Interference of Light

Dr. Mahender Singh

Associate Professor in Physics
Post Graduate Govt. College Sector-11
Chandigarh
 Interference
The term interference refers to phenomenon involving
superposition of waves leading to a modification of
their intensity in the region of superposition.

At certain points, the intensity may become more

than the sum of the intensities of the individual
waves (constructive interference) and at certain other
points it may tend to zero (destructive interference).
 Constructive and Destructive Interference
Two waves (top and middle) arrive at the same point in
space.
The total wave amplitude is the sum of the two waves.
The waves can add constructively or destructively

constructive interference destructive interference

When waves from two or more sources arrive at a
points in phase, they reinforce each other. The
amplitude of resultant wave is the sum of the
amplitudes of the individual waves. This is called
constructive interference shown in fig below. If the
distance of any point P from S1 and S2 is r1 and r2.
For constructive interference the path different must be
an integral multiple of wave length i.e.

r2  r1  n (n  0,1,2,.........)..............(1)
(path different)

Points a and b in figure below satisfy this equation for

n=0 and +2 respectively.
Point a and b
Satisfy
equation (1)
for n=0 and 2
respectively
(b) Condition of constructive interference (c) Condition of desstructive interference
Path difference is integral multiple of Path difference is half-integral multiple
wave length. of wave length.

The condition of destructive interference is given by

 1
r2  r1   n   (n  0,1,2,.........)..............(2)
(path different)  2
Path difference in point is for n=-3
Conditions of interference of light
1. The sources must be coherent. They must
maintain a constant phase with respect to each
other.
2.The waves must have identical wavelengths.
3. The two sources must be narrow, because a broad
source of light is equivalent to a large number of
narrow sources.
4.Sources should be monochromatic.
5.Distane between two sources should be very
small.
6. Wavelength of two sources should be same.
7. Amplitude of waves should be same.
8. Waves should be in the same state of polarization.
 Coherence
The term coherence refers to a degree of co-relation
between the phases at different points and different
times in a beam of light or radiation.

Temporal Coherence (or longitudinal coherence)

A beam of light is said to be temporal coherence, if the phase
difference of the waves crossing the two points laying along
the direction of propagation of the beam is independent. For
this reason, the temporal coherence is also called longitudinal
coherence.
In order to understand the concept of temporal coherence let
us consider Michelson interferometer arrangement shown
below. Source is extended and near monochromatic .

Light form source S falls upon partially coated glass plate A is

divided into two parts on towards M1 and other toward M2 are
equidistance from A i.e. when two waves traversing the two
different paths take the same time, the interference pattern
formed is very good. If the mirror M2 is moved very slowly
away from A, then it is seen that for ordinary extended sources
of light, the contrast in the fringes goes on decreasing and
finally disappear when the path difference AM1-AM2 is about
a few mm.
The source S is emitting small wave trains of average duration
τc and there is no relationship between the wave trains. When
the difference in time taken by the wave trains to travel the
paths A to M1 and back, and A to M2 and back, is much less
than the average duration τc, the interference is observed
between the two wave trains, is one is being derived from the
same wave train. Hence even though different wave trains
originating from the same source S have no definite phase
relationship, but since one is superposing two wave trains
derived from the same wave train, therefore, fringes of good
contrast are seen. On the other hand, if the difference in time
taken to cover the path to M1 and back and to M2 and back is
greater than τc, then one is
superposing two wave trains which are derived from two
different wave trains, interference fringes are not observed since
there is no definite phase relationship between the two wave
trains emanating from the source. Hence if the mirror M2 is
moved, the contrast in the fringes goes on decreasing and for
large separations no fringes are observed.

Let d is the distance through which the mirror was moved when
no fringes would be observed. The beam which is reflected from
the mirror M2 travels an additional distance 2d.
Thus the beam reflected from M1(originates 2d/c second earlier)
interfere with the beam reflected from M2.

