TECHNICAL PUBLICATION NO.

2
ISSN 1908-9600

THE SOIL SURVEY

MANUAL

BUREAU OF SOILS AND WATER MANAGEMENT

DECEMBER 2008
 TECHNICAL PUBLICATION NO. 2
ISSN 1908-9600

THE SOIL SURVEY

MANUAL
The Soil Survey Division Staff
Integrated Soil Resources Information Service Staff

Rodelio Carating
Senior Editor

Virgilio Castañeda
Querubin Navero
Juliet Manguerra
Irvin Samalca
Assistant Editors

BUREAU OF SOILS AND WATER MANAGEMENT

DECEMBER 2008
The Soil Survey Manual
Soil Survey Staff
Integrated Soil Resources Information Service Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

December 2008
Preface

It was still March, 1960 when the “Handbook of Soil Surveys for the
Philippines” by Alfredo Barrera was last published. Since then, there has
not been any updates. Considering the developments in soil survey and
classification, there is a dearth of teaching and reference materials for the
conduct of soil survey in the Philippines. Soil survey professors who need a
locally applicable textbooks for students to refer on, as well as environmental
consultancies who need to conduct their own soil surveys are in need of
locally produced and locally applicable materials that consolidate current
practices in soil surveys in the Philippines.

The handbook aims to consolidate soil survey practices in the Soil

Survey Division, Bureau of Soils and Water Management and provide
general information on the fundamentals of soil survey work.

The materials do not depart from the standard practices every

surveyor knows by heart and which students of soil survey and classification
are introduced into during their course work when they take Soil Survey and
Classification subject in the university.

As in the work of Alfredo Barrera, the major framework of this manual

is based on the USDA Soil Survey Manual. The editor’s copy, however, is
an electronic one and secured in 1990 which is presumed to be an updated
version of the 1981 edition. As this was from a diskette provided by Dr.
Danilo Guinto while he was pursuing his doctoral studies in Australia, we
would like to take this opportunity to thank him for his continued support.

Additional materials were gathered from different published and

unpublished reports available from the editors. A consultation workshop
was conducted 31 January—1 February 2008 at Makiling Highlands in
Pansol, Los Banos to finalize the manuscript.

The original manuscript was ready for publication by June 2008 but
when the Senior Editor attended the international workshop on the Asian Soil
Information System in Tsukuba, Japan in October 2008, he was given a copy
of Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, Version 2 (September
2002) by Dr. William F. Effland of the Natural Resources Conservation
Service, USDA, the release of the final manuscript was moved to December
2008 to further update this manual. This is still within our objective of coming
up with at least two technical publications a year.
Director’s Message

I heartily congratulate the Soil Survey

Division for coming up with an updated Soil Survey
Manual through the leadership of Rodelio B.
Carating, Technical Assistant to the Director and
Soil Survey Division OIC during the first quarter of
2008. He made great efforts to upgrade the quality
of soil survey and extend this to succeeding soil
surveyors through this manual. This despite the
fact that his OIC tenure in Soil survey was over.

Soil survey is a highly specialized skill and this manual is a very

important tool to preserve this knowledge considering the limited
experienced soil surveyors not only in the Philippines, but practically
everywhere. Few students are taking up agriculture and even rarer are
those majoring in Soil Science. This manual can serve even as textbook for
those who would like to go into field description of soils, soil mapping, and
even preparation of soil survey report.

Since the Philippines adopt the USDA Soil Taxonomy in soil

classification and soil mapping, the delay in the original date of release of
this manual (originally set for June 2008 but moved to December 2008) is
compensated by incorporation of updates based on the current US soil
survey practices. We are indebted to Dr. William F. Effland of the Natural
Resources Conservation Service , USDA for providing us a copy of their field
book. We also thank Dr. Zueng-Sang Chen of the National Taiwan
University for organizing Asian Soil Information System workshop in October
2008 that enabled us to have linkage with Dr. Effland.

Again, my congratulations to the Soil Survey Division for this effort.

Mabuhay!

SILVINO Q. TEJADA
Executive Director
Contents

Part 1—Soil Survey Manual

A. Preparations for Field Survey

1.1 Planning the schedule and length of field survey 1

1.2 Types of soil survey 1
1.3 Composition of the field survey team 3
1.4 Material checklist 3
1.5 Field survey equipment 3
1.6 Secondary material sources 4
1.7 Working maps and scale 4
1.8 Tentative delineation of soil mapping unit boundaries and legend 5
1.9 Planning the survey route 5

B. The Field Survey: Site Description

2.1 Determination of sampling points 7

2.2 Pit digging and the pit protocol 7
2.3 General description of sampling area 8
2.3.1 Site Identification Number 8
2.3.2 Location and Lab Sample No. 8
2.3.3 Climatic Conditions 9
2.3.4 Geomorphic Description 9
2.3.5 Parent Material 11
2.3.6 Vegetation and Land Cover 14
2.3.7 Water Status 14
2.3.8 Erosion 16
2.3.9 Surface Fragments 16
2.3.10 Other site observation data 16

C. The Field Survey: The Soil Profile

3.1 Diagnostic Horizons for Classification 17

3.1.1 Diagnostic surface horizons 17
3.1.2 Subsurface diagnostic horizons 18
3.2 Description of the soil profile 20
3.2.1 Recognizing master horizons 20
3.2.2 Subhorizon designations 21
3.2.3 Lithologic discontinuities 22
3.2.4 Other horizon modifiers 22
3.3 The Soil Color 22
3.4 The Soil Texture 23
3.4.1 General soil textural groupings 23

vii
 3.4.2 Presence of coarse fragments in soils 26
3.4.3 Textural classes for organic soils 26
3.4.4 Textural classes for volcanic soils 27
3.5 Mottles 27
3.5.1 Abundance 28
3.5.2 Size 28
3.5.3 Contrast 28
3.5.3.1 Contrast when hues are the same 28
3.5.3.2 Contrast when hues differ by 1 29
3.5.3.3 Contrast when hues differ by 2 29
3.5.3.4 Contrast when hues differ by 3 29
3.5.3.5 Exception 29
3.5.4 Shape 29
3.6 Soil Structure 30
3.6.1 Grade 30
3.6.2 Size Class 30
3.6.3 Type 30
3.7 Soil Consistency 32
3.7.1 Consistency at various moisture status 32
3.7.1A Rupture resistance for blocks, peds, and clods 33
3.7.2 Stickiness 33
3.7.3 Plasticity 34
3.8 Presence and distribution of roots 35
3.8.1 Quantity or Abundance 35
3.8.2 Size 35
3.8.3 Location 35
3.9 Presence of pores or voids 35
3.9.1 Quantity or Abundance 36
3.9.2 Size 36
3.9.3 Shape 37
3.9.3.1 Soil Pores (“Non-Matrix Pores”) 37
3.9.3.2 Primary Packing Voids (“Matrix Pores”) 37
3.9.4 Vertical Continuity 37
3.10 Cracks (New) 37
3.10.1 Kind 38
3.10.2 Depth 39
3.10.3 Relative Frequency 39
3.11 Ped Coatings and Void Surface Features 39
3.11.1 Kind 39
3.11.2 Amount 42
3.11.3 Distinctness 43
3.11.4 Location 43
3.11.5 Color 44
3.12 Concentrations 44
3.12.1 Nature 46
3.12.2 Quantity or abundance 47
3.12.3 Size 47

viii
 3.12.4 Contrast 48
3.12.5 Color and Moisture State 48
3.12.6 Shape 48
3.12.7 Location or Distribution 48
3.12.8 Hardness 49
3.12.9 Boundary 49
3.12.10 Example of concentration description 50
3.12.11 Additional notes 50

3.13 Redoximorphic Features 50

3.13.1 Kinds 50
3.13.2 Quantity 51
3.13.3 Size 51
3.13.4 Contrast 51
3.13.5 Color and Moisture State 52
3.13.6 Shape 52
3.13.7 Location 52
3.13.8 Hardness 52
3.13.9 Boundary 52

3.14 Reaction Tests 52

3.14.1 Soil pH 52
3.14.2 Effervescence 53
3.14.3 Active ferrous iron compounds 53
3.14.4 Manganese oxides 53
3.14.5 Active aluminum 54
3.14.6 Electrical conductivity 54

3.15 Other Measurements 54

3.15.1 Soil Hardness or Compactness 54
3.15.2 Additional determinations: Hydraulic Conductivity, 55
Salinity, Sodicity, etc.

3.16. Horizon Boundaries and Continuity with Pedon 56

3.17 Getting Profile Samples for laboratory analyses 56

3.18 Validating the Soil Boundary 57

C. Post Survey Activities

3.1 Soil Classification 59

Development of the taxonomic unit or the soil concept 60
Soil classification at higher levels 60
Soil classification at lower level—the soil series 61
3.2 Soil Mapping 63

ix
 Designing map units 63
Soil phases 63
Area distinctions 68
Kinds of miscellaneous areas 69
3.3 Purity of Soil Mapping Units 70
Non-limiting inclusions 70
Limiting inclusions 70
Minimizing inclusions 70
3.4 Kinds of Map Units 71
Consociations 71
Complexes and associations 72
Undifferentiated groups 73
3.5 Refinement of Preliminary Map and Legend 73
Joining map sheets 74
Inking map sheets 74
Checking field sheets 74
Measuring the area 74
3.6 Laboratory Analyses of Samples 75
3.7 Preparation of Final Report and Maps 77
Naming soil mapping units 77
Writing the soil concept 78
Soil interpretation rating 78
Integrating the final report 78

Part 2—Application of Geographic Information System on Soil Survey

1.0 Introduction 79
2.0 What is Geographic Information System (GIS) 80
3.0 GIS and Geomatics, other Developments in Mapping Science 81
4.0 Basic GIS Concepts—Map Digitization Using ArcInfo 82
4.01 The map 82
4.02 The coverage 83
4.03 Coverage features 83
4.04 Types of coverage features 83
4.05 Secondary coverage features 84
4.06 Topology 84
4.07 The Feature Attribute Table 85
4.08 Tolerances 86
4.09 BUILD and CLEAN Commands 87
4.10 The Map Scale 87
4.11 Latitude and Longitude 87
4.12 Map Projection 87
5.0 Basic GIS Concepts—Spatial Data Management Using ArcView 88
5.1 The Project 88
5.2 The Project Window 89
5.3 The Project Views and View Themes 89

x
 5.4 The Attribute Table 89
5.5 Geocoding 90
6.0 The GIS Spatial Data Model 90
6.1 The Vector Data Model 90
6.2 The Raster Data Model 90
6.3 The Shapefile Data Model 91
6.4 Comparison of vector and raster data model 92
7.0 Creating and Printing Maps 92
7.1 What is cartography? 92
7.2 Map formats 93
7.3 Basic mapping principles 93
7.3.1 Purpose 93
7.3.2 Audience 93
7.3.3 Size, and scale 94
7.3.4 Media 94
7.3.5 Focus 94
7.3.6 Integrity 94
7.3.7 Balance 94
7.3.8 Completeness 94
7.4 Elements of map 94
7.4.1 Map body 94
7.4.2 Title 95
7.4.3 Legend 95
7.4.4 Scale 95
7.4.5 Projection 95
7.4.6 Direction 95
7.4.7 Data source 95
7.4.8 Other map components 95
8.0 Mapping and GIS 96
8.1 Viewer 96
8.2 Designer 96
8.3 Maker 96

Part 3—Interpreting Soil Data Using FAO Suitability Method

1.0 Introduction 97
2.0 Difference between land and soil evaluation 97
3.0 Why evaluate? 97
4.0 Principles of Soil / Land Evaluation 98
5.0 Concepts and definitions 98
5.1 Functions of lands where soil/land evaluation can be used 98
5.2 Limiting factors 98
5.3 Diagnostic criteria 99
5.4 Land Utilization Type (LUT) 99
5.5 Land Use Requirements 99
5.6 Land Qualities 99

xi
 6.0 Aims of soil / land evaluation 100
7.0 Steps to soil / land evaluation 100
7.1 Define the Land Utilization Types 100
7.2 Set the parameters and establish critical levels 100
7.3 Summarize the soil/land qualities and characteristics 101
7.4 Compare Land Use Requirements with Land Qualities 102
7.5 Summarize the results of the evaluation in tabular format 102
7.6 Summarize the soil / land management recommendations 102

Part 4—Negotiating Soil Survey with Clients: Check-list

of Soil Survey Specifications

1.0 Needs assessment 103

2.0 Preparing the Terms of Reference/Memorandum of Agreement 104
3.0 Pre-mapping activities 104
4.0 Field mapping activities 105
5.0 Quality control 105
6.0 Soil survey data interpretation 106
7.0 Reporting 107
8.0 Soil Geographic Database 108
8.1 Map digitization 108
8.2 Integrated soil information system 108
9.0 Other services from BSWM 109
9.1 Fertility Mapping, Land Use Mapping 109
9.2 SAFDZ Integration to CLUP 109
9.3 Relief Model 109
9.4 Topographic survey (farm-level) 109
9.5 Laboratory analyses of soil, water, and plant tissue samples 109
9.6 Charges and fees 110

LITERATURE CITED 111

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 113

xii
The Soil Survey Manual. Preparations for Field Survey. The Soil Survey Division Staff. Bureau of Soils
and Water Management Technical Publication (2): 1—6, December, 2008

Preparations for Field Survey

The Soil Survey Division Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

1.0 Planning the schedule and length of field survey. Soil survey
work is normally conducted during months when rainfalls are minimal. The
summer months are ideal. Depending upon the size of the proposed survey
area and the kind of survey being planned, the total number of field survey man
-days can be assessed and the survey cost estimated.

2.0 Types of soil survey. There are three types of soil surveys—
detailed, semi-detailed, and reconnaissance. The decision which type of soil
survey to conduct depends upon the purpose of the survey, the area, the scale
of the available base maps, the complexity of the physical and cultural features,
and the skill of the surveyors.

A detailed soil survey needs a large scale of base map. Map scales
ranging from 1:4,000 up to 1:50,000 would be reasonable. Intervals of
traverses is usually from 50 to 100 meters apart, although some farm-level
geostatistical mapping have been conducted at 20 meter intervals. Surveys of
this kind necessitates the use of plane table or traverse board, and better still,
aerial photographs.

A semi-detailed is a cross between a detailed and a reconnaissance

level. This is useful in areas where the land features are such that a portion
only can be used for farming and the rest are more useful for some other
purposes. It is also useful if the area is very rugged or thickly covered by
forests or the terrain is very rough.

A reconnaissance soil survey has map outputs ranging from 1:75,000 to

1:250,000. At this scale, soil mapping units less than 50 hectares are difficult to
plot. Traverses are made through all passable roads, by foot on trails, or other
systems.

Table 1 on the next page presents a key to identifying the kinds of soil
survey.

1
 Table 1. Soil Mapping Units for a Basic Soil Survey by Various Intensity Levels, Suitable Map Scales and Major Uses
of Each.
Intensity Level
Special Very Detailed (very
high intensity)
Very Detailed (Very high
intensity)
Detailed (High intensity)
Semi-Detailed (medium
intensity)
2
Detailed Reconnaissance
(low intensity)
Reconnaissance (very low
intensity)
Exploratory
Synthesis or Schematic
* Approximate area of 1 sq.cm.
Suitable Field Suitable Publica- Kind of Mapping Units Suitable Minimum* Areas Major Use
Mapping Scale tion Scale for each Intensity Level shown on Map
Larger than 1:5,000 Larger than Phases of soil types, soil series or < 0.3 ha. Research plots or detailed engi-
1:5,000 soil variants using very narrow neering uses
ranges of phase criteria
1:2,000 to 1:10,000 1:5,000 to 1:10,000 Phases of soil types, soil series or 0.5 to 1 ha. Research, intensive farm man-
soil variants and some complexes of agement
same
1:5,000 to 1:30,000 1:10,000 to Phases of soil types, soil series or 1 to 10 ha. Irrigation design, and farm plan-
1:30,000 soil variants and some associations ning
or complexes of same
1:20,000 to 1:50,000 1:25,000 to Soil series, soil variants, soil asso- 6 to 36 ha. Area planning and feasibility
1:60,000 ciations and soil complexes. In studies
places some phases of above can
be shown
1:40,000 to 1:50,000 to Soil families, soil series, associa- 25 to 100 ha. General area planning
1:100,000 1:100,000 tions of soil series with some
phases of each and some land
types
1:75,000 to 1:100,000 to Great soil groups, associations of 100 to 2,500 ha National and regional planning
1,200,000 1:500,000 great soil groups and some soil
series, soil families or subgroups of
Great Soil Groups and some land
types
1:100,000 to 1:250,000 to Great Soil Groups, associations of 625 to 10,000 ha Determination of area suitable
1:250,000 1:1,000,000 Great Soil Groups, some phases of for further study in National plan-
both and land types ning
1:100,000 or 1:1000,000 or Great Soil Groups, associations of 10,000 ha or more Broad generalizations of kinds of
smaller smaller Great Soil Groups, some physi- soils
ographic associations of kinds of
soils.
 1.3 Composition of the Field Survey Team. A soil survey team
consists of the Chief of Soil Survey Party who assumes the full responsibility for
the staff under him, and the soil surveyors. Contracted labors to assist in the
clerical and technical activities such as pit digging and soil sampling are
seasonally hired.

The Chief of Party should be technically well qualified and

knowledgeable on the types of survey to be conducted. It is his duty to conduct
an ocular inspection of the project area before deciding on the scale of survey.
He also plans each day, not only the itinerary of the field work during survey
days but also to schedule the data reviews and assembly during anticipated
rainy days where field activities are impractical.

1.4 Material check-list. A vehicle is most important for a soil survey to

be smoothly conducted. Considering the survey party traverses practically all
kinds of terrain, the assigned driver should see to it that it is always in top
condition and the necessary repairs are done before going on field work. It is
the duty of the Chief of Party to plan each day most specially the itinerary of the
field work..

Office supplies such as stationeries, bond papers, pencils, pens, sample

bags, rubber bands, paper clips, staplers, and different office forms should be
made available in the temporary field office.

Essential personal equipment such as sleeping bags, toiletries,

flashlight, field survey attire (such as old long sleeves and boots), cooking and
eating utensils should be checked prior to departure.

A medicine kit for first aid treatment is essential and should contain
bandages, gauze, cotton, alcohol, wound dressing solutions, aromatic spirit of
ammonia, and some tablets for most common ailments.

1.5 Field survey equipment. These are the equipment and materials
needed for the examination of the soil in the field.

Digging and pit dressing equipment such as spades and shovels are
indispensable. The soil auger is almost a soil surveyor’s symbol and used to
assess the transition of soil characteristics for the delineation of soil
boundaries. A steel tape is used to determine horizon depth.

Materials used for soil field examination include Soil Color Munsell
Chart and achromatic lens for the examination of cutans and of individual soil
grains for the soil mineral composition. A geologist’s hammer is useful for
cracking rocks for identification and can be used for picking soils for textural
assessment. A knife to smoothen pegs for horizonation study is useful.

3
 Locational equipment include compass, altimeter, and GPS (global
positioning system) receiver. Pit digging and auger sampling sites should be
immediately reflected in the working map. A stereoscope and a pair of aerial
photos may be helpful in the field although surveyors prefer to conduct the
aerial photo interpretation in the office.

Field test kits are essential for determination of pH, carbonates, nature
of concretions, redoximorphic features, salinity, and andic properties. The
necessary test chemicals should be at hand. Qualitative element tests (such as
N-P-K), though not part of the morphological description protocol may be
conducted as a goodwill to the owner of the sampled site and would prove to be
helpful if also available.

A camera is certainly helpful to document the morphology of the soil

profiles observed in the field and the photographs are very important in
presenting the survey results.

Finally, since the country adopts the Soil Taxonomy, a copy of the Keys
to Soil Taxonomy should be on hand for use and ready reference during field
examination of soils.

