principle of
dimension). The correct conclusion of this connection is estimated at 3 points. Finally, 1 point is awarded for the
wording of the answer. It is set only if the numerical value of the free path is correct.

12
X / XI.5 O.S.DANGEROUS
Ugolnikov
CLOSE

Condition. A globular star cluster with a radius of 20 pc and a mass of 400 thousand solar masses flies near a
supermassive black hole in the center of our Galaxy with a mass of 4 million solar masses. At what maximum distance
between the center of the cluster and the black hole can the cluster begin to lose mass? The interaction of the cluster with
other bodies near the center of the Galaxy, except for the black hole, and the effects of close encounters of stars in the
cluster should not be taken into account.

Decision. The information given in the condition is not enough to accurately recreate the picture of all the
phenomena that will occur when the cluster approaches a black hole. First of all, the speed at which the cluster
flies past the black hole is unknown. If this speed is not high, then some of the stars in the cluster can move into
orbit around the black hole. At higher speeds, the stars can simply leave the cluster. At an even higher velocity, the
action of the black hole's gravity field will be short-lived, and mass loss will be possible only at small distances
between the black hole and the cluster. Let us estimate from general considerations the maximum distance at
which any cluster stars can leave it under the influence of a black hole.

D M
m

Consider the stars at the edge of the cluster. They move around its center either along elongated orbits, which can
be considered elliptical only in some approximation, or along circular orbits. In the first case, they are located near
the apocenters of their orbits, and their speed is less than in the case of circular motion. So, the maximum speed
of a star at the edge of a cluster is equal to its circular speed:

...
Gm v =
R

Here m and R - mass and radius of the cluster. Suppose now that at a distance D from the center of the cluster in the
same direction as the star under consideration, there is a black hole with a mass M. The resulting acceleration from
the gravitational forces acting on the star will be

'
--= =2 ...
) R GmR g
2 2
( Gm RD GM

Here we compare it with the action of some effective mass m 'in the center of the cluster, which is

...
=MR mm
- - RD)
2
('

Obviously, if the gravitational force of the black hole compensates for the gravitational force of the cluster, and
m 'turns to zero, the star can leave the cluster. But if the action of the black hole

13
will take some time, the star can leave the cluster and with a positive mass m '. For this, its speed must exceed the
second cosmic one for this mass:

'2
...
Gm R Gm vR=

From here we get:

≤ ⋅ 5 1• •••
+= ••• 2 • ... R 5 pc ...
= 110
≤≥- ;
2/' ) MRDM m RDR mm
2
(; 2 m

The easiest way to leave the cluster will be for the stars, which at the moment of approach will move relative to the
center of the cluster in the same direction as the black hole. Numerical modeling of the motion of a star in the field
of two centers of gravity for different values ​of their relative velocities shows that the obtained estimate is close to
the truth. If the speed of movement of the cluster relative to the black hole is not very high, then a small number of
stars can leave the cluster when it approaches the black hole by about 5.0 - 5.5 cluster radii, as can be seen from
the graph. The second figure shows the trajectories of the cluster and the star leaving it at the greatest distance
from the black hole.

effective mass method

5

no mass loss come I am zheniya

4

Hill Ra's sphere in en from your forces

distance cluster radius)

3 tidal analysis
/

possible weight loss

1
D/R(

0 4 8 12 sixteen 20

/v(
v TRANS flying / edge)
speed circular speed at the

fourteen
Another way to understand how far a star can leave the cluster is to think of the black hole's attraction as a tidal force.
We will assume that the star at the edge of the cluster will leave it if the tidal acceleration (the difference in the
acceleration of the black hole at the edge and in the center of the cluster) is not less than the acceleration of attraction
of the center of the cluster:

≥ ...
- - GM
Gm D 2GM RD 2
)
2
( R

If a D significantly exceeds R, then this expression is simplified:

2
GMR ...
3
Gm D≥R 2

From here
13

22
m
•• •MRD
•• • ⋅ ≤ = ...7 R ...

We see that the assumption R << D not entirely justified. An accurate analysis of the equations above gives the
limitation D ≤3.2 R ~ 65 pc. We obtain close values ​if we assume that the outer edge of the cluster must fall into the
inner Lagrange point of the "black hole-cluster" system for mass loss. Then an approximate analysis gives

13

33
•• • •• • ⋅ ≤ = ...1 R,
MRDm

but an exact numerical calculation: D ≤3.5 R. The quantity D turned out to be approximately one and a half times less
than in the calculation by the first method and in the numerical analysis. This is due to the fact that the "tidal" method
does not take into account the possible motion of stars in the cluster and is more related to those stars that at the
time of approaching the black hole will be at the apocenter of their orbits and are almost motionless relative to the
center of the cluster. Since the task requires to find the maximum distance at which the cluster begins to lose mass,
the first method is more correct.

Evaluation system (from one jury member). There is no single exact solution to the problem, the assessment
should be determined by the validity of the method proposed by the participant of the Olympiad, the correctness of
its mathematical implementation and the adequacy of the answer. The maximum score is given if the method takes
into account the movement of stars in the cluster and leads to the answer D ≤5-6 R. At the same time, it should not be
based on some known value of the cluster velocity relative to the black hole and should not assume that the force of
attraction from the black hole should exceed the force of attraction from the cluster.