2d
If d is the distance such that c
c
Then no will exists between two beams therefore no fringes is
observed.
 Spatial Coherence (or transverse coherence)

A beam of light is said to be spatial Coherence, if the

phase difference of the waves crossing the two points
laying on a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the beam is time independent.
l

Two pin holes S1 and S2 on screen 1 are such that their

distance from the point source S and the distance from any
point O on screen 2 are equal.
Since point source S illuminates the pin holes S1 and S2 with
spherical waves, the interference fringes formed near O would
be in good contrast. Let us now consider, an another source S’
placed near to S and assume that there is no phase relationship
between the waves from S and S’. In such a case, the
interference pattern observed on the screen-2 would be a
superposition of the intensity distributions of the interference
pattern formed due to two point sources S and S’ is in good
contrast. If S’ is moved away slowly from S, the contrast of the
observed fringes becomes poorer, because the interference
pattern formed by S’ is slightly shifted w.r.t. that produced by S.
For a particular distance, the interference maximum produced
by S falls on interference minimum produced by S’ and vice-
versa. For such a situation, the interference fringe pattern is
washed away and the uniform illumination is observed on
screen-2.
 
S S 1  S Q  QS
' ' 2
1 
2 1/ 2

 D   PS 1  PQ
2
 
2 1/ 2

2 1/ 2
 2 d  
 D    l  
  2  
2 1/ 2
 1 d  
 D 1  2   l  
 D  2  
 1 d  
2

 D 1  2 
l  ( D  d , l )
 2 D  2  
 1 d  
2

 D   l 
 2 D  2  
and similarly


S S 2  S Q  QS
' ' 2
2 
2 1/ 2

 S Q   Qp  PS 2 
' 2

2 1/ 2

2 1/ 2
 2  d 
 D   l   
  2 

 1 d  
2

 D   l 
 2 D  2  
Thus for disappearance of fringes, the path difference,


S S 2  S S1 
' '

2
  1 d 
2
  1 d   
2

D    l    D   l  
 2 D  2    2 D  2   2

 1  d2 2   1  d2 2  
D    l  ld    D    l  ld  
 2D  4   2D  4  2
1 d2 2  1  d2 2  
D   l  ld   D    l  ld  
2D  4  2D  4  2
1 
 ld  ld  
2D 2
ld  D D
 or l 
D 2 2d d
For an extended source (of width l) made up of
independent point sources, one may, therefore, say that
the good interference fringes will be observed as long
as
D
l 
d
Equivalently, we can also say that interference fringes
of good contrast can be formed from a given source of
width l by the interference of light from two points S1
and S2 separated by varying distance d as long as

D
d 
l
Since l/D is an angle, say θ, subtended by the source at the
slits, this upper equation can be written as

d 

Thus, in practice, for a point (say S1) on the wave front, there
is some finite area around it, any point (such as S2), within
which will have good phase correlation with S1. By holding
one pin hole, say S1 fixed and moving other pin hole S2 about
it, one can look for any reduction in fringe contrast (or fringe
visibility). The area over which pin hole can be moved and the
interference fringes still be seen is called “COHERENT
AREA” of the light wave. The distanced “d” between the pin
holes for which the fringes just disappear is known as
“TRANSVERSE (or LATERAL) COHERENCE LENGTH and
the corresponding spatial coherence is termed as
TRANSVERSE COHERENCE since it characterizes the spatial
variation in coherence across the wave front in the direction
transverse to the direction of propagation .
Conditions of constructive and destructive
interference( Superposition of waves)
Consider two coherent sources of light having
displacements as
y1  a1 sin t and y2  a2 sin(t   )
By using principal of superposition at point P, we get
Y  y1  y2  a1 sin t  a2 sin(t   )
 a1 sin t  a2 sin t cos  a2 cos t sin 
 sin t (a1  a2 cos )  cos t (a2 sin  )of........(3)
 Putting a1  a2 cos  A cos ........(4)
a2 sin   A sin  ........(5)
Y  A sin  t cos   A cos  t sin 
 A[sin  t cos   cos  t sin  ]
 A sin(t   ).......(6)
This is simple harmonic wave and Amplitude of
resultant wave can be find out by squaring and adding
(4) and (5)

A cos   A sin   (a1  a2 cos )  a sin 

2 2 2 2 2 2
2
2

A  a  a (cos   sin  )  2a1a2 cos

2 2
1
2
2
2 2
 A  a  a  2a1a2 cos
2 2
1
2
2

A  a  a  2a1a2 cos ...........(7)