1.6 Secondary material sources. The Chief of Party ensures that the
necessary secondary material sources—such as aerial photographs,
topographic and other available maps, previous studies and reports, other
materials about the area such as development plans and relevant internet
materials—are handy and available to the other team members. Local libraries,
universities and colleges, municipal and provincial development planning
offices, as well as local branches of national government offices are excellent
sources of secondary materials. Preliminary research can provide much of the
information about the soils of the area and their geography that are needed to
start field studies and prepare a preliminary mapping legend.

1.7 Working maps and scale. The topographic maps are usually
reproduced (or another set is purchased) and used as a working map where
tentative delineations are made and brought to the field for notations during
actual field observations. If the base maps, however, are ready prior to actual
field work, a set is reproduced to be used as a working map. Note that ideally,
it is best to have a working map with larger scale (such as 1:22,000 which is a
common scale of aerial photographs) than the final map output usually referred
to as the publication scale (which for this case may be 1:25,000 or 1:50,000). In
the absence of the ideal, the working map scale can equal the publication
scale.

Generally, more than one kind of cartographic material (aerial

photographs, topographic maps, geological maps, cadastral maps, etc) could

4
be obtained in a project areas and suitable as base map. The availability and
the cost of these maps should be considered in the survey planning phase.

The scale of mapping depends on the intricacy of the soil pattern in

relation to the expected intensity of soil use. The patterns of soils are very
complex in many areas where potentials do not justify a mapping scale large
enough to show the patterns in detail. Where the purpose of the survey do
require that small areas be delineated, the scale must be large enough to show
the patterns in detail.

1.8 Tentative delineation of soil mapping unit boundaries and

legend. It may come as a surprise for those not familiar with soil survey work
that the soil map and legend are generally prepared even before the survey
party goes on field work. In scientific parlance, this is the hypothesis. The
delineation is refined as the actual field work progresses.

There are a number of factors considered when making the initial

delineations—previous soil studies conducted in the area (secondary sources),
the geomorphology (usually based on the interpretation of the topographic
map), land use and vegetation cover (based on aerial photographs or satellite
imagery analyses or other secondary map sources), geological maps, and
other useful secondary sources.

A general reconnaissance of the whole area is conducted to determine

the probable soil mapping units. The soil survey party leader should arrive in
the area before soil mapping begins. This allows the party leader to have time
to become familiar with the area, review the preliminary data, investigate the
major soils and their pattern of occurrences, review the stated purposes of the
survey, check the adequacy of the base map materials, and prepare a
preliminary mapping legend.

Preparing the mapping legend is the principal duty of the Chief of Party
after preliminary studies are made to identify sets of soil properties that are
repeated in characteristic landscapes and are mappable. Not all of the soil
map units needed to complete the survey can be anticipated at the start. A
doubtful new soil series may be temporarily named which could be refined as
the study progresses. The map units must be defined and described carefully.
These descriptions are the guidelines for mapping soils and the standard
against which possible additional map units are evaluated as the survey
progresses.

1.9 Planning the soil survey route. To the extent feasible, mapping
is scheduled to proceed systematically across contiguous areas. When
mapping is resumed each day, the mapping of the previous day provides points
of reference. The boundaries that were projected tentatively the day before are
predictions to be verified. The soil patterns can be recognized as the clues for
5
interpreting the landscape are understood. Mapping systematically across
contiguous areas contributes greatly to both efficiency and quality of work.

Ground traverses are planned to cross as many areas as possible. Soil

areas generally conform to the orientation of relief, which is commonly related
to drainage courses. Consequently, most soil areas and most soil boundaries
can be crossed by traveling at an angle to the secondary or tertiary drainage
courses. The traverses are spaced so that the boundaries that are identified
and projected on one traverse can be identified and continued on the next.
Traverse spacing depends on the complexity of the soil pattern, visibility, and
amount of detail required by the survey objectives.

From any point of observation, the soil scientist looks along the
projected route and predicts the kinds of soils on the landscape ahead. A
break in slope gradient, a change from convex to concave slope configuration,
a change in color of the surface of a plowed field, a margin of swamp or forest,
the edge of a stony area, a change in vigor of crops—these observation
features can be related to the soil boundaries. Some soil boundaries are
sharply defined; others are plotted as lines midway in zones of gradual
transition.

The number of places at which observations are made depends on the

certainty of the predictions and the objectives of the survey. If the predictions
about the kind of landscape under examination have been valid many times
before, soils need be examined only in a few places. If the landscape features
have not been consistently related to kinds of soils, many places must be
examined. The depth of the examination depends on the depth of the
differentiating criteria for the map unit and on the confidence in the prediction
about the kind and uniformity of soil material at a given depth.

6
The Soil Survey Manual. The Field Survey: Site Description. The Soil Survey Division Staff. Bureau of
Soils and Water Management Technical Bulletin (2): 7—16, December 2008

The Field Survey: Site Description

The Soil Survey Division Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

2.1 Determination of soil sampling points. Unlike most of the

sciences which consider random sampling as the core of its data generation
phase which it then subjects to various statistical tests, soil survey takes on
purposive sampling. An area is normally selected not by random but by which
the surveyor thinks would have soil characteristics representative of the type
being examined, and thus, would show the true nature of the profile. It should
not be a transitional area between two geomorphological units or land uses. It
should be away from human or animal disturbances such as roads and other
infrastructures and manures.

There are a number of soil sampling strategies practiced by soil

surveyors. The grid method follows a strict traverse interval between sampling
points. A Key Area Approach is sampling along a catena whereby soil
attributes are correlated with identifiable surficial attributes within a particular
soil landscape. There are other sampling approaches depending on the
purpose of the soil survey. Transects are commonly used to determine the
composition of map units. A planned line of travel is followed as closely as
possible and the soils are observed in predetermined regular intervals. Sample
blocks, instead of transects, are used in some surveys to determine the
composition of map units. These permit observation of spatial patterns not
always evident from transects. One method imposes a grid of appropriate
divisions on the entire area.

It should be noted that soil mapping is a technical art. It requires sound

training in soil science and familiarity with the principles of the earth sciences.
A skilled surveyor is a perceptive observer and understands the significance of
landscape, subtle differences in slope gradient, vegetation, and other indicators
of soil boundaries. Furthermore, the techniques used to predict specific kinds
of surface features and soil attributes are continually being refined. As
experience in soil survey is gained in an area, many soil boundaries and kinds
of soil can be tentatively predicted and verified in the field. The number of
places at which observations are made depends on the certainty of the
predictions and the objectives of the survey.

2.2 Pit digging and the pit protocol. As a projected delineation is

crossed, the soil is examined at a place where the micro features suggest that

7
the predicted dominant soil should be best expressed. This portion of the
delineation is identified positively. The prediction may be confirmed or a
different kind of soil may be found.

After securing permission from the land owner, a pit is dug, the size of
which is approximately 1.5 meters by 2 meters. The size of course can be
reduced (such as the soil is very hard and difficult to dig) or expanded (such as
the pit is for demonstration purposes). The principle is to be able to dig an area
that is sufficient enough to allow observations on the soil profile. A pit exposing
a vertical face approximately one meter across to an appropriate depth is
satisfactory for most soils. To avoid distortion of observed color and other
morphological properties, the pit normally faces the sun—towards the east in
the morning, or towards the west in the afternoon. Since the control section is
150 centimeters, where the soil is very deep, digging may be up to 200
centimeters.

After the sides of the pit are cleaned of all loose materials disturbed by
digging, the exposed vertical faces are examined, usually starting at the top
and working downward, to identify significant changes in properties.
Boundaries between layers are marked on the surface on the face of the pit,
and the layers are identified and described. Please refer to item “2.5a
Recognizing master soil horizons and measuring their depth.” A steel tape is
used to measure horizon depth.

The pit protocol is followed by photo session by the members of the

survey party. Photographs should be taken after the layers have been
identified but before the vertical section is disturbed in the description process.
A point count for estimation of the volume of stones or other features is also
done before the layers are disturbed.

2.3 The general description of the area. While some members of

the survey party are busy digging, other party members can begin observing
and recording the general description of the area.

2.3.1 Site Identification Number

The sampling points are normally given a unique site identifier such
as Pit No. 1 or Auger Boring No. 1. This of course assumes that one knows the
general location and year it was taken. We introduce the protocol of
PROVINCE-YEAR-xxP (for pit digging) or xxAB (for auger boring). For
instance, CAVITE-1990-01P means that the profile description refers to the first
pit dug for the province of Cavite, during the survey in 1990. CAVITE-1990-
01AB refers to the first auger boring in the same province.

2.3.2 Location

To be able to repeat the study and get similar results characterizes

good scientific outputs. It is therefore important to record the location and the
coordinates where the sampling was done so that anyone can come back to

8
the sampling site and thus, prove to himself that the same properties could be
observed or maybe observe the changes that has taken place since the last
sampling. It may also be useful to include other map references such as
Topographic Map Sheet No. and Soil Map Sheet No. Where soil samples
are taken, the Laboratory Sample Numbers (usually a series of sequential
numbers depending on the number of horizons) can be added.

2.3.3 Climatic Conditions

The general climatic conditions should be recorded which includes

climatic type, air temperature, and weather condition (sunny/clear, partly
cloudy, overcast, rain). Where soil thermometer is available, it is important to
record the soil temperature.

If the soil series name is available from secondary data or field

assigned for validation later, it should be included.

2.3.4 Geomorphic Description

The relief of the surrounding area is determined. Usually, the land

surface configuration considered is geometrical and the landform from the
morphogenetic aspect is not considered. Thus, relief in soil survey context
refers to the elevation differences of a land surface on a broad scale, and
considered collectively. Thus, some skip this portion, and directly describe the
slope based on the classes as provided for in this manual. Some detailed
mapping, however, requires a more detailed classes than those provided for
the slope. The classes considered are:

A. Level areas

(1) Level land which are extensive broad areas with slopes ranging from
0.0 to 1.0 percent with more than half of the area having a slope lower than 0.5
percent;
(2) Nearly level land which is generally broad or extensive areas with
slopes ranging from 1 to 3 percent dominating;

B. Sloping

(3) Gently sloping where the slope ranges from 3 to 8 percent and
generally, the angle of the slope is in one direction;
(4) Sloping land where the slopes are in one direction and in no case
shall there be slopes in opposite direction to the major slope. The slope ranges
from 8 to 16 percent.
(5) Steeply sloping land which include areas having steep slopes in one
general direction and exclude those in opposite directions, ranging from 16 to
25 percent.

9
C. Undulating

(6) Undulating land which possesses gentle slopes in many or all

directions, ranging from 3 to 8 percent, and those between 4 to 6 percent
slopes are dominating.

D. Rolling

(7) Rolling land possesses slopes in any or all directions, between 8 to

16 percent with 10 to 12 percent dominating.

(8) Strongly rolling land where the surface slopes in many directions,
ranging from 16 to 25 percent, with slopes 18 to 20 percent dominating.

E. Steep

(9) Steep land are areas sloping in one direction excluding those in the
opposite direction, and with slopes ranging from 25 to 45 percent.
(10) Steep hilly lands have slopes in many or all directions with slopes
ranging from 40 to 60 percent.
(11) Mountain land has elevation high above the surrounding country,
with slope gradients in excess of 60 percent for more than half of the area and
may include undulating, rolling, or nearly level lands.
(12) Rough rugged land of mountain areas are precipitous escarpment
and high cliffs where the slope exceeds 100 percent.

Slope of the surrounding landscape should also be recorded. The

slope classes are as follows:
0— 3% Nearly level
3— 8% Gently sloping
8—18% Strongly sloping
18—30% Moderately steep
30—45% Steep
>45% Very steep

Note: The USDA Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, Version
2 (September 2002) has a 3-part portion on geomorphic information: Part 1
describes the physiographic location, Part 2 details geomorphic description
(landscape, landform, microfeature, anthropogenic feature), and Part 3—
Surface Morphometry (elevation, slope aspect, slope gradient, slope
complexity, slope shape, hillslope-profile position, geomorphic component,
micro-relief). The drainage pattern is considered an element of part 3. A
number of these concepts have been introduced to soil surveyors in the first
half of the 1990’s as inputs to the first version of Soil Information System but
remains unimplemented in the field to these days. It would require a separate
workshop to come up with a description system applicable to the Philippines;
and thus, excluded in this manual.

10
2.3.5 Parent Material

The parent material of the soil is not to be confused with the bedrocks.
The former was developed from the latter. True soils have been developed
through the forces of weathering upon the parent material.

The parent material of a genetic horizon cannot be observed in its

original state. It must be inferred from the properties the horizon has inherited
and from other evidences. In some soils, the parent material has changed little,
and what it was like can be deduced with confidence. In others, the specific
parent material is speculative. There are also cases where the material that
developed into modern soil maybe unrelated to the underlying bedrock. Soils
may also form in sedimentary rock layers that are different. Seldom is there
certainty that the highly weathered material weathered in place. The term
“residuum” is used when the properties of the soil indicate that it has been
derived from rock like that which underlies it and when evidence is lacking that
it has been modified by movement. In some soils, transported material overlies
residuum and the illuvial organic matter and clay are superimposed across the
discontinuity between the contrasting materials.

Both consolidated and unconsolidated material beneath the solum that

influence the genesis and behavior of the soil are described in standard terms.

Geological materials need to be defined in accordance with the

accepted standards and nomenclature of geology. The following can be used
for parent material designation (Guinto, 1990):

A. Materials produced by weathering of rock in place

sandstone sandstone-noncalcareous
arksoic-sandstone sandstone calcareous
interbedded sedimentary limestone-sandstone-shale
limestone-sandstone limestone-shale
limestone-siltstone shale-siltstone
shale shale-noncalcareous
shale-calcareous shale-clay
igneous igneous-coarse (or intrusive)
igneous-basic (e.g. gabbro) igneous-intermediate (e.g. diorite)
igneous-fine (or extrusive) igneous-basalt
igneous-andesite igneous-acid (e.g. rhyolite)
igneous-ultrabasic charcoal
coal limestone
chalk marble
dolomite limestone-phosphatic
limestone-araneceous limestone-argillaceous
limestone-cherty metamorphic
gneiss gneiss-acidic
gneiss-basic serpentine
schist schist-acidic
11
 schist-basic slate
quartzite pyroclastic
tuff tuff-acidic
tuff-basic volcanic breccia
breccia-acidic breccia-basic
pahoehoe sedimentary
marl glauconite
siltstone siltstone-non-calcareous
siltstone-calcareous

The USDA Field Book recommends the use of more precise term for the
in-situ materials. The bedrocks are broadly classified as follows:
Igneous –Intrusive (diorite, gabbro, granite, quartz diorite, ultramafic
rock, etc.)
Igneous—Extrusive (andesite, basalt, block lava, dacite, latite,
obsidian, pahoehoe lava, pillow lava, pumice, rhyolite, scoria)
Igneous—Pyroclastic (ignimbrite, pyroclastics, tuff, tuff breccias, etc.)
Metamorphic (amphibolites, gneiss, hornfels, metasedimenary rocks,
schist, serpentine, slate, etc.)
Sedimentary—Clastics (arenite, argillite, breccia—non-volcanic, angular
fragments, breccia—non-volcanic, acidic / basic, claystone,
mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, shale, etc.)
Evaporites, Organics, and Precipitates (chalk, coal, dolomite, gypsum,
limestone, etc.)
Interbedded, alternating layers of different sedimentary lithologies

For in-place deposits in state of weathering, the USDA Field Book

accepts the following generic terms:
grus—weathered felsic plutonic rocks, granite in state of decay
residuum—most generic term
saprolite—chemically weathered rock, part of regolith that is oxidized
and hydrated

B. Transported materials
conglomerate conglomerate-noncalcareous
conglomerate-calcareous ejecta-ash
acidic-ash basic-ash
basaltic-ash andesitic ash
cinders pumice
scoria volcanic bombs
mixed mixed non-calcareous
mixed calcareous mixed-igneous-metamorphic-
sedimentary
mixed-igneous-metamorphic mixed-igneous-sedimentary
mixed-metamorphic-sedimentary

C. Materials moved and deposited by water

alluvium
lacustrine deposits
12
 marine sediments
beach sand
The USDA Field Book includes additionally the following:
backswamp deposits
estuarine deposits
fluviomarine deposits
overbank deposits
pedisediment
debris avalanche deposits
complex landslide deposits

D. Materials moved and deposited by gravity

colluvium
talus

E. Organic materials
organic
wood fragments
logs and stumps
sedimentary peat
moss peat
herbaceous peat
woody peat
The USDA Field Book allows the use of generic terms for dominant
organic materials or deposits for which the organic soil has formed.
These terms partially overlap with those recognized in Soil Taxonomy:
coprogenic materials
diatomaceous earth
marl
organic materials
organic, grassy materials
organic, herbaceous materials
organic, mossy materials
organic, woody materials

Castaneda and Hamazaki (1996) based their parent material

classification from GJP (1984) and are as follows:
Unconsolidated igneous and pyroclastic rocks: volcanic ash, pyroclastic
flow deposit, pumice, scoria, etc.
Consolidated igneous and pyroclastic rocks: rhyolite, andesite, basalt,
granite, diorite, gabbro, volcanic breccia, tuff breccia, lapilli tuff, agglomerate,
etc.
Unconsolidated sedimentary rocks: gravel, sand, mud, talus deposit,
loess, etc.
Consolidated sedimentary rocks: conglomerate, sandstone, shale,
mudstone, limestone, etc.
Metamorphic rocks: gneiss, crystalline schist, phyllite, slate, etc.
Plant remains: moss, peat, herb peat, forest peat, etc.
13
 The USDA Field Book additionally recognizes volcanic deposits which
include unconsolidated, eolian, and mass movement as follows:
ash (<2 mm), ash acidic, ash andesitic, ash basaltic, ash basic
ash flow (pyroclastic)
bombs (>64 mm)
cinders (2-64 mm)
lahar
lapilli (2-6 mm, > 2.0 specific gravity)
pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic surge
pumice (<1.0 specific gravity)
scoria (>2 specific gravity)
tephra (all ejecta)

The USDA Field Book further recognizes miscellaneous deposits:

diamicton—very poorly sorted sediments; large sedimentary grains
of gravel size and larger (≥2 mm) set in a matrix of fine grains
mine spoil or earthy fill

2.3.6 Vegetation and land cover

Land use/vegetation provides a general and common sense

information on the utility of the soil resources being surveyed. Correlations
between vegetation and soils can help us understand soil genesis, recognize
soil boundaries, and make predictions about the kind and amount of vegetation
produced. The standing crop or the mixture of crops can be specified (rice,
corn, vegetables). Or one can opt for the general historical use based on
farmer interviews. Common names of the plants may be used if such names
are clear and specific. A general land use classification can be used as follows,
(Guinto, 1990):
abandoned cropland
cropland
forest land grazed
pasture land and native pasture
horticultural land
cropland irrigated
hayland
waste disposal land
barren land
rangeland grazed
wetlands drained
wetlands
rangeland not grazed
urban and built-up land

2.3.7 Water status

Drainage characteristics is considered when describing the sampled

site. In old soil survey reports, external and internal drainage were considered.

14
External drainage refers to the flow of water on the surface of the ground while
internal drainage is the disposal of water from inside the ground. A soil with
good internal drainage is also considered to have good external drainage.
Internal drainage is not the same as permeability. Permeability depends upon
soil properties whereas internal drainage depends upon external factors. Poor
internal drainage produces gray or bluish gray soils due to existence of reduced
iron. The presence of mottles in the B or C horizon indicates poor drainage.

Most modern soil survey reports consider natural drainage. This refers
to the frequency and duration of wet periods for the water regime assumed to
be present under relatively undisturbed conditions similar to those under which
the soil developed.