When using the tidal method for determining the distance or a similar method that does not take into account the
movement of the stars, the maximum score is 4 points, provided the correct answer is ( D ≤3 R). If the participant of
the Olympiad gets high values
D as a consequence of errors in the decision, the score is further reduced depending on the nature of the error. Using
a simplifying model R << D in this case, without checking its accuracy, it decreases the grade by 1 point (maximum - 3
points).

15
If a participant in the Olympiad directly compares the forces of attraction from a cluster and a black hole, as a
result, he obtains a limitation D ≤4.1 R, the maximum score is also 4 points. In case of receipt of a knowingly
incorrect answer (maximum distance D less than 2 R or more 10 R) the score goes down to zero regardless of the
method used.

DISTANT LAND
X.6 O.S. Ugolnikov
Condition. Considering that the luminosity L and mass M yellow and red dwarfs are related as
L ~ M 4, Determine which stars have a planet with a mass, albedo, and temperature conditions similar to Earth using
a spectrograph with a resolution of 10 8.

Decision. Spectrograph resolution R is the ratio of wavelength λ, on which the observations are carried out, to the
minimum difference in the wavelengths of the spectral lines Δλ, which can be fixed individually:

R = λ / Δλ.

With this resolution, the radial velocity of an object can be measured if it leads to a shift of the spectral line by an
amount greater Δλ, i.e:

λ 1
Rc≥
V ...
Δ=λ

Suppose that around a star with mass M a planet with a much lower mass m. The distance from the planet to the
star is D. If we consider the orbit circular, then the speed of the planet will be

...
GM v =
D

The star will also move relative to the center of gravity common to the planet. Her speed
V opposite to speed v. The center of mass itself does not rotate, therefore
MV = mv. The speed of the star will be as many times less than the speed of the planet, how many times the star is more massive than the
planet:
2

= = ...
Gm M mvMD
V

To fix this speed with the spectrograph described in the condition, this speed must create the Doppler effect
described above, that is:

R c MD
Gm ≥ ...

The condition says that the planet is similar in properties to the Earth, that is, it should receive as much heat from a
star as the Earth from the Sun. This amount of heat is proportional to the luminosity of the star and inversely
proportional to the distance to it. Denoting the mass and luminosity of the Sun through M 0 and L 0, and the distance of
the Earth to the Sun is through
D 0, we write this condition mathematically:

sixteen
 =
0 0 22
...
DLDL

Taking into account the ratio "mass-luminosity" we get:

• ••• • = = •••
...
000 MMDLLDD
0

We substitute this into the inequality obtained earlier:

022
GmM
3 R c≥DM ...
0

Hence we get
23 20
2
RMM Gm
= ≤ •• • • ••• • • •••⋅ • ...
•••
0
02
0
M m RMD 0c cv

Here v 0 Is the orbital speed of the Earth. Considering that the relation ( m / M 0) is 3 10 –6, a ( v 0 / c) equals 10 -4, we get that a
planet with the indicated properties can be discovered in stars with a mass of no more than 0.1 solar masses.

Evaluation system (from one jury member). The solution to the problem involves the use of four basic factors,
the first three of which can be in any order:

1. The ratio of the orbital velocities of the planet and the star, the derivation of the expression for the speed of the star.

2. The minimum measured speed of a star, based on the magnitude of the spectral resolution;

3. The ratio between the radius of the planet's orbit and the luminosity (and, therefore, the mass) of the star;

4. Obtaining an upper bound on the mass of a star (the answer must be formulated as an inequality or it must be
indicated that maximum mass of the star). Each of the stages is equal in its contribution to the solution, and its
implementation is estimated at 2 points. However, a mistake made at any stage can lead to a decrease in the mark
for other stages, if the result is a deliberately incorrect conclusion in the solution. Thus, the fourth (final) stage is
not fully counted in each of the following cases:

1. A numerical answer has not been received;

2. The answer does not look (mathematically or in the text) as a limit on the mass of the star from above;
3. The threshold mass does not correspond to stellar masses (less than 0.05 solar masses);
4. The threshold value of mass, on the contrary, is too high and does not correspond to red dwarfs (more than 1
solar mass).

The last stage is also not evaluated if the answer (even close to the correct one) is obtained on the basis of incorrect
reasoning and calculations.

When making a decision, the participant of the Olympiad can confuse the speeds of the star and the planet, which will lead to a very
high upper limit on the mass of stars (without the multiplier m / M 0 in the final

17
formula and numerical answer about 500 solar masses). In this case, due to the deliberately incorrect answer, the
total score for the solution cannot exceed 2 points. It does not increase even if the total mass is less due to
mathematical errors in the solution.

When solving the problem, the participant of the Olympiad may assume that it is enough to distinguish the spectral
line of the star at two opposite values ​of its velocity, which is equivalent to an increase in the resolution R 2 times
and the final threshold mass - 1.6 times. This error is considered insignificant and, if calculated correctly, does not
affect the assessment. The solution can be made entirely in system units without expressing the masses in the
masses of the Sun and the radii of the orbits - in astronomical units. This approach is more difficult to calculate, but
also correct.