2
1
2
2

Intensity I is directly proportional to the square of

the amplitude of the resultant wave
I  A  ( a  a  2 a1 a 2 cos  ).......... .(8)
2 2
1
2
2
(ii) Condition for constructive interference
For I should be maximun cos  1
i.e.   0,2  ,4  .....
  2n 
where n  0, 1, 2 , 3 , 4 ,.....
 Equation (7) becomes A  a  a  2a1a2 2
1
2
2

A  (a1  a2 )
Intensity I becomes
I max   a 1  a 2  .......... (9)
2

(iii) Condition for destructive interference

For I should be minimun cos    1
i.e.    ,3  , 5  .....
  ( 2n  1) 
where n  0, 1, 2 , 3 , 4 ,.....
 Equation (7) becomes A  a  a  2a1a2 2
1
2
2

A  (a1  a2 )
Intensity I becomes
I max   a 1  a 2  .......... (10)
2

dividing (9) by (10) we get

I max  a1  a 2 
2
 when a1  a2  a( say)
I max  a1  a 2  2

I max  4 a 2 . and I min  0 .........( 11)

(iv) Energy conservation in interference
I max   a1  a2  and I min   a1  a2 
2 2

Imax  Imin  a1  a2    a1  a2 
2 2
Iave  
2 2
I ave  a1  a 2 .........( 12)
2 2

Also intensity from two sources at every point is

I ave  I1  I 2  a  a
2
1
2
2
Which is same as eq. (12)
I ave  2a 2 when a1  a2  a( say)
Young’s double slit experiment

P1
d/2
d/2
x P2

D
 x  S 2 P  S 1 P .........( 13)
From triangle S2BP
( S 2 P ) 2  ( S 2 B ) 2  ( BP ) 2
2
 d 
 D y 
2

 2
From triangle S1BP

( S 1 P )  ( S 1 B )  ( PA )
2 2 2

2
 d 
 D y 
2

 2
2 2
 d  d
( S 2 P )  ( S1 P )  D   y    D   y  
2 2 2 2

 2  2
 2 2
 2 d 2
  2 d 2

( S 2 P )  ( S 1 P )   y 
2 2
 yd    y   yd 
 4   4 
( S 2 P ) 2  ( S 1 P ) 2  2 yd

( S 2 P  S 1 P )( S 2 P  S 1 P )  2 yd

Using eq. (13)

x.( S 2 P  S 1 P )  2 yd
Since both slits are very close
S 2 P  S1 P  D
x . 2 D  2 yd
yd
Path difference ( S 2 P  S 1 P )  x  ....(14)
D
Constructive interference (for bright band)
yd n D
Path difference  n or y 
D d

when n  0, y 0  0 (Central bright fringe)

D (first bright fringe)
when n  1, y 1 
d
2  D (second bright fringe)
when n  2, y 2 
d
n D (nth bright fringe)
when n  n, y n 
d
D
fringe width   .......... ..(15)
d
Destructive interference (for dark band)
yd  ( 2 n  1) D 
Path difference  ( 2 n  1) y
D 2 d 2
D (first dark fringe)
when n  0, y 
'
0
2d
3D (second dark fringe)
when n  1, y1 
'

2d
D (third dark fringe)
when n  2, y2 
'

2d
D [(2n  1)th dark fringe]
when n  0, y0 
'

2d
D
fringe width (for both bright and dark fringe)  
d
 White Light Fringes
D
fringe width  
d

The fringe width as given above depends upon wave

length, it is more for red and less for violet colour. In
fact, the fringe width for red light is about double of
that for the red light. If white light is used in place of
monochromatic light in Young’s double slit
experiment, a separate fringe pattern of any p th fringe
is obtained for each wavelength. However, the position
of central fringe will be same for all colours.
Fresnel’s Biprism Interference

D
Fresnel’s used a biprism to obtain coherent sources by
refraction to produce interference pattern. Fresnel’s
biprism ABC consists of two acute angles at B and C
are of 30 minutes each and angle A of 179 degrees.
Biprism produces two virtual images S1 and S2
(separated by distance d) of a fine slit S illuminated by
a monochromatic source of light by refraction by upper
and lower halves of the prism as shown above.
D is the distance between source and screen, then the
fringe width as determined in Young’s double slit
experiment is given by eq. (15) as
D
fringe width   ........(1 5)
d
Fringe pattern is formed in the region between b and c
as shown in the figure.
Interference and diffraction fringes produced in the
Fresnel biprism experiment.
d is measured by displacement method. For this
a convex lens is placed between eye piece and
biprism at L1 as shown in figure and obtain the
distance d1 between the sharp image of S1and S2
seen in the eye piece.
Similarly move the biprism to a dotted position, so that
the images of S1and S2 are again visible sharply in the
eye piece and again measure the distance d2.
For the first position of the lens
v d1