The drainage classes are as follows:

Very poorly drained. Water is removed from the soil so slowly that the
water table remains at or on the surface the greater part of the time. Soils of
this drainage class usually occupy level or depressed sites and are frequently
ponded.
Poorly drained. Water is removed so slowly that the soil remains wet for
a large part of the time. The water table is commonly at or near the surface
during a considerable part of the year. Poorly drained conditions are due to
high water table, to a slowly permeable layer within the profile, to seepage, or
to some combinations of these conditions.
Somewhat poorly drained or imperfectly drained. Water is removed
from the soil slowly enough to keep it wet for significant periods but not all the
time. Imperfectly drained soils commonly have a slowly permeable layer within
the profile, a high water table, additions through seepage, or a combination of
these conditions.
Moderately well drained. Water is removed from the soil somewhat
slowly so that the profile is wet for a small but significant part of the time.
Moderately well drained soils commonly have a slow permeable layer within or
immediately beneath the solum, a relatively high water table, additions of water
through seepage, or some combinations of these conditions.
Well drained. Water is removed from the soil readily but not rapidly.
Well drained soils commonly retain optimum amounts of moisture for plant
growth after rains or additions of irrigation water.
Somewhat excessively drained. Water is removed from the soil very
rapidly. Many of these soils have little horizon differentiation and are sandy and
very porous.
Excessively drained. Water is removed from the soil very rapidly.

The flooding class is based on the frequency of occurrence as follows:

F0 None
F1 Rare
F2 Occasional
F3 Common
F4 Frequent

15
 The flooding source such as rising tides (sea water) or river / lake
flooding is usually specified. Were both occur such as in estuarine areas, an
F5, F6, etc may have to be defined.

Depth to water table should be measured or estimated from the

ground surface to the stabilized contact with free standing water in an open
bore-hole or well. It may be important to record the seasonally high water table
and its frequency. Please note that in the USDA National Soil Information
System (NASIS), all water table information is replaced by (Soil) Water State,
also called Observed Soil Moisture Status (dry, moist, wet, wet-non satiated,
wet-satiated). It may be important for Filipino soil surveyors to be updated on
this development.

2.3.8 Erosion

The erosion class, based on the condition of the top soil is considered.
E0 None
E1 Slight
E2 Moderate
E3 Severe

2.3.9 Surface fragments

The rock outcrop refers to the estimated percent surface cover of

rocks or stoniness. This is usually recorded as none, or should there be rocks,
an estimate of the percentage is usually stated. As a map-unit phase modifier,
surface fragments (note: formerly called surface stoniness) is restricted to
stone-sized fragments, or larger (>250 mm).

The following surface fragment class is based on the USDA Field Book
criteria:
Class Percentage of surface covered
Stony or bouldery 0.01 to <0.1
Very stony or very boulder 0.1 to <3
Extremely stony or ext. boulder 3 to <15
Rubbly 15 to 50
Very rubbly ≥ 50

2.3.10 Other Site Observation Data

Other observations can also be included such as cracks (length in

centimeter, width, and depth), and other relevant data.

Finally, the authors and date of description should be written for easy
reference by the data users.

16
The Soil Survey Manual. The Field Survey: Site Description. The Soil Survey Division Staff. Bureau of
Soils and Water Management Technical Bulletin (2): 17—58, December 2008

The Field Survey: The Soil Profile

The Soil Survey Division Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

3.1 Diagnostic horizons for classification. The Philippines adopt the

Soil Taxonomy at higher levels of classification. It is therefore important to
recognize diagnostic surface and subsurface horizons used to separate
different soil taxa. Manual users who are not familiar with Soil Taxonomy are
advised to take a copy of the latest edition of Keys to Soil Taxonomy to the
field for reference.

3.1.1 Diagnostic surface horizons. These are referred to as epipedons

which are simply the uppermost soil horizons. The epipedon is not
synonymous with A horizon and may be thinner than the A horizon or include
some of the B horizon. Epipedons are horizons that form at the surface and
show darkening with organic matter or have eluviated, or rock structure has
been destroyed.

Mollic epipedon. Believed to have been formed from the deposition of

organic residues where bivalent cations, particularly Ca are abundant. Have
Munsell color value darker than 3.5 when moist and 5.5 when dry and chroma
less than 3.5 when moist unless there is more than 40 percent finely divided
lime, in which case, the color value dry is waived. The base saturation by
NH4OAc is 50 percent or more. It contains 2.5 percent or more organic carbon
in the upper 18 centimeters if the color requirement is waived, or if not, has at
least 0.6 percent organic carbon throughout the specific thickness. It has less
than 250 ppm P2O5. It is moist in some parts for 3 months or more of the year
in more than 7 years out of 10 years at times when the soil temperature is 5oC
or higher at a depth 50 centimeters if the soil is not irrigated. The n value is less
than 0.7. Structure cannot be massive and hard.

Anthropic epipedon. Resembles the mollic epipedon except that it

contains over 250 ppm acid soluble P2O5 with or without the 50 percent base
saturation or the period during which it has available moisture.

Umbric epipedon. It meets the requirements of mollic epipedon except

that the base saturation by NH4OAc is less than 50 percent.

Histic epipedon. A surface horizon that contains more than 20 to 30

percent organic matter, depending on clay content, and is water saturated for
30 days at some season of the year, unless artificially drained.
17
 Plaggen epipedon. It is a man-made surface horizon that is less than
50 centimeters thick, created by years of manure addition.

Ochric epipedon. It has too high color value or chroma, too dry, too little
organic matter, too thin to be mollic, umbric, anthropic, plaggen, or histic. It is
both hard and massive when dry.

3.1.2 Subsurface diagnostic horizons. These formed below the surface of

the soil. Some of these horizons are generally regarded as B horizons, some
are considered B horizons by many but not all pedologists, while others are
generally regarded as parts of the A horizon. Please refer to the latest edition
of the Keys to Soil Taxonomy for full description.

Agric horizon. This is an illuvial horizon formed under cultivation and

contains significant amounts of illuvial silt, clay, and humus.

Albic horizon. It is an eluvial horizon 1 centimeter or more thick which

contains 85 percent or more (by volume) albic materials, which are soil
materials with color that is largely determined by the color of primary sand and
silt particles, rather than by the color of their coatings.

Argillic horizon. It is an illuvial horizon which contains significant

accumulation of illuviated layer-lattice silicate clays. It has at least 1.2 times as
much clay as some horizons above, or has 3 percent more clay if the eluvial
layer has less than 15 percent clay, or 8 percent more clay if eluvial layer has
more than 40 percent clay. Illuviation argillans are usually observable unless
there is evidence of stress cutans.

Calcic horizon. This is a horizon where calcium carbonate, or calcium

and magnesium carbonate has accumulated. It may occur within the C horizon
or within various other horizons.

Cambic horizon. This is an altered horizon that does not have the dark
color, organic matter content, and structure of histic, a mollic, or an umbric
epipedon.

Duripan. It is silica cemented sub-surface horizon.

Fragipan. It is a loamy, or uncommonly, a sandy subsurface horizon

which may underlie an albic, argillic, cambic, or spodic horizon. It has a very
low organic matter content, a higher bulk density than the overlying horizons,
and hard or very hard consistence when dry. When moist, it has moderate or
weak brittleness (i.e. tendency for a ped or clod to rupture suddenly rather than
undergo slow deformation when pressure is applied). A fragipan typically has
redoximorphic features, is slowly or very slowly permeable to water.

Glossic horizon. It is 5 centimeters or more thick and consists of an

18
eluvial part of albic materials which constitutes 15 to 85 percent and an illuvial
part, remnants of argillic, natric, or kandic horizon. The glossic horizon
develops as a result of the degradation of argillic, a kandic, or a natric horizon,
from which clay and free iron oxides are removed. This process of eluviation
gradually progresses from the exteriors of peds to their interiors.

Gypsic horizon. It is a horizon of enrichment with secondary sulfates

that is 15 centimeters or more thick, with 5 percent gypsum or more higher than
that of an underlying 1C horizon.

Kandic horizon. It is a vertically continuous subsurface horizon that

underlies a coarser textured surface horizon. The minimum thickness of the
surface horizon is 18 centimeters after mixing or 5 centimeters if the textural
transition to the kandic horizon is abrupt and there is no lithic, paralithic, or
petroferric contact within 50 centimeters of the mineral soil surface. A
petroferric contact is a boundary between soil and a continuous layer of
indurated material in which iron is an important cement and organic matter is
either absent or present only in traces.

Natric horizon. This meets the requirements of an argillic horizon but

also has prismatic or columnar structure and over 15 percent of the CEC is
saturated with sodium ions.

Oxic horizon. It is a mineral subsurface horizon of sandy loam or a finer

particle size with low cation exchange capacity and low weatherable-mineral
content It has a CEC of 16 cmol(+) or less per kilogram clay (by 1N NH4OAc
pH 7) and an ECEC of 12 cmol(+) or less per kilogram clay (sum of bases
extracted with 1N NH4OAc pH 7, plus 1N KCl extractable Al).

Petrocalcic horizon. It is so strongly cemented with gypsum that dry

fragments do not slake in water and roots cannot enter. The gypsum content is
commonly greater than the minimum requirements for a gypsic horizon, usually
60 percent or more.

Placic horizon. A thin black to dark reddish pan that is cemented either
by iron and manganese, or an iron-organic matter complex.

Salic horizon. It contains a secondary enrichment of salts which, in cold

water, are more soluble than gypsum. It has a salt content of 2 percent or more
(by weight) throughout.

Sombric horizon. It has formed under free drainage. It contains illuvial

humus that is neither associated with aluminum, as is the humus in the spodic
horizon, nor dispersed by sodium, as is common in natric horizon.
Consequently, the sombric horizon does not have the high cation-exchange
capacity in its clay that characterizes a spodic horizon, and it does not have the
high base saturation of a natric horizon. It does not underlie an albic horizon.

19
 Spodic horizon. It is an illuvial layer that contains 85 percent or more
spodic materials. Spodic materials contain illuvial active amorphous materials
composed of organic matter and aluminum with or without iron.

Sulfuric horizon. Composed of either mineral or organic soil material

that has pH value of 3.5 or less (1:1 by weight in water), and shows evidence
that the low pH value is caused by sulfuric acid.

3.2 Description of the soil profile. A soil profile is a vertical section of

the soil through the horizons down to the parent material. A soil horizon is a
layer of soil approximately parallel to the land surface with more or less defined
characteristics produced through the operation of the soil building processes.
The solum is the depth of the true soil (A and B horizons). The regolith is the
weathered material above the bedrock which is the A, the B, and the C
horizons.

3.2.1 Recognizing master soil horizons and measuring their depth. The A
horizon is the surface layer which is in direct contact with the climatic
influences. It tends to lose certain soluble salts by drainage and sometimes
fine particles of insoluble material by mechanical downwash. Thus, it is called
the horizon of eluviation. This is the most fertile part of the soil. Biological
activity is also more intense than in the lower horizons. Several subdivisions
(called zones) may exist until the next horizon is reached. The delineation of
A1 emphasizes accumulation of organic matter intimately associated with the
mineral fraction. A2 emphasizes loss of clay, iron, or aluminum with resultant
concentration of quartz or other resistant minerals in sand and silt sizes. It is
differentiated from A1 by lighter color and lower organic matter content. A3 is
transition between A and B, and dominated by properties characteristics of an
overlying A1 or A2 but having some subordinate properties of an underlying B.
An AB is also a transition between A and B, having an upper part dominated by
properties of A and a lower part dominated by properties of B and the two parts
cannot conveniently be separated into A3 and B1. AB is normally used only for
thin horizons. An AC horizon is transitional between A and C, having
subordinate properties of both A and C but not dominated by properties
characteristics of either A or C. AC horizons are common in soils derived from
coarse limestone and there appears to be no B horizon.

The B horizon is essentially an illuvial horizon. The color is usually

lighter than the A horizon. No universal diagnostic property or location in the
profile is satisfactory to identify all B horizons. Usually, the B horizon is under
an A horizon. However, the A horizon may have been truncated. Usually, the
B horizon carries some subhorizon nomenclature that, in the judgment of the
person describing the soil, more fully characterizes the condition. B1 is
transition between B and A1 or B and A2 in which the horizon is dominated by
properties of an underlying B2 but some properties of an overlying A1 or A2.
B2 is that part of the B horizon where the properties in which the B is based are

20
without clearly expressed subordinate characteristics indicating that the horizon
is transitional to an adjacent or overlying A or an adjacent underlying C or R.

B3 is transitional between B and C or R in which the properties

diagnostic of an overlying B2 are clearly expressed but are associated with
clearly expressed properties of C or R. A B3 horizon is designated only if there
is an overlying B2 horizon.

C is the mineral horizon excluding bedrock, that is either like or unlike

the material from which the solum is presumed to have formed, relatively little
affected by pedogenic processes and lacking properties diagnostic of A or B
but including materials modified by weathering, reversible cementation, gleying,
accumulation of calcium or magnesium carbonate or more soluble salts, and
cementation .

R is the underlying consolidated bedrock such as granite, sandstone, or

limestone.

The USDA Field Book has additional horizon designations:

E horizons are mineral horizons in which the main feature is loss of

silicate clay, iron, or aluminum, or some combination of these, leaving a
concentration of sand and silt particles. These horizons exhibit obliteration of
all or much of the original rock structure. The E horizon is a mineral horizon in
the upper part of the soil. This is typically present only in forested areas and
underlies an O or A horizon. It is light colored, leached horizon. It can be
differentiated from an underlying B horizon in the same sequum by a color of
higher value or lower chroma or both, by coarser texture, or by a combination of
these properties. In many soils, coatings of iron oxides or other compounds
mask the color of the primary particles. It generally contains less organic
matter. E horizons can be described as the zones of eluviations which are
within or between parts of the B horizon, or which extend to depths greater than
normal observation if the horizon is pedogenic.

L for limnic soil materials. These are organic or inorganic materials

deposited in water by the action of aquatic organisms or derived from
underwater and floating organisms. Marl, diatomaceous earth, and
sedimentary peat (coprogenous earth) are considered limnic materials.

W refers to a layer of liquid water within the soil, and excludes water
above the soil.

3.2.2 Subhorizon designations (updated to include additional horizon

suffixes in the USDA Field Book, of relevance to Philippine conditions ) are
used to facilitate more complete expression of the horizon characteristics than
is possible with master horizon designations. Lower case letters are used as
suffixes to designate specific kinds of master horizons and layers. The letters
and their meanings are: a (highly decomposed organic material), b (buried
21
genetic horizon, note: not used with C horizons), c (concretion or nodules), co
(coprogenous earth, used only with L), d (physical root restriction or other
mechanically compacted zones), di (diatomaceous earth, used only with L), e
(organic material of intermediate decomposition), g (strong gleying), h (illuvial
accumulation of organic matter), i (slightly decomposed organic material), j
(jarosite accumulation), k (accumulation of pedogenic carbonates), m (strong
cementation or induration), ma (marl, used only with L), n (accumulation of
pedogenic sodium), o (residual accumulation of pedogenic sesquioxides), p
(tillage or other artificial disturbances), q (accumulation of secondary pedogenic
silica), r (weathered or soft bedrock), s (illuvial accumulation of sesquioxides
and organic matter), ss (presence of slickensides), t (accumulation of silicate
clay), v (plinthite), w (weak color or structure within B , used only with B), x
(fragipan characteristics), y (accumulation of pedogenic gypsum), z
(accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum). Successive layers of the
same horizon are assigned with subscript Arabic numerals (e.g. Bt1, Bt2, Bt3).

3.2.3 Lithologic discontinuities occur when different layers are encountered

in the profile and the interpretation of the soil scientist is that these are the
results of geologic rather than pedogenic processes. In the old manual, a
Roman numeral is used starting with the layer of contrasting material, and
designated as II. By convention, I is understood but is not shown. For
example, after Ap—B1—B2 horizon sequence in a particular area, we find
again the old A horizon, it is designated as IIA. Please note that in the 2002
USDA Field Book, the Roman number system is no longer used, but instead,
we have numerical prefixes. IIA should now appear as 2A.

3.2. 4 Other horizon modifiers. As explained earlier, numerical suffixes are

used to denote subdivisions within a master horizon (A1, A2, E, Bt1, Bt2, Bt3,
Bs1, Bs2). The prime (‘) is used to indicate the second occurrence of an
identical horizon descriptor(s) in a profile or pedon; e.g.—A, E, Bt, E’, Btx, C.
The prime does not indicate either buried horizons (which are indicated by a
lower case “b”, such as Btb) or lithologic discontinuities which are denoted by
numerical prefixes. Double and triple primes are used to denote subsequent
occurrences of horizon descriptors in a pedon, e.g.—A, E, bt, E’, Btx, E’’, Cd.

3.3 The Soil Color. Because different people might perceive and
describe the same color differently, the soil color is quantitatively done by
matching the color of a soil clod with a standard color chip in a special book of
soil colors called Munsell Color Chart. Each color is characterized by its hue,
value, and chroma. A symbol such as 10YR 4/3 is used to record these color
characteristics.

Hue represents the special wavelength of the color. A hue of 10R

represents a pure red color. A hue of 10Y represents a pure yellow color. In
soils, a very common hue is 10YR which represents a color exactly halfway
between pure red and pure yellow. Two common soil hues are 5YR (3 parts red
and 1 part yellow) and 7.5YR (5 parts red and 3 parts yellow).

22
 Value represents the amount of light reflected back to the eye. Value is
measured on a scale of 0 to 10, from no reflection to complete reflection. Low
numbers represent dark soil color, as most of the incident light is absorbed.
High numbers represent light colors, as most of the light is reflected. Common
values of soil colors are 3 and 4 representing 30% to 40% of the light reflected.
Value is shown in the color symbol as the numerator of the fraction that follows
the hue.

Chroma represents the amount of dilution with white light. On a scale of

0 to 20, 20 represents the pure color and 0 represents infinite dilution with white
light. Chromas of soil colors range between 0 and 8 and are commonly
between 1 and 4. The lower chromas are black or gray colors whereas the
higher chromas are bright yellowish or reddish colors. Chroma is shown as the
denominator of the fraction in the color symbol. Because soil color is moisture
dependent, the soil moisture at the time the color was recorded is usually
stated.

The USDA Field Book provides a decision flowchart for describing soil
colors and reproduced on page 24.

3.4 The Soil Texture. Soil texture is defined as the relative proportion
of the various soil separates in a soil material. It refers to the distribution of
particle sizes — sand, silt, and clay. Every soil contains a mixture of sand, silt,
and clay. Soil texture is determined in the field using the feel method. This is
done by getting a small lump of soil that is fairly moist and rolling them with the
fingers of the left hand. By means of the sense of feel, one can tell the texture
of the soil.

Sliding the lump of soil between the first two fingers, after it has been
worked out, a ribbon can be produced. The texture can be determined by the
length of the ribbon that can be produced without breaking. Usually, five
centimeters of length can be called clay soil. Those that cannot be made into
ribbon are sandy.

Test with the feel method can be done only after considerable skill and
experience of the soil surveyor. The textures determined in the field are further
verified in the laboratory by mechanical analysis.

3.4.1 General soil textural groupings

The general grouping of soil textural classes are as follows:

Sandy soils Coarse textured Sand

Loamy sand
Loamy soils Moderately coarse Sandy loam
Fine sandy loam
Medium Very fine sandy loam
23
Decision Flowchart for Describing Soil Colors—Use the following chart to
decide how and with which data elements the color patterns of a soil or soil
feature should be described. (Source: USDA Field Book for Describing and
Sampling Soils, Version 2, NRCS, USDA, 2002). Note: When describing soil
colors, include the soil moisture state.

Matrix color
Color
(list sequence,
Is the color Yes dominant first) or
a matrix color? Mixed/intermingled
(i.e. discrete, mixed, or
transitional horizons
such as B/A)

No

Other
Colors
(non-matrix colors) Mottle

Is the color No (litochromic color,

Associated with a coat/stain, e.g. 10YR 8/1 gibbsite;
film, concentration, or gray shales)
depletion?

Yes

Non-redoximorphic
feature
Is the feature formed No
Concentration or
by processes of
surface feature, e.g.,
oxidation and
carbonate mass, clay
reduction?
film, or organic coat

Yes

Redoximorphic feature

Concentration, depletion, or
reduced matrix color

24
 Loam
Silt loam
Silt
Moderately fine Clay loam
Sandy clay loam
Silty clay loam
Clayey soils Fine textured Sandy clay
Silty clay
Clay

The results of the laboratory confirmation for fine earth soil textural class
can be compared to the standard texture triangle below:

25
3.4.2 Presence of coarse fragments in soils. Particles more than 2
millimeters in diameter are called coarse fragments or coarse skeleton. These
are further classified as follows:

Gravel Individual pebbles from 2 millimeters to 8 centimeters in

diameter
Cobblestone Coarse fragments rounded or partially
rounded from 8 to 25 centimeters in
diameter
Stone Rock fragments from 25 to 60
centimeters in diameter
Boulder Rock fragments more than 60
centimeters in diameter
Fragment Content
Rock Fragment Modifier Usage
% By Volume
< 15 No texture adjective is used (noun only, e.g. loam).

15-35 Use adjective for appropriate size; e.g. gravelly.

35-60 User “very” with appropriate size adjective; e.g. very gravelly.

60-90 Use “extremely” with appropriate size adjective; e.g. extremely gravelly.
No adjective or modifier. If < 10% fine earth, use the appropriate noun
> 90
for the dominant size class; e.g. gravel.

Source: USDA Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, Version 2, September 2002

The adjective “gravelly” or “cobbly” are attached to the soil textural

name when such coarse fragments occupy more than 15 percent and up to 90
percent of the whole soil mass. The content of the coarse fragments are further
classified as per table above. Please note the changes since the old Soil
Survey Manual considers for instance soils to be gravelly for soils containing
gravels from 15 to 50 percent of the soil mass and very gravelly for soils
containing gravels from 50 to 90 percent of the soil mass.

The class name “Cadiz gravelly clay loam” means the soil mass is clay
loam but contains coarse fragments between 2 to 8 centimeters in diameter,
occupying about 15 to 50 percent of the soil in the old Soil Survey reports but
under the new manual, is restricted up to 35 percent only.

In the old soil survey reports, rock fragments of more than 25

centimeters in diameter (stones) and boulders are excluded from the detailed
soil textural classification for soils with coarse fragments. Stony and boulder
descriptions are allowed in the new manual.

3.4. 3 Textural classes for organic soils. Some soils contain plenty of
organic matter. When the organic matter is well decomposed, it is called muck;
otherwise, partly decayed organic matter is called peat. When the decay of
organic matter is partial only (such as Basak), it is classified as Basak peaty

26
muck or Basak mucky peat. “Peaty muck” has well decomposed organic
matter but still has some peat. “Mucky peat” on the other hand, the organic
matter is only partially decomposed.

Castaneda and Hamazaki (1996) introduced a description of the scale

of material decomposition based on von Post (1937) and Soil Survey Staff
(1975) as Fibric, Hemic, and Sapric.

The USDA Field Book uses the following textural modifiers for organic
soils:
Grassy (OM > 15% vol, grassy fibers)
Herbaceous (OM > 15% vol, herbaceous fibers)
Mossy (OM > 15% vol, moss fibers)
Mucky (used with peat, i.e. “mucky peat” for hemic materials)
Woody (OM ≥15% vol, wood pieces or fibers

3.4.4 Textural classes for volcanic soils

The USDA Field Book also allows the use of the following textural
modifiers for volcanic soils:
Ashy (Neither hydrous nor medial and ≥ 30% of the <2 mm fraction is
0.02 to 2.00 mm in size of which ≥ 5% is volcanic glass
Hydrous (Andic properties and with field moist 15 bar water content
≥ 100% of the dry weight
Medial (Andic properties, and with field moist 15 bar water content
≥ 30% to < 100% of the dry weight, or ≥ 12% water content for
air-dried samples

3.5 Mottles. Some soils have spots of one color in a matrix of a

different color. The spots are called mottles and the soil is said to be mottled.
Some mottles appear as splotches of reddish brown color in a gray matrix.
Others appear as gray mottles in a brown matrix.

Mottling is caused by fluctuating water tables. When the water table is

high, the soil is saturated and iron oxide is reduced. When the water table
drops, oxygen begins to reenter the soil through root channels and large pores,
which drain first. As oxygen comes into contact with moist soil containing
reduced iron, the iron quickly oxidizes forming an insoluble precipitate at the
surface of a soil ped. The result is a yellowish brown mottle surrounded by gray
soil. There are situations, however, in which mottles do not indicate wetness.
These are the chemical weathering of rocks, relict mottling (soil environment
was wetter than it is now), and coatings on soil peds.

Mottles are described in terms of abundance, size, and contrast of each

color described also using the Color Munsell. In most cases, only the standard
color names are given since additional detail maybe unnecessary for this
purpose; and descriptions, which include many color notations, are difficult to
read.
27
3.5.1 Abundance:
Few—mottles occupy less than 2 percent of the
exposed surface
Common—about 2 to 20 percent
Many—more than 20 percent

3.5.2 Size
Fine—mottles less than 5 millimeters in
diameter along the greatest dimension
Medium—between 5 and 15 millimeters
Coarse—greater than 15 millimeters

3.5.3 Contrast
Faint—indistinct mottles, evident and
recognizable only upon close
examination; soil colors in both matrix
and mottles have closely related hues
and chromas
Distinct—though not striking, the mottles are
readily seen; may vary as much as one
or two hues or several units in chroma
or value; the pattern may be one of a
continuous matrix with mottles or one
of mixtures of two or more colors.
Prominent—the conspicuous mottles are obvious
and mottling is one of the outstanding
features of the horizon; hue, value, and
chroma may be several units apart;
pattern may be one of a continuous
matrix with contrasting mottles or one
of mixtures of two or more colors.

The USDA Field Book has a tabular list for determination of color
contrast and hereby reproduced as follows:

3.5.3.1 When contrast are the same: [Please note exception.]

∆Value ∆Chroma Contrast
0 ≤1 Faint
0 2 Distinct
0 3 Distinct
0 ≥4 Prominent
1 ≤1 Faint
1 2 Distinct
1 3 Distinct
1 ≥4 Prominent
≤2 ≤1 Faint
≤2 2 Distinct

28
 ≤2 3 Distinct
≤2 ≥4 Prominent
3 ≤1 Distinct
3 2 Distinct
3 3 Distinct
3 ≥ Prominent
≥4 - Prominent
3.5.3.2 Hues differ by 1 (∆h = 1) [Please note exception.]
∆Value ∆Chroma Contrast
0 ≤1 Faint
0 2 Distinct
0 ≥3 Prominent
1 ≤1 Faint
1 2 Distinct
1 ≥3 Prominent
2 ≤1 Distinct
2 2 Distinct
2 ≥3 Prominent
≥3 - Prominent

3.5.3.3 Hues differ by 2 (∆h = 2) [Please note exception.]

∆Value ∆Chroma Contrast
0 0 Faint
0 1 Distinct
0 ≥2 Prominent
1 ≤1 Distinct
1 ≥ Prominent
≥2 - Prominent

3.5.3.4 Hues differ by 3 ∆h ≥ 3) [Please note exception.]

∆Value ∆Chroma Contrast
Color contrast is prominent
except for low Chroma and Value Prominent

3.5.3.5 Exception: If both colors have a Value ≤ 3 and a Chroma ≤ 2,

the color contrast is Faint regardless of Hue differences]

3.5.4 Shape

Lately, Castaneda and Hamazaki (1996) introduced mottle shape in the

description as follows:
Filmy—mottles cover the surface peds or cracks
in membrane-like manner
Tubular—mottles resemble thready roots in shape and
cover root-like pores
Thread-like—mottles resemble strings in shape and
develop like network

29
 Dotty—mottles marked with small many points in the
matrix; most are Manganese mottles
Cloudy—mottles marked with speckles or clouds
and formed by segregation in situ.

3.6 Soil Structure. Soil structure refers to the aggregation of individual

grains of sand, silt, and clay into larger units called peds. Plant roots, soil
organic matter, and clay particles provide the physical and chemical binding
agents.

Soils that do not aggregate with naturally preserved boundaries are

considered to be structureless. Two forms of structureless condition are
recognized, they are: the single grain (particles are easily distinguishable) and
the massive (individual particles adhere to each other but the mass lacks plane
of weakness).

Structure is described in each horizon in three features: grade, class (or

size), and type.

3.6. 1 Grade
Structureless—no discrete peds observable
in place or in hand sample
Weak—peds are observable but cannot be
removed without being destroyed
Moderate—peds can be removed from profile
for examination in the hand
Strong—when removed from the profile, are
rigid and durable in the hand

3.6.2 Size Class

Very fine or very thin
Fine or thin
Medium
Coarse or thick
Very coarse or very thick
Note: The USDA Field Book specifies structural unit size criteria in mm
as the smallest dimension for each class. As this was not discussed during the
last Soil Survey methodology workshop, this is not included in this manual.

3.6.3 Type
Platy—platelike, with one dimension; arranged
around a horizontal plane
Prismatic—prismlike, with two dimensions limited
and considerably less than the vertical;
arranged around the vertical line;
vertical faces well defined; without
rounded caps
Columnar—same as prismatic but with rounded caps

30
Examples of soil structural types (Source: USDA Field Book for Describing and
Sampling Soils).

Angular blocky—bloclike; polyhedronlike

with three dimensions of the same order
of magnitude, arranged around a point;
faces flattened, mostly vertices sharply
angular
Subangular blocky—similar to angular blocky
but mixed rounded and flattened faces
with many rounded vertices
Granular—spheroids or polyhedrons having
plane or curved surfaces which have
slight or no accommodation to the faces
of surrounding peds; non-porous peds
Crumb—similar to granular but porous peds

The USDA Field Book includes Wedge as a soil structural unit, and
defined it as elliptical, interlocking lenses that terminate in acute angles,

31
bounded by slickensides; not limited to vertic materials. Wedge structure is
generally associated with Vertisols (for which it is a requirement) or related soils
with high amounts of smectitic clays.

Examples of soil structural types are presented in page 31.

3.7 Soil Consistency. Soil consistence in the general sense refers to

attributes of soil material as expressed in degree of cohesion and adhesion, or
in resistance to deformation on rupture. Soil consistency is commonly used to
describe the feel of the soil, and in the old Soil Survey Manual, and it includes
soil properties such as friability, plasticity, stickiness, and resistance to
compression and shear, all of which have obvious importance for cultivation
operations. The sticky point indicates the moisture content at which a soil will
begin to scour during cultivation.

Although consistency varies at different moisture content, most of the

Philippine soil profile descriptions have consistencies described at wet and
moist conditions.

Wet consistencies—moisture at or slightly more than field moisture

capacity. This is usually measured in terms of stickiness and plasticity.

The USDA Field Book has new criteria set for consistence evaluation in
the field: Rupture Resistance (Blocks, Peds, and Clods; or Surface Crusts and
Plates), Resistance to Penetration, Plasticity, Stickiness, and Manner of
Failure. Historically, consistence applies to dry, moist, or wet soil as observed
in the field. Wet consistence evaluated Stickiness and Plasticity. Rapture
Resistance now applies to dry soils and to soils in a water state from moist
through wet. Stickiness and Plasticity of soil are independent evaluations.
Until a workshop on soil consistence to update soil survey staff on these new
parameters is conducted, the inclusion of the new field evaluation parameters
in this manual is deferred.

3.7.1 Consistency at various moisture status:

Note: This is considered OBSOLETE already by the USDA Field Book.

3.7.1.1 Moist consistencies—moisture between dryness and field

moisture capacity
Loose— soil material is noncoherent
Very friable—aggregates crush easily between
thumb and finger
Firm—moderate thumb and finger pressure is
required to crush aggregates
Very firm—strong thumb and finger pressure is
required to crush aggregates
Extremely firm—aggregates cannot be broken with both hands

32
 3.7.1.2 Dry consistencies
Loose
Soft
Slightly hard
Hard
Very hard
Extremely hard

Since consistence at various moisture status is already obsolete in the

USDA Field Book, Filipino soil surveyors need to be familiar with “Rupture
Resistance for Blocks, Peds, and Clods” which will be used also for determining
hardness of concentrations (for both redoximorphic and non-redoximorphic
features).

3.7.1A Rupture resistance for blocks, peds, and clods

Dry Class Moist Class Cementation Class Specimen fails under

Loose Loose [Not applicable] Intact specimen not obtainable

Soft Very friable Non-cemented Very slight force between fingers

Slightly hard Friable Ext. weakly cemented Slight force between fingers

Moderately hard Firm Very weakly cemented Moderate force between fingers

Hard Very firm Weakly cemented Strong force between fingers

Very hard Extremely firm Moderately cemented Moderate force between hands

Extremely hard Slightly rigid Strongly cemented Foot pressure by full body weight

Rigid Rigid Very strongly cemented Blow of <3J but not body weight

Very rigid Very rigid Indurated Blow of ≥3 J (= 2kg dropped 15 cm)

3.7.2 Stickiness

Stickiness is the capacity of the soil to adhere to other objects. The

determination is made on puddled less than 2 mm soil material at the water
content at which the material is most sticky. The sample is crushed in the
hand; water is applied while manipulation is continued between thumb and
forefinger until maximum stickiness is reached.
Nonsticky—no natural adhesion of soil material to fingers
Slightly sticky—soil material adheres to one finger but the other
finger is clean
Sticky—soil material adheres to both fingers and thumb;
stretches somewhat
[Please note: the USDA Field Book now refers to Sticky
as Moderately Sticky. Filipino soil surveyors should use

33
 Moderately Sticky instead of Sticky to be at par with their
international counterparts.]
Very sticky—soil material strongly adheres to both thumb and
finger

3.7.3 Plasticity

Plasticity—capability of being molded by hands. It is the degree at

which puddled soil is permanently deformed without rupturing by force applied
continuously in any direction.
Non-plastic—no “wire” is formable by rolling
material between the hands
Slightly plastic—only short (<1 centimeter)
“wires” are formed
Plastic—long wires (> 1 centimeter) are formed;
moderate pressure is needed to deform
a block of molded material
[Please note: the USDA Field Book now refers to Plastic
as Moderately Plastic. Filipino soil surveyors should use
Moderately Plastic instead of Plastic to be at par with
their international counterparts.]
Very plastic—much pressure is needed to
deform a block of the molded material
Note: the recent USDA definition of plasticity classes tries to be
more quantitative in its definition as follows*:
Non-plastic— a roll 4 centimeters long and 6
millimeters thick that supports its own
weight held on end cannot be formed.
Slightly plastic—a roll 4 centimeters long and
6 millimeters thick can be formed and,
if held on end, will support its own weight.
A roll 4 millimeters thick will not support
its own weight
Moderately plastic— a roll 4 centimeters long
and 4 millimeters thick can be formed
and will support its own weight, but a
roll 2 millimeters thick will not support
its own weight
Very plastic—a roll 4 centimeters long and
2 millimeters thick can be formed and
will support its own weight
*Additional note: The determination is made on thoroughly
puddled soil material at a water content where maximum plasticity is
expressed. This water content is above the plastic limit, but is less than the
water content at which maximum stickiness is expressed. The water content is
adjusted by adding water or removing it during hand manipulation. The closely
related plastic limit that is used in engineering classifications is the water
content for less than 0.4 millimeter material at which a roll of 3 millimeter in

34
diameter which had been formed at a higher water content breaks apart.
(Method D424 in American Soc. Testing Mat., 1984).

3.8 Presence and distribution of roots. The distribution of roots in

the profile reflects the physical and chemical condition of the different layers.
Roots that fail to penetrate the lower layers in the profile may be due to the
presence of a hard pan. In the absence of hard pan, waterlogged conditions
may prevent the plant roots from penetrating through. In other cases, presence
of amount of salts in certain horizons will likewise prevent the roots from going
through. It should be noted, however, that there are shallow rooted and deep
rooted plants; it may be common sense to recognize the plants in the surface
soil to be able to trace the extent of root penetration.
The USDA Field Book provides criteria for recording of roots quantity,
size, and location:

3.8.1 Quantity or Abundance

Quantity Class Average count per assessed area
Few < 1 per area
Common 1 to < 5 per area
Many ≥ 5 per area

3.8.2 Size
Size Class Diameter Soil area assessed
Very fine <1 mm 1 cm2
Fine 1 to <2 mm 1 cm2
Medium 2 to < 5 mm 1 dm2
Coarse 5 to < 10 mm 1 dm2
Very coarse ≥ 10 mm 1 m2

Note: 1 dm2 = a square that is 10 cm on a side or 100 cm2.

3.8.3 Location
In cracks
In mat top of horizon
Between peds
Matted around stones
Throughout

3.9 Presence of pores or voids. Approximately, half of the volume of

a soil is pore space. This is described to determine to a large extent the
movement of air and water in the soil. The characteristics of the pores are in
some measure determined by the structure. Many pores are too small for field
description. Pores influence infiltration and permeability characteristics.

Historically, the description of soil pores, called “nonmatrix” pores in the

Soil Survey Manuel (USDA Soil Survey Staff, 1993) excluded inter-structural
voids (sub-planar fractures between peds), cracks, and in some schemes,
interstitial pores (visible primary packing voids). Inter-structural voids can be
35
inferred from soil structure and not recorded directly. Cracks are assessed
independently (USDA Soil Survey Staff, 1993) and to be introduced in this
manual, although not part of the soil survey workshop conducted in connection
with this manual in view of the current skills of the Filipino soil surveyors in
recognizing this feature. Interstitial pores are visually estimated from
fragmental soils or inferred from soil porosity, bulk density, and particle size
distribution. Field observations are limited to those than can be seen through
10X hand lens or larger. Field estimates of interstitial pores are considered
tenuous but nevertheless, helpful.

The following are updates from the USDA Field Book:

3.9.1 Quantity or Abundance (Same criteria as those for roots)

Few
Common
Many

3.9.2 Size (Same criteria as those for roots)

Very fine
Fine

Different kinds of pores

(Source: USDA Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, September 2002)

36
 Medium
Coarse
Very coarse

3.9.3 Shape
3.9.3.1 Soil Pores (Called “Non-Matrix Pores” in Soil Survey Manual,
Soil Survey Staff, 1993)
Description Critria
Dendritic tubular Cylindrical, elongated, branching voids
e.g.: Empty root channels
Irregular Non-connected cavities, chambers
e.g.: Vughs of various shapes
Tubular Cylindrical and enlongated voids
e.g.: Worm tunnels
Vesicular Ovoid to spherical voids
e.g.: Solidified pseudomorphs of
entrapped, gas bubbles concentrated
below a crust; most common in
arid to semi-arid environments.
9.3.3.2 Primary Packing Voids (Pores visible with a 10X hand lens
and called “Matrix Pores” in the Soil Survey Manual, Soil
Survey Staff, 1993. Include a continuum of sizes.)
Interstitial Voids between san d grains or rock
fragments

3.9.4 Vertical Continuity

Class Criteria: vertical distance
Low < 1 cm
Moderate 1 to 10 cm
High ≥ 10 cm

3.10 Cracks

This is a new soil profile description parameter not included in the old
Soil Survey Manual and also not included in the Philippine Soil Information
System.

This section is excerpted from the USDA Field Book:

Cracks (also called “Extra-Structural Cracks”, Soil Survey Staff, 1993)

are fissures other than those attributed to soil structure. Cracks are
commonly vertical, sub-planar, polygonal, and are the result of desiccation,
dewatering, or consolidation of earthly material. Cracks are much longer and
can be much wider than the planes that surround soil structural units such as
prisms, columns, etc. Cracks are key to preferential flow, also called “bypass
flow (Bouma, et.al. 1982) and are a primary cause of temporal changes in
ponded infiltration and hydraulic conductivity in soils (Soil Survey Staff, 1993).
Cracks are primarily associated with, but not restricted to, clayey soils and are

37
 Kinds of cracks
(Source: USDA Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, September 2002)

most pronounced in high shrink-swell soils (high COLE value).