u d
Also for the second position of the lens at dotted position
u d2

v d
Multiplying these two
v u d 2 d1
.  . .
u v d d
d 1d 2
2
1  d  d 1d 2
d
Now the wave length of light can be measured using
equation (15)

d
wave length   
D
 Lloyd’s Mirror Experiment

d f

D
• An arrangement for producing an interference
pattern with a single light source
• Wave reach screen from source S₁ either by a direct
path or by reflection
• The reflected ray can be treated as a ray from the
source S₂ behind the mirror
• The interference pattern is observed in the
overlapping region bc
• The point f being equal distance from S₁ and S₂,
gives position of central fringe, is not visible as no
reflected light reaches f.
• Nature of fringes and expression are same as in
Young’s double slit.
• The fringe shift is gives by
D
fringe width  
d
The distance d can be measured by displacement
method as in Fresnel’s biprism experiment and D
directly as measured

D
fringe width  
d
Nature of central Fringe The central fringe will be dark
and it can be seen only when screen touches the edge
of mirror. This is because there is a 180° phase change
produced by the reflection ray.
 Achromatic fringes
D
fringe width  
d
In the Lloyd’s method of interference, coloured
fringes are formed, because the fringe width as given
above depends upon wave length, it is more for red
and less for violet colour. Therefore overlapping is
not complete and as result of which around central
maximum, few colours are formed.

However, if one can arrange = constant, the
d
fringes becomes independent of wavelength.
The fringe width become constant for all colours and
central maximum will appears white. They are called
achromatic fringes with white light.
 R

V'
V L M

'
R
Achromatic fringes with white light are possible
because of lateral inversion of image in Lloyd’s
mirror. If a spectrum R V is formed, its reflected image
V’ R’ is produced.

RR '  R
 
 
R
 R
VV ' V RR ' VV '

 contant
d
 Application of interference
(i) Lateral displacement of fringes and Retardation of
optical Path (determination of refractive index of
transparent material of thickness t)
When a transparent material of refractive index µ and
of thickness t is placed in the path of one of the beam,
then the path of that very beam become longer by
(µ-1)t.
path difference  S P  S P Becomes as
2 1
 S2 P [S1P  ( 1)t]
 (S2 P  S1P)  ( 1)t
yd
putting ( S 2 P  S1 P )  from equation (14)
D
yd
path difference   (   1)t.......... .... (15)
D
For bright fringe
yd
path difference   (   1) t  n 
D
yd
 (   1) t  n 
D
D
y nt   (   1) t  n  
d

D
y0t  (   1) t
d
The distance y0 where the central fringe is formed
t
when the plate is placed in one of the path.
The fringe shift Δy in the nth fringe when the plate is
placed in one of the paths. y  y  y
nt n0
D D
  (   1) t  n     (   1).0  n  
d d
D D
  (   1) t  n    n 
d d
D
y  (   1) t
d D  D
by eq.(15)   or 
d  d

y  (   1) t

The fringe shift can be calculated by knowing other
parameters
(ii)Determination of refractive index of a gas at any
pressure.
Rayleigh’s Refractometer is determination of refractive
index of a gas at any pressure.
• In the double slit experiment, two beams are made to
pass separately through the tube T₁ and T₂ of around
one meter length.
• The gas whose refractive is to be measured is filled
in two tubes T₁ and T₂ are filled at same pressure.
The position of fringe pattern is noted using eye
piece.
• Then gas in one of the tubes is filled at different
pressure.
• Because of change in pressure in one of the tubes,
there is a lateral shift in the fringes.
• ∆µ = change in the refractive index with the change
in pressure of gas.
• n = number of fringes displayed.
• L = length of the tube.
 n
L   n    
L
By using this equation Δµ can be calculated. Thus the
refractive of any gas can be calculated as (µ - 1)
proportional to pressure P i.e.
(  1)  P
(  1)  KP
Where K is constant. Hence

  KP
(iii) Measurement of small thickness

ge s
t fr in
n
3
 2
4
P  4 4  X’
X n
t
tan   tan   2
x x'
n
t n
 2 t
x x' 2 x'
Methods Of Obtaining Interference Pattern
Two methods are:-
1. Division of Wave front - The two interfering light
waves were produced by division of wave front. For
example, in Young's double slit experiment, Lloyd’s
mirror, Fresnel’s Biprism.

2. Division of Amplitude - In this method, the same

beam of light is partially reflected from two
surfaces. The two reflected beams so produced
interfere as the phase difference is constant , which
is an essential condition for coherence. For example,
Colour of thin films, Newton’s Ring Experiment,
Michelson Morley Interferometer.
Interference due to thin films
A r1
r2

i
L
E i
B D
t rrr r 
i E
C
i F
 Reflected system
Optical path difference between rays r1 and r2
  ( BC  CD )  BL sin i
 t t   
     BD sin i sin r
 cos r cos r  sin i   sin r
2 t
  (t tan r  t tan r ) sin i
cos r
2 t
  2t tan r sin r
cos r
  1 
path difference  2 t  tan r sin r 
 cos r 
 1 sin r 
 2 t  sin r 
 cos r cos r 
2t

cos r
 
1  sin 2 r

 2  t cos r
The ray BR1 suffers reflection from denser medium ,
therefore and additional phase difference of π radian
or a path difference of  / 2 is introduced.


net path diff.  2t cosr 
2
For constructive For destructive
interference interference
i.e. for bright fringes i.e. for dark fringes
2  t cos r  n 
 n  0 ,1, 2 ,3 .........
2  t cos r   n 
2 n
n  0 ,1, 2 ,3 ......... t
 2 cos r
2 t cos r  n 
2

 ( 2 n  1)
2
( 2 n  1)
t 
4  cos r
Transmitted system
Optical path difference between rays r1 and r2
 (CD  DE)  CF
 t t 
     CE sin i
 cos r cos r 
2 t
  ( t tan r  t tan r ) sin i
cos r
2 t
  2 t tan r  sin r
cos r
 2  t cos r
 Since reflection takes place from rare medium
therefore, no additional phase diff. is introduced.
 net path diff.  2  t cos r
For constructive For destructive
interference interference
i.e. for bright fringes i.e. for dark fringes
2  t cos r  n  
2t cos r  (2n  1)
n  0 ,1, 2 ,3 ......... 2
n t
( 2 n  1)

t 4  cos r
2 cos r
By compression of the interference in both systems we
can see that the reflected and transmitted systems are
complementary to each other.
 Newton’s rings
Another method for viewing interference is to place a
planoconvex lens on top of a flat glass surface. The
air film between the glass surfaces varies in thickness
from zero at the point of contact to some thickness d.
A pattern of light and dark rings is observed.
These rings are called Newton’s rings.
Newton’s Rings can be used to test optical lenses
Ray 1 undergoes a phase change of 180 degree on
reflection, whereas ray 2 does not undergoes any
phase change.
R= radius of curvature of lens
r = radius of Newton’s ring
t
The path difference between rays reflected from
thickness t is given by
path diff  2  t cos r

For air   1. as the incident ray

is normal, hence r = 0, cos r  1 Determination of t
path diff  2 t
t  R R r
2 2

For bright fringes

 1  r 2 
 t  R  R 1     ...
2 t  ( 2 n  1)
2  2  R  
For dark fringes
2t  n  1 r2
t
Thus for dark fringes 2 R
r2
 n  r  nR
2

R
 So, radius of nth dark ring, r  nR

Radius of the dark rings is proportional to the square

root of natural integral number

( 2 n  1)  R
Similarly for bright fringer 
2
Radius of the bright rings is proportional to the
square root of odd integral number
Michelson’s Interferometer
M1

M2
S o

P1 P2
In Michelson’s Interferometer a beam of
monochromatic light from a extended source is
splitted into two beams so that one beam strikes a
fixed mirror and the other a movable mirror. When the
reflected beams from these two mirrors brought back
together, an interference pattern results.