The USDA Field Book requires the recording of Relative Frequency,

Depth, and Kind.
3.10.1 Kind of cracks

Kind General Description

A. Crust-related cracks (Surface-Initiated Cracks)
Shallow, vertical cracks related to crusts; derived from
raindrop-splash and soil puddling, followed by dewatering/
consolidation and desiccation)
1. Reversible crust- Very shallow (e.g. 0.1-0.5 cm),
related cracks very transient (persist less than a
few weeks; formed by drying from
surface down; minimal, seasonal
Influence on ponded infiltration
2. Irreversible crust- [Note: not relevant to Philippine
Related cracks conditions, as these are freeze-
thaw crust and associated cracks]
B. Trans-horizon cracks (Sub-surface Initiated Cracks)
Deep, vertical cracks that commonly extend across more
than one horizon and may extend to the surface; derived

38
 from wetting and drying or original dewatering and
consolidation of parent material
1. Reversible trans- Transient, (commonly seasonal;
horizon cracks close when rewetted); large
influence on ponded infiltration
and Ksat; formed by wetting and
drying of soil; (e.g.—Vertisols and
vertic subgroups)
2. Irreversible trans- [Note: not relevant to Philippine
horizon cracks conditions, as these are
extremely coarse subsurface
fissures within glacial till]

3.10.2 Depth of cracks

Record the average apparent depth (also called the “depth

index value”), measured from the surface, as determined
by the wire-insertion method. Do not record this data
element for cracks that are not open to the surface.

3.10.3 Relative frequency

Record the average number of cracks per meter, across the

surface or the lateral frequency across a soil profile as
determined with a line-intercept method. This data element
cannot be assessed from core samples.

3.11 Ped Coatings and Void Surface Features

These features are coats/films, hypocoats, or stress features formed

by translocation and deposition, or shrink-swell processes on or along
surfaces. The USDA Field Book requires description of kind (this is referred
to in the Soil Information System as Nature of ped coating), amount class
(new parameter; formerly we measure quantity in terms of patchy, broken, or
continuous; these terms are already considered obsolete in USDA-NRCS),
distinctness (new parameter), location, and color (also new parameter).
Please note that in our Soil Information System, thickness (thin, moderately
thick, thick) is required to be filled up. The USDA Field Book does not require
this feature and excluded in this manual.

3.11.1 Kind of ped and void surface features

A cutan is a modification of the texture, structure, or fabric at natural

surfaces in soil material due to concentration of particular soil constituents or
in situ modification of the plasma. In general, this modification is considered a
microstructural feature and detailed description is done in the laboratory. A
10x hand lens is normally used for field examinations, describing only what

39
could be actually seen such as color and thickness of the coating. The
following description is based on Guidelines for Soil Profile Description (FAO,
1997)
Pure clay minerals (quite rare)
Clay minerals with iron oxides and hydroxides
Clay minerals with organic matter
Sesquioxides
Manganese oxides or hydroxides
Soluble salts (carbonates, sulfates, chlorides)
Silica
*Note: In few cases, it will be possible to distinguish
with certainty the material forming a cutan,
using only a hand lens in the field. Consequently,
reference to this material in a soil description
will be assumed to be tentative unless it is
specifically stated that their nature has been
determined by microscopic and/or laboratory
methods. To avoid possible misunderstanding,
it may be desirable to qualify description of
such materials by such adjectives as “possibly”
or “probably”.

The following can also be used to describe the kind of coat

(Guinto, 1990):
skeletans over cutans black stains
chalcedony on opal clay bridging
gibbsite coats iron stains
intersecting slickensides organic coats
lime or carbonates pressure faces
manganese or iron-manganese stains clay films coats
non-intersecting slickensides oxide coats
skeletans (sand or silt)

The USDA Field Book itemizes the kinds of ped and void surface
features (non-redoximorphic) into the following (please see diagram on page
42):

Kind Field Criteria

A. Coats, films (exterior, adhered to surface)
1. Carbonate coats off-white, effervescent with HCl
2. Silica (silans, opals) off-white, non-effervescent with HCl
3. Clay films (argillans) waxy, exterior coats
4. Clay bridging “wax” between sand grains
5. Ferriargillans* Fe+3 stained clay film
*Note: to be described as a redoximorphic feature
6. Gibbsite coats AlOH3, off-white, non effervescent
with HCl
7. Manganese* (mangans) black, thin films effervescent with H2O2

40
Kinds of ped and void surface features

41
 *Note: to be described as a redoximorphic feature
8. Organic stains dark organic films
9. Organoargillans dark, organic stained clay films
10. Sand coats separate grains visible with 10X
11. Silt coats** separate grains not visible at 10X
**Note: Individual silt grains are not discernable with 10X lens.
Silt coats occur as a fine, off-white, no-effervescent, “grainy” coat
on surfaces.
12. Skeletans*** (sand or silt) clean sand or silt grains as coats
***Note: Skeletans are pigment-stripped grains >2 µm (Brewer,
1976). Preferably describe either as silt coats or sand coats
depending on how discernable with a 10X lens.
13. Skeletans on argillans clean sand or silt over clay coats
B. Hypocoats**** (a stain infused beneath a surface
****Note: Hypocoats are field-scale features commonly expressed
Only as redoximorphic features. Micromorphological hypocoats
include non-redox features (Bullock, et.al, 1985)
C. Stress features (exterior face)
1. Pressure faces (stress cutans) look like clay films, sand grains
uncoated
2. Slickensides (pedogenic) shrink-swell shear features (e.g.
grooves,
striations, glossy surface) on pedo-
structure surfaces (e.g., wedges, bowls)
3. Slickensides (geogenic) vertical/oblique, roughly planar shear
face from external stress (e.g. faults,
mass movement); striations, grooves

3.11.2 Amount
Estimate the relative percent of the visible surface area that the ped
surface feature occupies in a horizon

Amount class Criteria

Very few <5 percent
Few 5 to <25 percent
Common 25 to <50 percent
Many 50 to <90 percent
Very many ≥ 90 percent

The above estimate of the relative percent of the visible surface area
that a ped feature occupies replaces the Continuity feature which is already
obsolete in NRCS. Please note that the following is no longer used in the
USDA field description of soils:
Patchy—small scattered patches of cutans on
ped faces or as lining in pores, etc.
Broken—cutans which cover much but not all
of ped faces or line most but not all
pores, etc.

42
 Continuous—cutans that cover peds entirely or
completely line pores, channels, etc.

3.11.3 Distinctness
This refers to the relative extent to which a ped surface feature visually
stands out from adjacent materials:

Faint - visible with magnification only (10X hand lens);

little contrast between materials
Distinct- visible without magnification; significant contrast
between materials
Prominent- Markedly visible without magnification; sharp visual
contrast between materials

Please note that in the USDA field description of soils, the following
which appears in the Philippine Soil Information System is no longer used to
describe thickness of cutans, pressure faces, slickensides, etc.:

Thin—fine sandy grains are readily apparent

in the cutan, bridges between grains
weak, microscopic thickness
Moderately thick—fine sand grains are
enveloped in the cutan and their
outlines are indistinct
Thick—surface of cutan is smooth showing no
outlines of fine sand grains, strong
bridges between larger grains

3.11.4 Location

The location of the cutans on ped faces should be described, paying

particular attention to the orientation of the peds. Thus, cutan development
may be much better developed on horizontal ped faces than on vertical ones.
The cutans may form bridges between peds or mineral grains, or they may be
confined to pores or root channels. The following may be used to describe
the location of coat (Guinto, 1990):
between sand grains on top of soil columns
on faces of peds and in pores on horizontal faces of peds
in root channels and/or pores throughout
on lower surface of peds or stones on bottoms of plates
on nodules on faces of peds
on rock fragments on sand and gravel
on upper surfaces of peds or stones
on vertical faces of peds
on vertical and horizontal faces of peds

The USDA Field Book categorizes the specific location where the ped
surface features occur within a horizon:

43
 Location

A. Peds
1. On bottom faces of peds
2. On top faces of peds
3. On vertical faces of peds
4. On all faces of peds (vertical and horizontal)
5. On top of soil columns
B. Others (Non-ped)
6. Between sand grains (bridging)
7. On surface along pores
8. On surface along root channels
9. On concretions
10. On nodules
11. On rock fragments
12. On top surfaces of rock fragments
13. On bottom surfaces of rock fragments
14. On slickensides

3.11.5 Color

Use standard color notation (hue, value, chroma) to record feature

color. Indicate whether the color is moist, or dry. This is a new parameter as
Filipino soil surveyors do not record the color and there is no provision for color
feature in the current Soil Information System.

3.11. 6 Examples of cutan description:

In the Philippine Soil Information System:

1. Patchy thin cutans, probably of clay minerals with iron oxides

and hydroxides, mainly on horizontal ped faces;
2. Continuous moderately thick cutans, possibly of clay minerals
with organic matter, on horizontal and vertical ped faces.

In the USDA Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils:

Many, faint, brown 10YR 4/6 (moist) clay films on all faces of
peds

3.12 Concentrations. Under this item, a wide variety of concretionary,

accretionary, and residual nodules may need to be described. The term
“nodule” carries no implication on the mode of formation, and is therefore
preferred when the mode of formation is uncertain.

It will be noted that in the Soil Information System, there is no

44
 Different kinds of concentrations

distinction if the concentration is a redoximorphic feature or a non-

redoximorphic feature. But generally speaking, the nodule descriptions in the
Soil Information System has partiality to ironstone, iron-manganese mass,
mangans, ferriargillans, etc. which are redoximorphic features. There is a
separate description for non-redoximorphic concentrations under the heading
“Content of Carbonates, Soluble Salts, etc.” Under this item, the presence of
carbonates, gypsum, or crystallized soluble salts are noted. The form (e.g.
pseudo-mycelia; nodules, crystals; efflorescence, etc.) are to be described. As
far as possible, the percentage volume occupied by large particles of such
materials are to be estimated.

In the USDA Field Book, the redoximorphic features are also separated
from the non-redoximorphic features; and generally the features under the
heading of “Concentrations” (discussed in this Manual as topic 3.12) refer to
non-redoximorphic features.

To avoid confusion, we will retain the separation of redoximorphic

features from non-redoximorphic features. In the course of field survey work,
once the concentration is identified as results of oxidation-reduction processes,
please proceed to topic 3.13 Redoximorphic Features and skip this section.

The USDA Field Book discusses the soil concentrations as soil features

45
that form by accumulation of material during pedogenesis. Dominant
processes involved are chemical dissolution/precipitation; oxidation and
reduction; and physical and/or biological removal, transport, and accrual. The
types of concentrations, (modified from Soil Survey Staff, 1993) are:

1. Finely disseminated materials, generally small precipitates such as salts

and carbonates dispersed throughout the matrix of a horizon. The
material cannot be readily seen but can be detected by a chemical
reaction such as effervescence of CaCO3 by HCl. (e.g. finely
disseminated salts/ carbonates)
2. Masses are non-cemented bodies of various shapes that cannot be
removed as discrete units and do not have a crystal structure that is
readily discernable in the field. This includes finely crystalline salts and
redox concentrations that do not qualify as nodules or concretions. (e.g.
barite, carbonates, clay bodies, gypsum nests, gypsum, salt, silica)
3. Nodules are cemented bodies of various shapes (commonly spherical or
tubular) that can be removed as discrete units from soil. Crystal structure
is not discernable with a 10X hand lens. (e.g. carbonates, durinodes,
gibbsite, opal)
4. Concretions are cemented bodies similar to nodules, except for the
presence of visible, concentric layers of material around a point, line, or
plane. The terms “nodule” and “concretions” are interchangeable. (e.g.
carbonates, gibbsite, silica, titanium oxide)
5. Crystals are macro-crystalline forms of relatively soluble salts that form in-
situ by precipitation from soil solution. The crystalline shape and structure
are readily discernable in the field with a 10X hand lens. (e.g. barite,
calcite, gypsum, salt)
6. Biological concentrations (by-products or pseudomorphs) are discrete
bodies accumulated by a biological process (e.g. fecal pellets) or
psyeduomorphs of biota or biological processes (e.g. insect casts) formed
or deposited in the soil. (e.g. diatoms, fecal pellets, insect casts, plant
opal, root sheaths, shell fragments, sponge spicules, worm casts)
7. Inherited minerals (geogenic) are field observable particles (e.g. mica
flakes) or aggregates (e.g. glauconite pellets) that impart distinctive soil
characteristics and formed by geologic processes in the original parent
material and subsequently inherited by the soil rather than formed or
concentrated by pedogenic processes. Included in the USDA Field Book
due to historical conventions and not all concentration descriptors may
apply (e.g. shape, color).

3.12.1 Nature of concentration

The presumed nature of material from which the nodule is mainly

formed should be given; e.g. ironstone* (a convenient term for various
materials in which compounds of iron are thought to predominate). The
following are the possible kinds of concretions (Guinto, 1990):

clay bodies barite crystals

46
 soft masses of barite calcite crystals
soft masses of lime lime concretions
lime nodules mica flakes
soft dark masses dark concretions
dark nodules gibbsite concretions
plinthite segregations* soft masses of iron*
iron masses* iron concretions*
ironstone nodules* masses of gypsum
gypsum threads halite crystals
soft masses of carbonate salt masses
carbonate concretions carbonate nodules
carbonate threads nonmagnetic shot
soft masses of iron-manganese* magnetic shot
iron-manganese concretions* opal crystals
soft masses of silica silica concretions
durinodes worm casts
insect casts worm nodules

Please note that in the USDA Field Book, the kind of concentration is
described in accordance with the seven types described under 3.12.

*Once identified in the field, these are redoximorphic features. Please

skip 3.12 Concentrations and proceed to 3.13 Redoximorphic Features.

3.12.2 Quantity or abundance

The USDA Field Book measures the percent of surface area covered
in terms of few (<2%), common (2 to <20%), and many (≥ 20%).

For this Manual, however, we retain what is existing in the Soil

Information System which is based on the FAO (1997) guidelines:

Very few—less than 5 percent by volume

Few—5 to 15 percent by volume
Frequent—15 to 40 percent by volume
Very frequent—40 to 80 percent by volume
Dominant—over 80 percent by volume

3.12.3 Size

The following descriptions can be used to describe the size (Guinto,

1990):

very fine very fine and fine

fine fine and medium
medium medium and coarse
coarse coarse and very coarse
extremely coarse very coarse and extremely coarse

47
 The USDA Field Book defines size class as follows:
Fine < 2 mm
Medium 2 to < 5 mm
Coarse 5 to < 20 mm
Very coarse 20 to < 76 mm
Extremely coarse ≥ 76 mm

3.12.4 Contrast

Neither in the old Soil Survey Manual nor in the Soil Information System
is the contrast of the concentrations with the surrounding soil matrix described .
This is a new feature in the USDA Field Book. Concentrations are described in
size similarly as the mottles:

Faint
Distinct
Prominent

Please see 3.5.3 for criteria.

3.12.5 Color and Moisture State

Use standard Munsell notation for color. Note: this is a new feature in
concentration description.

When the color is described, do not forget the moisture state when the
color was obtained; either moist or dry.

3.12.6 Shape

Spherical
Cylindrical
Dendritic
Rounded
Plate-like or platy
Threads
Irregular or knobby
Angular
Reticulate

3.12.7 Location or Distribution

This is also a new feature not yet included in the Soil Information
System. The USDA Field Book has the following location choices:

A. Matrix (In soil matrix; not associated with ped faces or pores)
1. In the matrix

48
 2. In matrix around depletions
3. In matrix around concentrations
4. Throughout
B. Peds (on or associated with faces of peds)
1. Between peds
2. Infused into the matrix along faces of peds
3. On all faces of peds (all orientations)
4. On horizontal faces of peds
5. On vertical faces of peds
C. Pores (in pores or associated with surfaces along pores)
1. On surface along pores
2. On surface along root channels (proposed)
3. Infused into the matrix adjacent to pores
4. Lining pores
D. Others
1. In cracks
2. At top of horizon
3. Around rock fragments
4. On bottom of rock fragments
5. On slickensides
6. Along lamina or strata surfaces (proposed)

3.12.8 Hardness

Soft—nodules can be broken between

forefinger and thumb nail
Hard—nodules cannot be broken with fingers

Note: In the USDA Field Book, hardness refers to the relative force
required to crush the concentration body using the same criteria and classes
as the “Rupture Resistance for Blocks, Peds, and Clods. Example is
“Moderately Cemented”. The US Pedon Description Program Version 4
Design Documents (Soil Survey Staff, 1966) does not recognize the
“Moderately Hard” class, neither dry nor moist. This is equivalent to “Very
Weakly Cemented”. Please note that the Philippine Soil Information System
still recognizes the soft-hard descriptions. It would take a separate workshop
to overhaul and modify the hardness description for concentrations to adopt
the USDA practice.

3.12.9 Boundary

This refers to the gradation between the feature and the matrix. This
feature is not yet included in the Philippine Soil Information System. The
USDA Field Book defines the boundary classes as follows:

Sharp Color changes in <0.1 mm; change is abrupt even

under a 10X hand lens.
Clear Color changes within 0.1 to <2 mm; gradation is

49
 visible without 10X lens.
Diffuse Color changes in ≥ 2 mm; gradation is easily visible
without 10X hand lens.

3.12.10 Example of concentration description:

Many, fine prominent white (10YR 8/1), moist, cylindrical carbonate

nodules in the matrix, moderately cemented, clear.

3.12.11 Additional Notes:

Please refer to 3.14 Reaction Tests for confirmatory presence of

materials.

3.13 Redoximorphic Features

The USDA Field Book defines redoximorphic features as a color pattern

in a soil due to loss (depletion) or gain (concentration) of pigment compared to
the matrix color, formed by oxidation/ reduction of Fe and Mn coupled with their
removal, translocation, or accrual; or a soil matrix controlled by the presence of
Fe+2. The composition and process of formation for a soil color or color pattern
must be known or inferred before describing it as a redoximorphic feature.
Because of this inference, redoximorphic features are described separately
from other mottles, concentrations, salts, or compositional features. The
redoximorphic features generally occur in one or more of these settings:
a. In the soil matrix, unrelated to surface of peds or pores.
b. On or beneath the surface of peds.
c. As filled pores, lining or pores, or neath the surface of pores.

3.13.1 Kinds of redoximorphic features

It will take another workshop to be able to interpret the genetic

development that leads to the redoximorphic feature observed in the field;
considering that the observations under this topic, although recorded in the Soil
Information System, is not identified as results of oxidation-reduction process
during the soil profile’s pedogenesis.

Suffice it however, that the general heading provides the major

explanation for the occurrence of the redoximorphic feature. For instance,
reduced matrix is a soil horizon that has an in-situ chroma ≤ 2 due to the
presence of Fe+2. It can be inferred that the color of the soil sample will
become redder or brighter when oxidized or exposed to the air, normally, within
30 minutes. One will have to proceed to 3.14 Reaction Tests using 0.2%
solution of α, α’ - dipyridyl dissolved in in 1 N ammonium acetate pH 7 to verify
the presence of Fe+2 in the field. Please refer to the USDA Field Book for
detailed discussions on the kinds of redoximorphic features and its recognition
in the field.

50
A. Reduced matrix (chroma ≤ 2 primarily from Fe+2)
1. reduced matrix
B. Redox depletions (loss of pigment or material)
2. clay depletions
3. iron depletions
C. Redox concentrations (accumulated pigment, material)
4. Masses (non-cemented, please refer to 3.12 Concentrations)
4.1 iron (Fe+3)
4.2 iron (Fe+2)
4.3 iron-manganese
4.4 manganese
Suggested color guide for field description of Fe vs Mn
Color of concentration Dominant Composition
Value Chroma
≤2 ≤2 Mn
> 2 and ≤ 4 > 2 and ≤ 4 Fe and Mn
>4 >4 Fe
5. Nodules (cemented, no layers, crystals not visible at 10X)
5.1 ironstone
5.2 plinthite
5.3 iron-manganes
6. Concretions (cemented, distinct layers, crystals not visible)
6.1 iron-manganese
7. Surface coats / films or hypocoats
7.1 manganese (mangans: black, very thin, exterior films)
7.2 ferriargillans (Fe+3 stained clay film)

3.13.2 Quantity - percent of area covered

Few <2
Common 2 to < 20
Many ≥

3.13.3 Size

Fine < 2 mm
Medium 2 to < 5 mm
Coarse 5 to < 20 mm
Very coarse 20 to < 76 mm
Extremely coarse ≥ 76 mm

3.14.4 Contrast

Please refer to 3.5.3 Mottles—Contrast for the classes and criteria

51
3.14.5 Color and Moisture State

Please refer to Munsell Color Chart. Do not forget to identify the

moisture state at the time the redoximorphic feature was observed (moist or
dry).