Compensated plate P2 is introduced just to make the

optical path equal for both reflected and transmitted
beams. Because the reflected beam passes twice from
the glass plate P1
The observation in the telescope (detector) due to
these two beams is considered to be obtained due to
reflection from mirror M1 and the image M2’ of mirror
M2 in mirror M1.
Thickness between position of two mirrors M1 and
M2’ = t
For dark fringes
Path diff. between coherent beams 2 t cos r  n
As µ = 1 for air therefore path diff. 2t cosr  n
n  0,1,2,3.........
For bright fringes 
Similarly for dark fringes, path 2 t cos r  (2n  1)
diff.
2
In both the cases for given vales of t, n and λ, the angle
r will be constant is constant. Therefore the fringes are
circular like Newton’s Rings but they are formed at
infinity and hence can be seen using naked eye or with
telescope.
In Michelson’s experiment fringes of various types can
be formed i.e. circular, straight, parabolic, elliptical or
even hyperbolic. This depends upon, the separation
and the inclination between the mirror M1 and virtual
image of M2’ of mirror M2.
 Circular fringes

2t t

2t cos r
r r r
r
x

P1 P2 M1 M '
2
As in figure above for circular fringes is clear that an
additional path difference of λ/2 is introduce in the
beam reflected at mirror M2’
Therefore for dark fringes
 
path diff. 2 t cos r   ( 2 n  1)
2 2
2 t cos r  n  .........( 1)

Therefore for bright fringespath diff. 2 t cos r   n
2

2 t cos r   2 n  1 ....(2)
2
At normal incidence (r = 0), for dark fringes the path
diff becomes
2 t  n  .......... .(3)
'

where n' is an integer.

 (3)  (1) gives 2 t  2 t cos r  ( n ' n )   m 

where ( n ' n )  m
2 t (1  cos r )  m  r2 r4
cos r  1   .....
m 2! 4!
(1  cos r )   1  cos r 
2t  
2 r2 r4
r m 1   1   .... 
  2! 4! 
2! 2 t 
2
m r
r 
2
1  cos r 
t 2!
r m
If r1,r2,r3,r4.... are the angles for first, second,
third….rings and R1, R2 , R3 , R4.... are their respective
radii of the rings.
R1 R2 R3
r1  , r2  , r3  .....etc
x x x
Where x is the distance of M2 from source. Therefore,
it is clear that
R m

Special case if t = 0 then M1 and M2 coincides i.e.

path difference between the rays will be λ/2,
therefore, the central fringe is bright.
Applications of Michelson’s Interferometer

(i) Measurement of wavelength.

For nth fringe 2t cosr  n
n  0,1,2,3.........
At center r = 0, therefore cos r = 1 2 t  n  .......... ( i )

Now decrease t by t 0 and the number of fringes

disappearing at the center is N then
2 ( t  t 0 )  ( n  N )  ......( ii )
(ii) - (i) 2t0  N 
2t0
 
N
(ii) Determination of difference of two close
wavelengths and width of spectral lines
Let the two closely spaced lines have wavelengths λ₁
and λ₂ . When interferometer is adjusted for circular
fringes, each wavelengths produce their own rings.
The mirror is moved so that best contrast circular
fringes are obtained. It will happen when path
difference is such that maximum due to λ₁ coincides
with the maximum due to λ₂. Under these conditions,
say n₁ order of λ₁ coincides with n₂ order of λ₂.
path difference   n11  n 2  2 (1)
As the mirror separation in increased gradually, the
contrast decreases and becomes worst and then again
increases and becomes best again.
Let the mirror M₂ is displaced by d, while moving from
one contrast to next contrast. The condition occur when
(n₁+m) order due to λ₁ coincide with (n₂+m+1) due to λ₂.
The new position implies

  2 d  ( n1  m ) 1  ( n 2  m  1)  2

  2 d  n11  m 1  n 2  2  m  2   2 (2)
  n11  n 2  2 (1)
eqn. (2) - (1) gives 2d  m1  m2  2 (3)
2
2  m1  m2  m 
1  2
Putting the value of m from this equation into eqn. (3)
12 1 2
2d   1   2  2 d (4)
1  2
  1 2
λ₁ and λ₂ are very close therefore

Now eqn. (4) becomes    1   2 
2d

Difference in wave lengths can be determined by

knowing the average value of wavelength.
(iii) Determination of thickness of transparent
sheet.
1. Using white light fringes are obtained
2. A transparent sheet of thickness t is introduced in
the path of one of the rays.
3. Net path difference introduced is x = 2(µ - 1)t.