3.14.6 Shape

Please refer to 3.12.6 Concentrations—Shape for the classes and the

criteria.

3.14.7 Location

Please refer to 3.12.7 Concentrations—Location to describe the

location of the redoximorphic feature within the horizon.

3.14.8 Hardness

Please refer to 3.12.8 Concentrations—Hardness.

3.14.9 Boundary

Please refer to 3.12.9 Concentrations—Boundary

3.14 Reaction Tests. Some tests are appropriate only for paddy soils
(for presence of redoximorphic features), or for determination of andic
properties. The determination of field pH, however, is standard.

3.14.1 Soil pH

Although pH is not a morphological feature, it is included in the horizon

description, and taken at the time of field sampling using colorimetric methods.
The pH values do not have precise significance but some generalizations such
as nutrient status, could be made for fertility and liming assessment purposes.
The soil pH is normally validated in the laboratory using a more precise
electrometric pH meter. The Soil Information System recognizes the limitation
of qualitative over quantitative and does specify if the pH was taken in the field
or in the laboratory using more precise instrument.

Since Philippine crops differ from those of US, the following is the
general pH class based on the Soil Productivity Capability Classification output
during the Phase II of the technical cooperation with JICA with pH as a factor
in the assessment of inherent fertility for sustainability of long-term crop
production:
52
 Optimal 7.0—5.5
Medium 8.5—7.0; 5.5—4.5
Low ≥ 8.5; < 4.5

3.14.2 Effervescence (for calcareous materials)

In profiles derived from, or suspected of including calcium carbonate, the

carbonate content of each horizon should be tested with dilute hydrochloric acid
and described using the following terms (FAO, 1977):

Non-calcareous — no detectable effervescence

Slightly calcareous — very detectable effervescence
Calcareous — visible effervescence
Strongly calcareous — strong effervescence, particles of carbonate
usually clearly visible
(Note: The reaction to acid can be expected to be more vigorous in
sandy material than in fine textured material having the same carbonate
content.)

3.14.3 Active Ferrous Iron Compounds (for reduced conditions)

Reagent and Reaction: α, α' - dypiridyl, 0.2% (Dissolve 1 gram α, α' -

dypiridyl in 500 ml of 10% (v/v) acetic acid solution). Ferrous iron in gley
horizons or gley spots shows red color when sprayed with α, α' - dypiridyl.

Degrees of reaction:
+++ immediate and prominently show a positive
ferrous iron reaction
++ immediate and distinctly show a positive ferrous
iron reaction
+ immediate but faintly show a positive ferrous
iron reaction
+- after a little while, faintly show a positive ferrous
iron reaction
- after a little while, do not show a positive ferrous
iron reaction

If the gley spots having the reaction status of +++, ++, and + occupy
more than 60% of the exposed surface of a horizon, the horizon should be
regarded as a strongly gleyed horizon (Cr).

3.14.4 Manganese Oxides

Reagent and Reaction: 4,4’- tetramethyl diamine diphenyl methane

(TDDM), 0.5% (Dissolve 2.5 g 4,4’- tetramethyl diamine diphenyl methane in 1 L

53
of 10% (v/v) acetic acid solution and filter. ) Manganese oxides show bluish
black color when sprayed with the solution.

3.14.5 Active Aluminum (for volcanic ash soils)

Reagent and Reaction. Sodium fluoride, 1 M and filter paper with

phenolphthalein. (Add 500 ml water to 22.5 g NaF in a 500 ml polyethylene
bottle and soak filter papers in 0.1% phenolphthalein solution which was made
by dissolving 100 mg phenolphthalein in 100 ml of 95% ethanol; and dry the
filter paper.) When the active aluminum of the soil on the filter paper with
phenolphthalein is complexed with sodium fluoride sprayed, an equivalent
quantity of alkali is released, pH increases and the color changes to pink.

Degrees of reaction:

+++ immediately and prominently show a positive

active aluminum reaction
++ immediately and distinctly show a positive active
aluminum reaction
+ immediately but faintly show a positive active
aluminum reaction
+- after a little while, faintly show a positive active
aluminum reaction
- after a while, do not show a positive active
aluminum reaction

Allophane, imogolite, free aluminum compound, and exchangeable

aluminum, etc. show positive reaction.

3.14.6 Electrical conductivity (for saline soils)

The concentration of dissolved salts more soluble than gypsum in a

saturated paste extract is measured. The following is the criteria for
determining saline soils based the Soil Productivity Capability Classification
output during the Phase II of the Technical Cooperation with JICA.

EC of topsoil Criteria
(mS cm-1)

<4 Salt-free
4—8 Slightly saline
8-15 Moderately saline
≥ 15 Strongly saline

3.15 Other Measurements:

3.15.1 Soil Hardness or Compactness. Penetration resistance is the

capacity of the soil in its confined state to resist penetration by a rigid object.
54
Compactness is determined with Yamanaka’s cone penetrometer. The values
in mm is converted to g/cm2 using a table provided by the manufacturer. This
shows the strength of resistance of soil against the penetration of the conical
part of the meter. The following compactness classes (NIAS, 1981, JPG,
1984) are used:
Very loose — less than 10 mm
Loose — 11 - 18 mm
Medium — 19 - 24 mm
Compact — 25 - 28 mm
Very compact — more than 29 mm

Penetrometer readings from 8—22 mm would be considered normal.

For compact and very compact hardness measurements, the field surveyor
should try to check the data compatibility with root presence and distribution in
the horizon.

3.15.2 Special Additional Determinations: Hydraulic Conductivity,

Salinity, Sodicity, etc.

Additional field measurements, not included in the standard profile

descriptions, can be done in the field depending on the requirements of the
soil survey users. These, however, are outside the scope of this manual.

A. Hydraulic Conductivity (K) - quantifies a material’s ability to

transmit water under standard conditions and units (pressure, length, cross-
sectional area). Hydraulic conductivity is a numerical variable in an equation
that can be either measured or estimated. Hydraulic conductivity under
saturated conditions is called Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (Ksat) and the
easiest to assess. It is also the most common reference datum used to
compare water movement in different soils, layers, or materials and has
become the “industry standard”. Note that permeability and Ksat are not
synonyms and should not be treated as such. Permeability is qualitative
estimate of the relative ease with which soil transmits water. Hydraulic
conductivity is quantitative and relates the rate of water movement to the
hydraulic gradient.

B. Salinity. This refers to the concentration of dissolved salts more

soluble than gypsum such as NaCl in a saturated paste extract. The electrical
conductivity is measured, record actual value, and interpreted as follows:

Salinity Class Electrical conductivity

dS/m (mmhos/cm)
Non-saline <2

Very slightly saline 2 to < 4

Slightly saline 4 to < 8

Moderately saline 8 to < 16

Strongly saline > 16

55
 C. Sodicity— this is usually measured as Sodium Adsorption Ratio
(SAR), an estimate of the equilibrium between sodium (Na) in solution and
exchangeable Na adsorbed on the soil (Soil Survey Staff, 1995). It is applied
to soil solution extracts and irrigation waters. The SAR is expressed as a ratio
where the cation concentration is in milliequivalents per liter. As a field
method, it is normally determined with a soil paste and an electronic wand.

3.16 Horizon Boundaries and Continuity with the Pedon. Conventions

have been developed to describe horizon boundaries, the transitional layer
between two adjoining horizons. Most boundaries are zones of transition
rather than sharp lines of division. Boundaries vary in distinctness and in
topography.

Two measurements are considered necessary, namely, the width or

thickness of the boundary along the z (vertical) axis and the topography of the
boundary within the x-y plane. The width of the boundary between horizons is
usually described as
abrupt (less than 2 centimeters thick), clear (2 to 5 centimeters thick),
gradual (5 to 15 centimeters thick),
or diffuse (more than 15 centimeters thick).

Diffuse boundaries such as those in many old soils are most difficult to
locate and require time consuming comparisons of small specimens of soil
from various parts of the profile until the midpoint of the transitional zone is
determined. For soils that have nearly uniform properties or that change very
gradually as depth increases, horizon boundaries are imposed more or less
arbitrarily without clear evidence of differences.

The surface topography of a soil horizon refers to the irregularities of

the surface that divides the horizons. Even though soil layers are commonly
seen in vertical section, they are three-dimensional. Surface topography is
described as
smooth (the boundary is a plane with few or no irregularities),
wavy (the boundary has undulations in which depressions are wider
than they are deep),
irregular (the boundary has pockets that are deeper than they are
wide),
or broken (one or both of the horizons or layers separated by the
boundary are
discontinuous and the boundary is interrupted).

3.17 Getting profile samples for laboratory analyses. Samples are

needed to be taken for major mapping unit delineations. There must be as
many samples as there are layers described. Having marked well the
horizons, samples are taken with the aid of a spade. The lowest layer must be

56
taken first, to be followed by the succeeding upper layers. About a kilogram or
more should be taken per horizon designation.

Core samples in some cases are also taken for bulk density and soil
moisture capacity determinations.

Before finally leaving the pit site, check all the survey equipment to
make sure that none is left behind when the survey party leaves.

2.7 Validating the soil boundary. After identifying the typical pedon
that would best describe the dominant soil, additional observations are made to
verify the soil mapping unit boundary. The examination itself is rapid, mostly
auger borings, and generally a search for a few properties that identify the soil.
Seldom is the entire pedon studied. Soil boundaries are projected on either
side of the traverse as far as can be seen and identified with reasonable
certainty. The ends of the projections are checked from the next traverse.

It should be noted that in mapping, a pattern of soils and landscape is

conceived, rather than a group of individual map units. Certain soils are
typically found together. The number of soils in any locality is usually small. In
most places, landscape features mark the kinds of soils. But landscape
features do not identify soils everywhere, and by no means can all internal soil
properties that are used to define map units be correlated with external
features. Where soil boundaries cannot be predicted, they may be identified
by direct examination of the soil.

Check auger borings

57
Cleaning the pit prior to soil profile description

A cleaned pit ready for soil profile description

58
The Soil Survey Manual. The Post Survey Activities. The Soil Survey Division Staff. Bureau of Soils
and Water Management (2): 59—78, 2008

The Post Survey Activities

The Soil Survey Division Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

3.1 Soil classification. It is important to recognize that while it is the

pedon (the sampled pit or auger boring site) that we describe, it is the
polypedon (the soil mapping unit) that we classify and map.

For purpose of this scientific discussion, we refer to the classification

units as taxonomic units although in soil science, Soil Taxonomy is specific to
the six level system of classification developed by USDA. We use the term
“taxonomic units” as a generic term in this manual even if we are classifying the
soils at the series level or under a classification system outside of the USDA
Soil Taxonomy. Or better still, to avoid confusion, we refer to taxonomic unit as
the “soil concept”.

Since we will eventually map the soils that we classify, it is equally

important to recognize that soil taxonomic units or soil concepts and map units
are two distinct entities. Taxonomic units define specific ranges of soil
properties in relationship to the total range of properties measured in the soil.
Soil map units and their individual map unit delineations define areas on a
landscape. On the other hand, taxonomic names are used to identify the soil
properties most prevalent within the pieces of landscape identified as a map
unit.

Taxonomic units is a concept resulting from subdividing the soil

universe while map units result from grouping of soil delineations which have
the same name, symbol, color or other representations.

It is almost never feasible to delineate accurately on a map the area that

soils of one taxonomic class occupy in the field. Nobody really maps soils by
taxonomic units. All the soils are hidden below the surface and only their
surface configuration and surface properties are visible. It is not feasible to
follow on the ground the actual boundary of the properties present in the
subsoil. There is presently no way to draw a soil map as portrait of an object
which can be directly observed. Neither it is possible to make a photographic
image of all taxonomic units which make a landscape. Soil mappers rely on
outside indicators like topography, vegetation, surface colors, and other
properties to draw lines on the map. The degree of coincidence between the
delineated area and the actual soil properties depends on the reliability of the

59
outside indicators and many other things. The field assumptions are verified by
the pit diggings and auger borings at reasonable distances from each other.

Development of the taxonomic unit or the soil concept. So now,

with the field survey work completed and the morphological descriptions of the
sampled sites consolidated, the analyses of central tendencies of a given soil
mapping unit follow the statistical mode concept whereby a range of the given
properties are considered. For instance, given a specific map unit with
sampled pit diggings and auger borings, the taxonomic unit (or the soil concept)
is defined by considering the range of observed properties.

Let us take for example a delineated map unit with one pit digging and
seven auger borings. By considering the shallowest and the deepest B
horizon, the solum thickness (A and B horizons) is defined to range, for
instance, from 85 to 150 centimeters.

The A horizon is now described as follows: It is from 10 to 25

centimeters thick, brown to dark brown, dark reddish brown, or dark yellowish
brown clay with clear yellowish brown to dark brown mottles. Consistence is
slightly sticky to sticky, slightly plastic to plastic when wet and slightly firm or
friable when moist. Structure is subangular to angular blocky parting to
granular structure when moderate pressure is applied.

The B horizon is described as follows: The argillic Bt horizon ranges

from 85 to 150 centimeters deep, brown, strong brown, dark yellowish brown,
brown, reddish brown, or yellowish red clay with mottles of yellowish red,
brown, or dark brown. The structure is moderately weak subangular blocky
sometimes breaking to granular structure. Consistency is sticky and plastic
when wet, firm when moist. Few fine continuous clay cutans are present at the
lower Bt horizons. Few weathered rock fragments and iron coated manganese
concretions may occur at the lower Bt horizon.

The C horizon is described as: The C horizon or the substratum is

yellowish red or yellowish brown clay with common to many weathered rock
fragments.

Soil classification at higher levels. The Philippines adopt the Soil

Taxonomy at the higher level of soil classification. Soil Taxonomy provides
names of taxa to designate the components of the map units; as well as
adjectives to qualify either their components, their phases, or the entire area
covered by a map unit.

The names of taxa at any of the six categories (order, suborder, great
group, subgroup, family, series) may be used as reference terms in the names
of the map units. The categorical level depends mainly on the scale of the
maps, but more than one level can be used in one survey and on maps of the
same scale.

60
 Soil Taxonomy uses many word elements in its nomenclature to convey
a common meaning in different classes. These cognate terms can be used to
qualify subdivisions of taxa or phases of the higher categories for general soil
maps.

An example is aqu– from “aqua”, meaning water. The adjective form

“aquic” is used to identify subgroups of moderately wet soils in great groups of
soils that are predominantly not wet.

The names of taxa in the four highest categories of Soil Taxonomy

(order, suborder, great group, subgroup) can be used to designate map units.
“Umbric Tropaquults” at the subgroup or “Inceptisols” at the order level are
examples. Note that the names are used as collective terms to imply that the
map unit is composed of a number of polypedons of the named taxon, plus the
inclusions. Thus, the plural is used.

This manual presumes that users are familiar with the Soil Taxonomy
and therefore, the most recent edition of Key to Soil Taxonomy should be
consulted for soil classification at higher levels. Suffice it to say that Soil
Taxonomy provides a source of map unit names.

Soil classification at lower level—the soil series. Soil series and

phases of soil series is the most common way to name soil map units. A soil
series is a taxonomic reference name representing the central concept of a
map unit. The actual map unit itself, typically has many other things within its
boundaries other than the referenced soil series.

Following the soil classification using the Soil Taxonomy, the soil series
is the most narrowly defined and most homogenous taxon, and it most nearly
meets the requirements for categorical detail demanded by the objectives of
detailed soil resources assessments. Usually, the soil series is named after the
geographical area where it was first described or most prominent.

Going back again to the to the results of field survey activities where we
had a typical landscape of various land forms. Each of the landforms make a
soil map unit. We did pit diggings and auger borings and described what we
saw. Each soil profile description is known as a pedon which is a three-
dimensional body of the soil. It is the smallest body that the soil scientist
describes and samples. Typically, it is about one to two meters square. So a
particular map unit represents a specific land form but is made up of an
accumulation of different pedons. W e try to apply the concept of statistical
mode to represent the central concept of the map unit. These are the pedons
that fall within the main concept of the referenced taxonomic name, the soil
series name that is used to identify this map unit. The earlier example is the
central concept of Sampaloc series.

The non-central pedons are those that still fall within the range and
characteristics of the referenced soil series name, but are on the very edge of
61
the allowed range. The similar inclusions are those pedons that fall outside the
range in characteristics of the series, but are very similar to the reference series
in terms of use and management. Maybe the color in the subsoil is slightly
outside the range, or the texture of the underlying material is a loamy sand and
the series only allows for sandy loam. These differences are slight, and in
terms of use and management, they will behave the same.

The dissimilar soils, however, are something different. They are

expected inclusions in the map unit. They are in the landscape, but simply too
small to separate as a distinct delineation. If the area is big enough, it can be
separated as another taxonomic unit. These inclusions behave differently than
the named reference soils.

Perhaps, the most important function of the series category in Soil

Taxonomy is interpretive uses. Soil series are commonly established because
there is a need to recognize separate groups of soil properties because of
different use and management.

The process of establishing soil series or revising concepts of existing

soil series requires a very systematic and uniform procedure. The distinctions
between any one soil series and another must be large enough to be
consistently recognized and differentiated in the field. Secondly, the
characteristics used to differentiate series must be observable and measurable
within the series control section. Where there is a need to establish a new soil
series, the following information need to be assembled: soil morphology,
mineralogy, landscape position, and geographic distribution.

It is often thought that all unclassified pedons should automatically

justify the establishment of a new soil series, families, or subgroups. This is not
always true. Unclassified pedons only justify the establishment of new taxa,
when they are dissimilar from existing taxa at comparable categorical levels
and when they cover areas large enough for the purpose of the classification.
Judgment should be exercised in establishing new series to avoid unnecessary
proliferation of units. Proponents are hereby advised to notify:
The Soil Survey Division
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City
for any Tentative Soil Series, outside of the established ones, existing the
variants, and taxadjuncts.

Variants is a potential soil series but occupies only a small aggregate

area, less than 800 hectares. If a significant area is found at some future time,
the variant is defined as a new soil series.

Taxadjunct is a soil outside the range of the established soil series, but
differs only to a small amount in a single property. It is identified by the name
of the established soil series, without qualification. The soil is an adjunct to, but
not part of the named series. It is treated as a member of the map unit which

62
carries the name of the series in the legend and interpretations, but not as a
member of the series.

3.2 Soil mapping. A map unit is a collection of areas defined and

named the same in terms of their soil components or miscellaneous areas, or
both. Each map unit differs in some respect from all others in a surveyed area,
and is uniquely identified on a soil map.

An individual component of a map unit represents the collection of

polypedons or parts of polypedons that are members of the taxon or a kind of
miscellaneous area.

Designing map units. While studying soil patterns in different

landscapes, the soil surveyor must keep in mind how best to relate the patterns
in nature to appropriate map units. The kinds of map units, the level of soil
taxa, and the phases needed to satisfy the survey objectives must be
determined. This requires many judgments. Every map unit that is tentatively
identified is evaluated by two tests:
1. Can it be mapped consistently?
2. Is it needed to meet the objectives of the survey?

The objectives of the survey determine the kind of map units and the
taxonomic level used to identify components of a map units. For instance, the
soil map of a province expectedly will have a totally different component as that
of a watershed or a farm for that matter. More detailed surveys, such as first
and second order surveys, decisions must be made about what criteria to use
to recognize phases of soil series, how broadly or narrowly to define the
phases, and whether similar phases of different series have such similar
interpretations that they can be combined.