4. Now the mirror M2 is moved by a distance d such

that central white fringe reoccupies its original
position.
The path diff x  2d  2(   1)t
5. The thickness of transparent sheet d is given by
d
t 
 1
(iv) Determination of refractive index of
transparent film.
1. First the white light fringes are obtained and then
a transparent film of thickness t is introduced in
one of the interfering beams.
2. Then the increase in the path will be  2 (   1) t
and central fringe shifts. Here the factor appears
as the ray has to pass the sheet twice.

3. Let n is the number if fringes crossing the field of

view, then.
2 (   1) t  n 
4. Thus wave length can be determined.
(v) Standardization of meter.

Michelson calibrated standard meter in 1892-95

1 meter is found to be equal to 1553164.13 red cadmium

wavelengths and the accuracy was of the order of
1 in  10 7

Wave length of red line of cadmium

  6438 . 472 A 
 Stokes’ Law

tt ' a  r a  a ,  tt '  1  r
2 2

art  atr '  0 , or r   r '

This shows that there is reversal of phase when the ray
of light is reflected by a denser medium and there is no
absorption of light.
Multiple Beam Interference
The path difference between (1) and (2) is
2  d cos  '
The ray (1) undergoes a phase change of π at reflection, while
ray (2) does not, since it is internally reflected. Then the
condition   1
2  d cos  
'
  n  
2  2 Minima
2  d cos   n  .........( 1)
'

becomes a condition of destructive interference as far as ray (1)

and (2) are concerned. The path difference between (2) and (3) is
given by
2  d cos '

But here only internal reflections are involved, the ray (3) is in
phase with (2). The same holds for successive pairs, so under
these conditions (1) and (2) will be out of phase, but the rays (2),
(3), (4)….will be in phase with each other. On the other hand if
the condition are such that
 Maxima
2  d cos   ( 2 n  1)
'

2
Ray (2) will be in phase with (1), but (3), (5), (7)…. Are
out of phase with (2), (4), (6),….since (2) is more intense
than (3), (4) is more intense than (5), etc., these pair
cannot cancel each other, and since the stronger series
combines with (1), the strongest of all, there will be a
maximum of intensity.
For the minimum intensity, ray (2) is out of phase with
ray (1), but (1) considerable greater amplitude than (2),
so that these two will not completely annul each other.
The addition of (3), (4), (5), …, which all in phase with
(2), will give a net amplitude just sufficient to make up
the difference and to produced complete darkness at
the minimum. Using a for the amplitude of the
incident wave, r for the fraction of this reflection, t and
t’ for the fraction transmitted in going from rare to
dense or dense to rare
From the above figure, the resultant amplitude is
obtained as
A  atrt ' atr 3 t ' atr 5 t ' atr 7 t ' ....
 atrt ' (1  r  r  r ....)
2 4 6

Since r is necessarily less than 1, therefore the

geometrical in bracket has finite sum given as
1
(1  r  r  r ...) 
2 4 6

(1  r )
2

1
A  artt '
(1  r )
2

From Stokes’ law

tt '  (1  r )
2
 1
A  ar (1  r )
2

(1  r 2 )
A  ar
This is just equal to the amplitude of the first reflected
ray, so there will be complete interference.
 Complex Amplitude
The simple harmonic wave in exponential form is
written as
i (  t  kx ) i t  ikx
y  ae  ae e
i t  i
y  ae e Where kx = δ

i
or y  ae
the time-varying factor exp(iωt) is of no importance in
combining waves of same frequency, since the
amplitudes and relative phases are independent of
time. The factor exp( -iδ), is called complex amplitude.
The negative sign merely indicate that the phase is
behind the standard phase. In general vector a is given
by i
a  ae  a cos   ia sin   x  iy
x  a cos  and y  a sin 
y
a x y2 2
tan  
x
The advantage of using complex amplitudes lies in the
fact that the algebraic addition of two or more is
equivalent two vector addition of the real amplitudes.
 i i1 i 2
Ae  a1e  a2e
i  i
Ae . Ae A 2

x1  x2  a1 cos 1  a2 cos  2  X
y1  y2  a1 sin 1  a2 sin  2  Y
( X  iY )( X  iY )  X  Y  A
2 2 2

Y
A  X Y 2 2 tan  
X
Fabry Perot Interferometer
Principle It is based on the principle of interference by
multiple reflections.