For less detailed surveys (third, fourth, and fifth order surveys),
decisions must be made about how the complexities of soils in large areas can
be identified best for purposes of the survey, what associations of soils
characterize useful and mappable units, what taxonomic level should be used
in naming map units, and which phases contribute to the usefulness of the map
units.

Soil phases. A soil phase is a subdivision of a class of taxonomic soil

classification system or of a variant. Phases are also used to subdivide kinds
of miscellaneous areas. Phases are differentiated on the basis of criteria
chosen to create units useful for predictions about use, management, or
behavior or land. Five attributes of soil phases must be clearly understood:

1. Soil phases are functional units of soil. They are created deliberately to
serve the specific purposes of individual soil resource inventories, including
both applied objectives and understanding of soil geography.
2. Any attribute not already used as a criterion to distinguish the taxa of the
soil name, or any combination of attributes, may be used as differentiating
63
 criteria for phases. Their selection is governed by the purposes they serve.
They need not be soil properties, but must be associated with the areas of
the soil as mapped.
3. Any limiting value or range of a phase criterion may be used to define
phases. The choice of limits is determined by the purpose and how
consistently they can be applied. As objectives differ from one soil resource
inventory to another, limits or ranges of the same property may differ
among soil resource inventories.
4. Phase criteria may be applied to any class of any category of the taxonomic
system. Phases of soil series, families, subgroups, or even orders, may be
used, depending on the purposes served.
5. Phases are used to subdivide taxonomic classes, but soil phases do not
themselves constitute a category of the taxonomic system. The limits of
phase criteria are not fixed from one soil resource inventory to another, as
they would be if they were taxa. Phases are adjusted to fit objectives.
Their ranges may overlap from one survey to another.

The possible phase criteria to create additional homogeneity in a

mapping unit are texture of surface layer, organic surface layers, mineral cover,
coarse fragments, slope, depth, substratum, soil water, salinity, sodicity,
physiography, erosion, thickness, and climate.

Texture of the surface layer. This is commonly indicated in the names

of phases bearing the names of soil series. The texture identified is generally
that of a mineral layer mixed to a depth of 12 to 25 centimeters. Texture
classes or texture groups are used to name texture phases. Basic texture class
such as “fine sandy loam” and “silt loam” follow the name of a soil series.

Deposits on the surface. Some soils have received deposits of

materials thick enough to influence interpretations of the soil but not thick
enough to change the classification. Depositional phases recognized are:
Overblown (recent deposit of wind-blown material on the surface of an older
soil can be identified consistently throughout the area and is thick enough to
influence use, management, and behavior); Wind hummocky (recent wind-laid
deposits form a fine pattern of hummocks that markedly alter management
requirements of the soil; the original soil is identifiable throughout most of the
area, though it is covered in spots); and Overwash (material deposited by water
contrasts with the underlying soil and is thick enough to influence management
requirements significantly; ordinarily, overwash phases are not used for very
young alluvial soils having weakly expressed genetic horizons).

Rock fragments. Kinds of rock fragments are defined by shape and

size. The classes are helpful in describing soil phases. The following are
applicable only in arable soils: Slightly gravelly (the surface layer contains
enough pebbles to affect special uses that tolerate few if any rock fragments—
the pebbles for instance, do not interfere significantly with tillage of field crops
such as corn); Gravelly (the surface layer contains enough pebbles to interfere
with tillage of most common field crops, and serve as nuisance causing some

64
equipment breakage and few major delays in field operations; volume of
pebbles is between 15 to 35 percent); Very gravelly ( the surface layer contains
enough pebbles to interfere seriously with tillage of common field crops, to
damage equipment, and to decrease the rate of most field operations; the kinds
of crops that can be grown is restricted; the precision of planting and of fertilizer
placement is reduced; the volume of pebbles between 35 to 65 percent);
Extremely gravelly (the surface layer contains so many pebbles that tillage of
common field crops is often impractical, though not necessarily impossible; the
tillage implements must force their way through a mass of pebbles with
volumes usually more than 60 percent).

Usually, the largest fragments that are present in significant amounts

are most important. Cobbly are soils with enough cobbles on the surface layer
to impose important restrictions on soil, even though the soil also contains as
much or more gravels. Terms for the three sizes classes of gravels (fine,
medium, and coarse) are not used in phase names.

Stoniness and boulderiness. The following can be used to define

phases, “bouldery” is substituted for “stony” as appropriate: Stony (the areas
have enough stones at or near the surface to be a continuing nuisance during
operations that mix the surface layer, but they do not make most operations of
these kinds impractical); Very stony (the areas have many stones requiring
heavy equipment that can operate between larger stones; tillage with
conventional powered farm equipment is impractical; has class 4 stoniness);
Extremely stony (the area has so many stones at or near the surface that
wheeled powered equipment can operate only along selected routes; has class
5 stoniness); Rubbly (the areas have so many stones at or near the surface
that tracked vehicles cannot be used in most places, with class 6 stoniness).

Rockiness. Where rock outcrops cover 10 percent or less of the

delineations, a rocky phase may be needed. Where the area is more than 10
percent rock outcrop, the map units are named as complexes or associations of
soil and rock outcrop. If the size, spacing, and other features of the rock-soil
relationship are significant, the designation of slightly rocky, rocky, and very
rocky can be used.

Slope. The use of slope as a delineating criterion is very common in the

soil survey and classification of small areas such as farm, research station,
experimental area, or watershed. Slope gradient, complexity, shape, length,
and aspect are all potential bases for phase distinctions. By far, the most
commonly used is gradient, and shape is seldom used as a phase distinction.
Slope aspect is used mainly for high latitudes, and it follows the north-facing
slopes. Phases defined on the basis of slope should fit the landscape. They
should be distinct so that they can be identified and mapped consistently. They
should not add complexity to the map without improving its usefulness. And
most importantly, they should separate areas that have significant differences
in suitability or management needs. Slope phases are named by numerical

65
slope gradient limits with or without designations of complexity: “Sampaloc
series, gravelly loam, 3 to 8 percent slopes”.

Depth. Soil depth phases are used where variations in depth to a

contrasting layer are significant to soil use, management, or behavior. Terms
for depth classes (shallow, deep, moderately deep, very deep,) are generally
used in naming phases but modifications are needed in some areas. For
example, the class “moderately deep” for soils ranging from 50 to 100
centimeters in depth may be too broad to satisfy the objectives of the survey.
Generally, a survey that covers more hectarage is not given a depth
designation.

Substratum. Where the underlying material contrasts sharply with the

material above and interpretations are affected, substratum phases are used.
The kind of contrasting material is indicated in the name of the map unit. The
following are examples: calcareous substratum, chalk substratum, clay
substratum, gypsiferous substratum, lacustrine substratum, marly substratum,
sandy substratum, silty substratum, shale substratum, till substratum. These
terms are descriptive and not mutually exclusive. Other terms can be used as
appropriate. The identifying term follows the name of the taxon and any
designation for surface texture and precedes any term for slope or erosion in
the phase name: Sampaloc silt loam, gravelly substratum, 6 to 20 percent
slopes. Where there is a choice between using a depth phase or a substratum
phase to identify a map unit, a depth phase is generally used if the contrasting
layer is bedrock.

Soil—water. Phases are used to distinguish differences in soil—water

state, water table level, drainage, and the like where the series/ range in one or
more of these properties need to be divided for purposes of the survey.
Significant differences in these factors are commonly reflected in differences in
morphology and are distinguished at the series level. In some soils, however,
evidence of wetness, such as gray color or mottling, does not fully reflect the
natural drainage or wetness of the soil. Phases commonly used include: High
water table, Moderately deep water table, Poorly drained, Slightly wet,
Moderately wet, Wet; Ponded, and Drained. Some soils have properties that
reflect former wetness but have been drained artificially, hence, “drained” areas
can be used to separate from “undrained”.

Salinity. Saline phases are used to distinguish between degrees of

salinity that are important for soil use or management. Electrical conductivity
values and observations of plant growth are guidelines for recognizing phases.
Designation of salinity phases depends on the various uses likely to be made of
the soils and the effect of excessive amounts of salt on those uses. The salinity
classes are: Nonsaline, Slightly saline, Moderately saline, Strongly saline.
Terms for saline phases follow terms for surface texture: Sampaloc silt loam,
strongly saline.

66
 Sodicity. For some soils, recognizing a sodic phase is useful. The term
“sodic” as a phase designation, if needed, is generally without terms for
degrees of sodicity: Sampaloc silt loam, sodic, 0 to 3 percent slope.

Physiography. Landforms or physiographic position may be used as a

phase criterion to distinguish phases of a single taxon. A soil in a deposit of
Pinatubo ashes 3 meters thick on a terrace may be so much like a soil in a
similar deposit on a tillplain that the two are members of the same series. For
some uses, these soils need to be distinguished on the map. The following
terms are used to designate physiographic phases: bench, depressional, fan,
karst, ridge, and terrace. The physiographic phase designation follows the term
for surface texture and precedes any term for slopes or erosion: Sampaloc
gravelly loam, fan, 0 to 8 percent slopes.

Erosion. This is another most commonly used phase definition in soil

mapping. Phases of eroded soils are identified on the basis of the properties
that remains. Properties related to natural erosion are part of the definition of a
taxon, not bases for erosion phases. Erodibility, too, is an inherent quality of
the soil and not itself a criteria for erosion phases. Eroded phases are defined
so the boundaries on the soil maps separate soil areas of unlike suitabilities
and soil areas of unlike management, needs, and responses. Otherwise, if the
management, needs, and responses, are the same, it may not be necessary to
separate erosion phases. The terms used are: Slightly eroded, Moderately
eroded, Severely eroded. Slightly eroded areas are not distinguished from
uneroded areas in most surveys. The term designating the eroded soil phase
is the last term in the phase name: Sampaloc loam, 8 to 15 percent slopes,
slightly eroded.

Thickness. The solum and the various horizons in the soil have
characteristic ranges in thickness for each taxon. Thickness phases are used to
divide the range of thickness of the solum or of the upper horizons if mappable
areas of one such phase differ consistently from areas of the other phase and
require different interpretations for the purposes of the survey. Phases are not
used to differentiate thickness of the subsoil or the substratum. Four thickness
phases are used: Thick surface, Thin surface, Thick solum, Thin solum. A
term is used for the less extensive of the two thickness phases. For example,
most delineations of a given soil have A horizons mainly between 25 to 35
centimeters thick. If the other delineation is mostly 35 to 40 centimeters thick
and the difference is significant for purpose of the survey, a thick surface phase
can be recognized. The A horizon dominantly 25 to 35 centimeters is the norm;
the thickness is described for this phase but is not identified in the name. The
thickness term follow any terms for surface texture and precedes any terms for
slope or erosion: Sampaloc fine sand, thick surface, o to 3 percent slopes.

Climate. In some places, especially in mountains or hilly areas,

precipitation or air temperature can differ greatly within short distances, yet
these differences may not be reflected in internal properties of the soil. Where
67
differences of this kind are significant for purposes of the survey and can be
identified and mapped consistently, climatic phases are used. Only two climatic
conditions are recognized for a given taxon: (1) the common climate that
influences the greatest extent of the taxon, from which the climate designation
is omitted; (2) a departure from the common climate for which a climatic
designation is used. The departure may be in either of two directions from the
norm: warm or cool; high precipitation or low precipitation. Each of the terms is
connotive only in reference to the common climate of the taxon and must be
described specifically for each phase to which it is applied. The appropriate
term follows texture: Sampaloc sandy loam, cool.

Others. A great variety of phase distinctions can be made. In many soil

maps here in the Philippines, we can notice the frequently flooded, occasionally
flooded soil phases. The other terminologies are: burned, calcareous, leached
surface, dark surface. The phases designated by such special terms are
defined to fit special kinds of soils. Such phases are defined in reference to the
common properties of the taxon of which they are members. Thus, the terms
usually have different specific meanings when used for different taxa and in
different survey areas.

Area distinctions. For some purposes, attributes of areas need to be

shown in names of map units even though these are attributes of land areas
rather than attributes of the reference taxa used in naming kinds of soil.
Phases are not appropriate for such uses, as they are subdivisions of soil taxa,
variants, or kinds of miscellaneous area.

Terms that are not attributes of reference taxa are used to qualify map
unit names in terms of limiting features of entire areas. These qualifying terms
are perhaps most useful for characterizing features of the areas of soil
associations of small scale maps, but they are also used for some units of
detailed maps.

Rock outcrop in areas of soil is an example of an attribute of areas. A

map unit that is a geographic mixture of soil and rock outcrop is named and
defined as a complex if the rock outcrop is more than 10 percent of the area.
To distinguish, the qualified unit from phases, the word “area” is used: “Typic
Ustropepts, very rocky areas”.

Gullied lands can be recognized as “gullied areas”. They are used for
areas having gullies so deep that intensive measures including reshaping, are
required to reclaim the soil.

Climate may also be used to qualify areas. Climatic qualified areas are
based on air temperature and precipitation: warm areas, cool areas, high
precipitation areas, low precipitation areas. Each of the terms is connotative
only in reference to the common atmospheric climate for the soil series and
must be described specifically for each map unit to which it is applied. They

68
are used where temperature or precipitation are markedly different within parts
of a single soil resource inventory area.

A great variety of other area distinctions can be made. In addition, we

can use frequently flooded area, occasionally flooded area, burned area. The
“burned area” can be used for organic soils that have lost enough of their
organic materials by fire that their potential for use or their management
requirements have been altered.

Kinds of miscellaneous areas. The miscellaneous areas have

essentially no soil and support little or no vegetation without reclamation,
because of active erosion, washing by water, unfavorable soil conditions, or
man’s activities. Map units are designed to accommodate miscellaneous
areas, and most of these map units have inclusions of soil. If the amount of soil
exceeds the standards for inclusions, the map unit is named as a complex or
association of a miscellaneous area and soil

Beaches are sandy, gravelly, or cobbly shores washed and rewashed

by waves. The areas may be partly covered with water during high tides or
storms.

Blown-out land consists of areas from which all or most of the soil
material has been removed by extreme wind erosion. The land is essentially
barren. The areas are generally shallow depressions that have flat or irregular
floors.

Cinder land is composed of loose cinders and other scoriaceous

magmatic ejecta. Water holding capacity is very low, and trafficability is poor.
Water-driven volcanic ejecta that buries productive agricultural lands as those
of Mt. Pinatubo, can be described as lahar land.

Dune land consists of sand in ridges and intervening troughs that shift
with the wind. Sand dunes that have been stabilized by vegetation are named
as a kind of soil rather than as dune land.

Gullied land consists of areas where erosion has cut a network of V-

shaped or U-shaped channels. Small areas can be shown by spot symbols.
Phases indicating the kind of material remaining may be useful in some places.

Lava flows are areas covered with lava. Most flows have sharp, jagged
surfaces, crevices, and angular blocks characteristics of lava. Others are
relatively smooth and have a ropy glazed surface. A little earthly material may
be in a few cracks and sheltered pockets, but the flows are virtually devoid of
plants other than lichens.

Pits or Quarries are open excavations from which soil and commonly
underlying material have been removed, exposing either rock or other material.
These include mine pits, gravel pits, and quarry pits.
69
 Riverwash is unstabilized sandy, silty, clayey or gravelly sediment that
is flooded and washed and reworked frequently by rivers.

Rock outcrop consists of exposures of bare bedrock other than lava

flows and rock-lined pits. If needed, map units can be named according to the
kind of rock: chalk rock outcrop; limestone rock outcrop; gypsum rock outcrop.
Many rock outcrops are too small to be delineated as areas on soil maps but
can be shown by spot symbols. Most rock outcrops are hard rock, but some
are soft.

Rubble land consists of areas of stones and boulders. Rubble land is

commonly at the base of mountains.

Urban land is mostly covered by streets, parking lots, buildings, and

other urban structures.

Water bodies include streams, lakes, ponds, estuaries, dams, that in

most years are covered with water.

3.3 Purity of soil mapping units. The taxa and the names recognized
in Soil Taxonomy carry strict definitions. However, not all the soils occurring in
a map delineation belong to the taxonomic class or classes used to name the
map unit. The soils which fall outside the defined taxonomic range constitute
“mapping inclusions”. They are sometimes called impurities.

Inclusions dilute the homogeneity of map units. The importance of

inclusions, in terms of area they cover, and their contrasting properties should
not be to such a degree that they would significantly affect the interpretations
one would make on the basis of the properties of the soils used to name the
map unit. Ideally, one would like to define and name map units such that the
units would contain the smallest amounts of inclusions that practical mapping
techniques would permit.

Nonlimiting inclusions. Inclusions of soils having less severe

restrictions to use than the dominant soil of a map unit may not affect most
predictions about the unit as a whole.

Limiting inclusions. An inclusion which has significantly more severe

restrictions for use than the dominant soil or affects the feasibility of meeting
management needs, a small amount in a map unit can greatly affect
predictions. These are the most critical inclusions.

Minimizing inclusions. If the delineations contain more than one kind

of soil, each affecting use or management differently, the map units are
designated by the names of their constituent soils. In this case, the amount of

70
unnamed inclusions is reduced by increasing the number of components
named in the map unit, without changing the definitions of the components
themselves.

In another case where the constituent soils have similar potentials for
use and similar management requirements, the map unit may be named for the
dominant kind of soil with the other described in the map unit description in the
report. In this way, the number of named soils in the map unit name is reduced
without significantly decreasing its practical information content.

A third way to minimize inclusions of a map unit is to raise the

categorical level of the taxonomic unit, thus encompassing a wider range of
soils. This method, however, will not always produce the expected results.

Some inclusions may originate from other sources. Soil Taxonomy

does not provide a place for all soils at the subgroup level and below. It is only
comprehensive for soils which have been recognized to exist. These unnamed
soils are not provided for at the subgroup, family, or series levels. These soils
form some of the impurities of map units. The decision to establish them as
new taxa depends on their degree of similarity with classified soils and their
extent.

If differences do not affect use and management, the soils are

considered as similar soils. These are mostly phases of the same soil series
that share limits of most phase criteria. If the differences do affect use and
management, the soils are contrasted as dissimilar soils. The differences may
be in properties that are diagnostic for phases, series, families, or taxa of higher
categories, or in combinations of properties that are diagnostic at different
categorical levels.

3.4 Kinds of map units. A map unit may contain only one or several
taxonomic components. There may be soils referred to by taxonomic name, or
there may be non-soil. The components may differ in size and shape of their
areas, in degree of contrast, in geographic distribution.

It is desirable that all map units be named with terms indicating the
taxonomic classification of its soil components. In this way, the maximum
information contained in the classification is conveyed to the user of the soil
resource inventory. The map units thus defined and named are aggregates of
taxa, each of which may be qualified, for example by phase name.

Consociations. The delineated areas are dominated by a single soil

taxon and similar soils. As a rule, at least one half of the pedons in each
delineation of a soil consociation are of the same taxonomic unit and provide
the name for the map unit. Most of the remainder of the delineation consists of
taxonomic units so similar to the named soil that major interpretations
commensurate with the categorical level of the taxon are not affected
significantly. The total amount of dissimilar inclusions of other components in a
71
map unit generally does not exceed about 15 percent if limiting and 25 percent
if nonlimiting with a single component of dissimilar limiting inclusions generally
not exceeding 10 percent if very contrasting. The amount of dissimilar
inclusions in an individual delineation of a map unit can be greater than this if
no useful purpose would be served by defining a new map unit.

Soils similar to Maximum 25%

named taxon dissimilar soils

Maximum of 50% soils

of taxon giving map
unit name

Complexes and Associations. Complexes and associations consist of

two or more named dissimilar taxa or miscellaneous areas occurring in a known
and definable pattern. The difference between the two is that the major
components of a complex cannot be mapped separately at a scale of about
1:24,000. At this scale, an area of 0.4 centimeter2 on the map represents an
area of 2.3 hectares on the ground. The named components of an association
should be mappable at this scale, while unmappable in a complex. In either
case, the major taxa components are sufficiently different in morphology or
behavior that the map unit cannot be called a consociation.