Construction it consists of two quartz plates, placed parallel

to each other, so that a film of air is enclosed between them as in
the Fig. shown above. Air film form the medium in which the
multiple reflection occur. The inner plates are coated with a thin
layer of silver to make the surface partially reflecting. The outer
surfaces of the plates are made slightly inclined w.r.t. the inner
surfaces, to avoid the spurious interference due to plates
themselves acting as the medium multiple reflections.

Working The transmitted beams of light are brought focus

on the screen with the help of a lens L. the separation between
the plates is ‘d’ , then the point P₂ at which the rays comes to
focus will be maximum or minimum depending upon the path
difference.
Derivation of intensity in Fabry Perot
Interferometer
For the fringe system formed by transmitted light, the
sum of complex amplitudes is
i i i 2
Ae  att ' att ' r e  att ' r e  ...
2 4

 att ' (1  r 2 e i  r 4 e i 2   ...)

 a (1  r 2 )(1  r 2 e i  r 4 e i 2   ...)
The infinite geometric series in the second parentheses
has the common ration r²exp(iδ), and has a finite sum
because r²<1. summing the series, one obtains
i a (1  r ) 2
Ae 
1  r 2 e i
Intensity is at point P₂ proportional to the square of
the amplitude as

i 2 i  i
I  Ae  Ae . Ae
 i 2
I  Ae  Ae i . Ae  i
a (1  r 2 ) a (1  r 2 )
I  2 i
. 2  i
1 r e 1 r e
a (1  r )
2 2 2
I 
1  r 2 ( e i  e  i )  r 4
(e i  e i )
 cos 
2
And maximum intensity = I max  a 2

(1  r ) 2 2
I  I max
1  2 r cos   r
2 4
 (1  r 2 ) 2
I  I max
  
1  2 r  1  2 sin
2 2
 r
4

 2 
(1  r ) 2 2
I  I max

1  2 r  4 r sin
2
r 42 2

2
(1  r ) 2 2
I  I max

1  2 r  r  4 r sin
2 4 2 2

2
(1  r 2 ) 2
I  I max

(1  r )  4 r sin
2 2 2 2

2
 1
I  I max .......( 1 )
4r 2

1 sin 2

(1  r )
2 2
2
For minimum intensity
   3 5
sin 2
 1,  , , ...,    , 3  , 5  ,....
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
I min  I max  I min  I max
4r 2
(1  r 2 ) 2  4 r 2
1
(1  r 2 ) 2 (1  r 2 ) 2
(1  r 2 ) 2 (1  r 2 ) 2
I min  I max  I max
(1  r 2 ) 2  4 r 2
(1  r 2 ) 2

I max (1  r 2 ) 2

I min (1  r 2 ) 2
Sharpness of fringes The fringes are said to be sharp if
the intensity falls rapidly on either side of maxim.
sharpness of the fringes is given by I /Imax
1
Intensity from eq. (1) I  I max
4r 2 
1 sin 2

(1  r )
2 2
2
1
I  I max 4r 2
 where ,F 
1  F sin 2
(1  r 2 ) 2
2

The sharpness if the fringes is studies in terms of half

fringe width i.e., width of fringe corresponding to half
of the maximum intensity.
I 1
For half fringe width 
Imax 2
 I 1 1 For δ is small
 
I max  2  
1  F sin 2
sin 
2 2 2
  (1  r 2 )
 1  F sin 2
 2 
2 2 2r
 (1  r 2 )
F sin 2
 1  
2 r
 1
For r =1, then δ = 0
sin 
2 F i. e. maximum
 1 (1  r 2 ) 2 visibility, for fringes to
sin   be sharp δ should be as
2 F 4r2
small as possible. The
 (1  r 2 ) value of δ can be
sin 
2 2r controlled by varying r
only.
 (1  r 2 )
 
r
The visibility is maximum for , r  1    0

for , r  0 . 9    0 . 105 rad .........( X )

For Michelson’s interferometer the intensity is given
by

I  I max 2
cos
2

At half width
I max 2  1  
I  cos    45 or   radian


2 2 2 2 2

  1 . 57 rad .....( Y )

eq. (X) and (Y) shows that the fringes obtained with
Fabry Perot interferometer are comparatively much
sharper than those obtained with the Michelson’s
interferometer.