It should be noted that the kind of map unit depends on the taxonomic
level used to designate the components of the map unit—i.e. an association of
great soil groups on one map may be called a complex of soil series on another
map.

Other soils that are

present but not
named

Dissimilar soils used to

name the association or
complex

72
 In each delineations of either a complex or an association, the total
amount of inclusions that are dissimilar to all of the major components does not
exceed 15 percent if limiting and 25 percent if nonlimiting.

Undifferentiated groups. Undifferentiated groups consist of two or more

named taxa that are not consistently associated geographically but that are
included in the same map unit because use and management are the same or
very similar to common uses. Generally, they are included together because
some common feature such as steepness, stoniness, or flooding determines
limiting use and management.

One attribute is so overwhelmingly limiting that further subdivisions of

the unit is not considered necessary. For instance, two or more very steep
soils geographically separated have almost the same potential for use and
management that mapping them separately would serve no useful purpose.
Every delineation has at least one of the major components and some may
have all of them.

S
w oils
i
m th fr
an s o
ag im m
em ilar dif
en la fere
t p nd nt
ro us ta
bl e xa
em an
s d

3.5 Refinement of preliminary soil map and legend. After field work,
the map sheets are examined while the landscapes are fresh in the mind of the
surveyors; otherwise, details may be forgotten and questions may become
more difficult to resolve and a special trip to the field may be necessary.
Normally, a day’s work is planned as a series of trips across an area to predict
the soils and the boundaries that separate the different kinds of soils. These
predictions are checked as the areas are crossed. Boundaries and kinds of
soils are plotted on the map. Thus, the field work consists of a sequence of
predictions and verifications. Back to the office, the soil scientist must learn to
associate sets of landscape features with sets of internal soil properties to be
able to visualize the pattern of the soils. A skilled mapper is able to abstract the
essentials of the soil pattern and sketch this pattern on a map.

73
 Joining map sheets. Most soil survey field sheets are individual
photographs or compiled photobase maps. As each sheet is completed, it is
joined with adjacent sheets and checked for errors. Each pair of adjacent field
sheets shares a common match line. During mapping, soil boundaries are
commonly extended beyond the match line to be transferred to the adjacent
sheet. The mapping on each field sheet should be carefully matched with that
on adjacent sheets to check boundaries and delineations. Roads and streams
should be continuous from one sheet to another. Mapping along match lines
may be left in pencil until the field sheets have been joined.

Inking map sheets. Different groups of features generally are inked in

separate operations. Drainage is inked first and inspected to see that individual
streams are properly joined, matched, and classified. The classification of
roads and other features is checked at the same time. Soil boundaries and
symbols are inked next. It is a good procedure to close each boundary within
one section of the field sheet. When the boundary of a small area is closed, its
symbol is placed as near the center of the area as practical. More than one
symbol is placed in areas that extend for long distances and in those that have
intricate shapes. Finally, the place names are lettered.

Checking field sheets. Each field sheet should be checked for open
boundaries, areas without symbols, and other errors. It is the duty of the
survey team leader to check the field sheets for corrections. The most common
mistakes are: incorrect joining at the match line; failure to close map unit
boundaries; omission of symbols or use of symbols not identified in the legend;
incorrect interpretation of cultural and drainage features; and use of incorrect
place names.

Each field sheet should contain the name of the survey area and an
identification number that locates it on an index map of the area. The index
map outlines and identifies all of the field sheets of the survey.

Measuring the area. Soil maps show both the location and extent of
map units. The data on an area are used to help decide whether certain map
units of small extent are important enough to be retained on the published map.
Measuring the areas also checks the map for open boundaries, delineations
without symbols, and unidentified symbols.

The accuracy of the estimates, based on sample areas, depends on the

size of the sample where the sample areas are located. If the sample is less
than 5 percent of the total area, estimates are subject to relatively large errors.
Generally, the sample should be at least 10 percent of the total area. Even with
this, map units of small extent are likely to be either missed entirely or
overestimated.

Several methods can be used to measure the area of map units. The
dot-grid method uses a transparent sheet on which dots are evenly spaced
vertically and horizontally. Each dot represents a small square which has a unit

74
area. The transparent sheet is placed over the map and the dots in each
delineation are counted; alternately counting those that fall on boundaries; and
summed. The land area represented by each dot can be calculated on the
basis of the map scale and the spacing of the dots.

The electronic area calculator which electronically counts squares on a

grid is an alternative method—quicker and more convenient.

The planimeter measures the length of the boundary of the delineation

by following its outline with a tracer. The value indicated is converted to land
area by using an appropriate conversion factor related to map scale.

Computer-based digitizing systems have the capability for measuring

the area of map units. It should be noted that in most soil mapping projects,
map digitization is done in the central office and not in the field office.
Therefore, it could serve as final check for errors on field sheets, open
boundaries, and areas without symbols.

3.6 Laboratory Analyses of Soil Samples

The development of Soil Taxonomy at higher levels of classification for

soil mapping purpose is evaluation of affinity or similarity of taxonomic units and
the ordering of these units into taxa on the basis of their affinities.
Differentiating characteristics need to be evaluated quantitatively, by laboratory
methods. Hence, the final map output could not be released till after the results
of the laboratory analyses are completed.

For instance, the argillic horizon is defined as an illuvial horizon which

contains significant accumulation of illuviated layer-lattice silicate clays. It has
at least 1.2 times as much clay as some horizons above, or has 3 percent more
clay if the eluvial layer has less than 15 percent clay, or 8 percent more clay if
eluvial layer has more than 40 percent clay. To be able to confirm the
presence of argillic horizon, we need to evaluate the results of textural analysis
in the laboratory, whether the lower horizon has indeed 1.2 times as much clay
as the horizons above. Presence of argillic horizon is a criterion for Ultisols,
Mollisols, and Alfisols.

Hence, final soil classification, soil fertility evaluation, and other uses of
soil survey results would depend on the results of the laboratory analyses. The
following are the so-called routine or standard laboratory analyses of soil
samples. Please refer to available soil chemistry and soil physics manuals for
the procedures.

1. pH pH meter (glass electrodes) on 1:1 soil-water

suspension, and soil-KCl solution. The ratio is 1:2 for soil—0.01M CaCl2
mixture

75
 2. Available P(ppm) Modified Olsen’s Method (with stannous
chloride solution)

3. Hot H2SO4 Modified Pratt’s extraction followed by

photometric Extractable K (ppm) determination

4. Organic C Black and Walkey method

5. Organic Matter Organic C x 1.74

6. Electrical conductivity EC meter on 1:1 soil-water mixture

7. Exchangeable bases Ammonium acetate (pH 7.0) extraction

followed by (Ca, Mg, Na, and K) EDTA titration (Ca-Mg) and flame photometric
determination of Na and K

8. Exchangeable acidity BaL 12/Tea extraction (pH 8.1) followed

by titration with standard acid.

9. Textural class Bouyoucos hydrometer or pipette method

10. Water holding capacity Weight of moisture x 100

Oven dry weight

11. Permanent wilting point Pressure membrane extractor

12. Bulk density* Core sample in 3-phase meter

*Note: Bulk density is considered part of routine analyses and is done in the
BSWM by collecting a core sample and subjecting it in a 3-phase meter. This
equipment is not always available in state colleges and universities and private
consultancies and laboratories. In the absence of 3-phase meter, traditional
methods such as use of paraffin can be employed for bulk density
determination.

Additional Notes:

1. Some determinations such as CEC (Sum), base saturation percentage,

available moisture, and organic matter are computed based on previous
analyses.
2. Depending on the nature of the soil, another method such as Troug or Bray
2 may be preferred over Olsen as in the case of phosphorus determination.
3. Also please note that these are prescribed or routine analyses and
ordinarily included in the computation of survey cost. Additional analyses
such as nitrogen (in which case total nitrogen uses modified Kjeldahl
method), boron, other micronutrients, and heavy metals are done
depending on the specific requirements of the users of soil survey reports.

76
4. For research purposes—e.g. determination of total elemental phosphorus,
precipitation and identification of aluminum and iron phosphate, primary and
clay mineralogy, aggregate stability, erositivity index using rainfall simulator,
biological determinations, etc. —these are not covered by routine analyses
and must be specified ahead of time and the cost included in the estimation
of the total survey costs.
5. Furthermore, analyses for andic properties, specifically pH by NaF solution,
phosphate retention and aluminum plus 1/2 iron percentage by ammonium
oxalate although required in Soil Taxonomy are not part of routine analyses
and should be specified as additional analyses when soils are suspected to
be of volcanic ash origin and reacted positively to phenolphthalein test
during the field examination of soils. The cost of chemicals for confirmation
of andic properties should also be included in the estimation of soil survey
cost.
6. Special analyses requiring special (as differentiated from routine)
methodologies are normally discussed as early as the planning stage by
project proponents with the soil surveyors to meet their soil survey
requirements and this depends on the purpose of the soil survey.
Ultimately, the soil survey proponents and users determine the required
analyses.

3.7 Preparation of Final Report and Maps

Even during the field survey, it is the duty of the Chief of Party to assign
the writing of specific soil concepts and chapters to the survey team members.
If an encoder and computer is available in the field office, these should be
immediately converted to digital format and backed-up.

The final base map, upon completion, should also be sent to the Central
Office for digitization even while the field work is still on-going. The other map
outputs should be completed and consolidated first before digitization.

Laboratory analyses, final report writing and map digitization are major
post-survey activities and it is the Chief of Party that integrates the outputs.

Naming soil mapping units. The soil map has a legend. The legend
names the soil mapping units. Conventions for naming map units provide
consistency.

Naming consociations at soil family level: Mineralogy—Soil series

name—surface texture—slope—flooding or erosion class*—(Abbreviated
legend)—area. Example: Mixed Boulevard clay, 0-2 percent slopes, slightly
flooded (BdAf1), 392 hectares.

*The soil map delineation is normally based on mappable features,

please refer to the discussions on soil phases (pp. 63—68) for applicable soil
phases.
77
 Naming soil associations. The reference names of the components
form the first part of the association name. Associations use components at all
levels of Soil Taxonomy and kinds of miscellaneous areas. The names are
joined by hyphen. At soil family level, the nomenclature follows the other
features such as flooding or erosion. Examples: (Dystropepts—Tropodults—
Tropudalf Association, 45-65 percent slopes, slightly eroded (DttG1), 17,543.3
hectares.

Naming soil complexes. The reference names of the components form

the first part of the complex name. Complexes use components at all levels of
Soil Taxonomy and kinds of miscellaneous areas. Two or three names that are
joined by a hyphen form the first part. (Example: Lithic Eutropepts—
Escarpment Complex) In some cases, just one reference component is named
in the first part, as in map units that are named for consociations, but have
contrasting phase criteria. (Example: Inarawan Complex, 25-45 percent
slopes, moderately eroded (ICF2), 2,499 hectares)

Writing the soil concept. The different kinds of soil used to name soil
map units have sets of interrelated properties that are characteristics of soil as
a natural body. These sets of interrelated properties or clues, features, and
pieces of evidence that support the delineations that are called soil mapping
units are in fact surrogates for the models of landscape evolution and soil
formation that have been established.

Generally, the soil concept is written based on the statistical mode of

the pit and auger boring samples collected and a benchmark soil or Typical
Pedon with morphological description and physical and chemical analyses is
presented. It is the pedon that is described, but it is the polypedon that is
classified and mapped. The soil concept discusses in detail the legend of the
soil map.

Soil interpretation rating. Soils are rated for specific uses identified as
important or potentially important to the users of the soil survey information. It
is important for the soil data evaluator to present the rating guide which is the
set of rules, properties, and evaluations used to make the soil rating.
Restrictive features identify the soil property that creates the limitation for the
specified use. The result of the ratings are presented in tabular format.
While BSWM—Soil Survey Division normally uses the FAO method of
suitability evaluation, there are other soil interpretation rating concepts that can
be prepared depending on the user’s request—e.g. soil potential evaluation,
soil productivity capability classification, etc. It is important for the Chief of
Party to discuss with the soil survey requisitioner the soil interpretation rating
principle to be used in the report. The kind of soil interpretation needed in a soil
survey is dependent on the need of the users.

Integrating the final report. It is the duty of the Team Leader to

integrate the different soil concepts and the soil rating into a coherent final
report. Check not only for grammar but also for consistency of style.

78
The Soil Survey Manual. Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) on Soil Survey. The Inte-
grated Soil Resources Information Service Staff. Bureau of Soils and Water Management (2): 79—96,
2008

Application of Geographic Information

System (GIS) on Soil Survey
Integrated Soil Resources Information Service Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

1.0 Introduction

Soil survey is an inventory of the nation’s soil resources that is designed

to help land managers and policy makers determine the crops and manage-
ment practices most suitable for soils on their land parcel.

The advances of computer science and the advent of Information Tech-

nology (IT) in the early 1990’s brought about significant changes on the struc-
ture of soil survey expertise in the Bureau of Soils and Water Management
(BSWM). We have one group consisting of the “field men” who conduct soil
survey, classification, and mapping of the soils in-situ; and we have the “IT
staff” who concentrate on digital spatial data management in the Soil Survey
Division office. Thus, when the IT staff left the Soil Survey Division for greener
pastures, it left the division paralyzed. Much of the Geographic Information
System (GIS) applications on Soil Survey was tossed to the Integrated Soil Re-
sources Information Service (ISRIS), the computer center of BSWM.

But ISRIS itself also changed its support service function in view of the
moratorium on the hiring of new staff and the introduction of Local Area Net-
work (LAN) in BSWM. Thus, with limited manpower but presence of LAN, digi-
tal spatial data management was decentralized as a matter of policy. All tech-
nical divisions could set up its own IT facilities to meet the basic needs of map
digitization with ISRIS assisting in staff training, spatial data analysis, final map
output production, storage, and retrieval as well as in the maintenance of the IT
facilities. ISRIS no longer digitizes maps.

So what the Soil Survey Division needs are not only the experts in soil
survey and classification in the field, but also those with IT background who
could convert the analog map data output into digital spatial data so as not to
be left behind by technological advances. Upgrading the IT competency of the
Soil Survey Division staff is the only way to survive through the Rationalization
Plan of the national government.

Rationalization Plan refers to the Executive order 366 issued by Presi-

dent Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, 4 October 2004. It directed a strategic review of
79
the operations and organizations of the Executive Branch. With scarce govern-
ment resources, the functions of the various agencies of the government is be-
ing rationalized, to focus its efforts on its core governance functions and im-
prove its performance at the same time. This is also in harmony with client-
based national budgeting approach that is based on major final outputs.

The implication of this rationalization move on soil survey, mapping, and

on GIS activities of BSWM is great. Since soil survey output is a decision input,
the Soil Survey Division has to expand the scope of its soil survey outputs and
interpretations, other than soil map and soil productivity rating to be able to ca-
ter to as many clientele as possible. Only by going into GIS can Soil Survey
Division extract as many interpretation maps from soil maps.

The call for government rationalization also brings about drastic change
on ISRIS and on Cartographic Operations Division. These two would most
likely merge to initiate and operationalize digital cartography. The plan is to
come up with Soil Information Technology and Geomatics Division.

The objective therefore of this Part 2 of the Soil Survey Manual is to in-
troduce to the soil survey staff the applications of GIS in soil survey. We will
also be touching on the fundamentals of cartography. As the Part 1 (Soil Sur-
vey Manual) is only as good as it is used in the field, this Part 2 (Application of
GIS on Soil Survey) is only as good as when actual GIS activity is done.

2.0 What is Geographic Information System (GIS)?

GIS is a computer system (or collection of computer hardware, soft-

ware, and geographic data) for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, ma-
nipulating, analyzing, and displaying data related to positions on the earth’s sur-
face. Typically, GIS is used to handle maps. These might be presented as
several different layers where each layer holds a particular kind of feature (e.g.:
road layer, river system layer, political boundary layer, etc.). Each feature is
linked to a position on the graphical image on a map and a record in an attrib-
ute table.

These two properties—a feature in a GIS map is always related to a co-

ordinate system and there is an accompanying attribute table— differentiates a
GIS software from the other softwares available in the market today. One for
instance could digitize a soil map using an engineering software or an architec-
tural software such as CAD. But because there is no coordinate system and no
attribute table, one digitizes again to produce a soil map-based erosion map or
a soil-based flooding map. On the other hand, by using GIS software, one
opens the attribute table of the soil map, adds erosion and flooding attributes of
each of the soil mapping units and the erosion and flooding maps are automati-
cally generated. There is no need to digitize again. Furthermore, these three
maps (soil, erosion, and flooding) could be overlain to come up with for exam-
ple, a soil limitation map. Linking information (attribute data) with location data
is what GIS is all about.

80
 While GIS is often associated with maps, this is only one of the many
ways one can work with geographic data in GIS. This is because GIS can pro-
vide a great deal more problem solving capabilities than using a simple map-
ping program or adding data to the mapping tool. And thus, map digitization is
only the first step in GIS. Map digitization is not equal to GIS. And hence, be-
ing able to digitize maps using CAD is not GIS. We have mentioned earlier that
we can overlay soil, erosion, and flooding maps (called thematic maps) to pro-
duce a second-generation map (called decision maps) such as soil limitation
map. Because of geoprocessing function, we can also conduct modeling (the
“what if” questions we want to know; and to pursue only options favorable to
rational resource management). Example is erosion prediction and we can try
varying the erosion rates for a given time to see its impact on various localities
within the map.

From the definition, we can pick-up four functions of GIS: (1) Data cap-
ture—the analog map is converted into a digital data and the attribute data
keyed in or loaded from existing files; (2) Data storage and manipulation—
includes file management and editing; (3) Data analysis— spatial analysis, and
modeling; and (4) Data display— this involves not only computer display but
also maps and reports.

BSWM uses ESRI ArcGIS 9.2. It is a complete system for authoring,

serving, and using geographic information. It is an integrated collection of GIS
software products visualization and cartography, spatial analysis, and spatial
data management.

3.0 GIS and Geomatics, other Developments in Mapping Science

Geomatics is a branch of geography that has emerged since quantita-

tive revolution in geography in the 1950’s. Geomatics involves the use of tradi-
tional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography and their applica-
tion to computers. Geomatics has also lead to a revitalization of soil survey
and classification as well as agricultural land evaluation as it encompasses a
large fields involving cartography, spatial analysis, Geographic Information Sys-
tem (GIS), Remote Sensing, and Global Positioning System.

Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining sci-

ence, aesthetics, and techniques, cartography builds on the premise that we
can model reality in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. As
a national mapping agency, BSWM is one of the few government agencies with
a Cartographic Division. The advent of digital cartography has made significant
improvements in the mapping operations by using Geographic Information Sys-
tem (GIS) to perform consistent and high-quality data production, management,
and dissemination. National mapping agencies and commercial cartographic
publishers are making improvements in their mapping operations by using GIS
to perform consistent and high quality data production, management, and dis-
semination. The merger of ISRIS and Cartography Division will bring about sig-
81
nificant changes in the way maps, especially base maps are produced. In fact,
if the digital base map for the whole Philippines is actually completed, they will
just be retrieved from the data base on per project basis. There is no need for
a draftsman to manually produce a base map which is the current practice. All
delineations (soils, land use, erosion, flooding, crop suitabilities, etc.) will be
overlain on the base map, directly from field map sheets of soil surveyors by
digitizing them directly. Surveyors should note that there is another geomatics
technology emerging where they need not input observations and delineations
on working base map sheet, but directly on hand-held PDA (personal digital
assistant, e.g., iPaq) where the base map or the satellite imagery is already in-
puted. This is called Mobile Mapping or Mobile GIS in some literature.

The introduction of Global Positioning System and its combination with

GIS provides yet another powerful tool in the geomatics industry, Mobile Map-
ping. This allows surveyors to conduct field validation and visualize information
with existing digital data (no need to handwrite information and transfer data
later to GIS computers or laptops), record new information exactly directly at
source, and interact directly with the world around the surveyor. Mobile Map-
ping was initially tested by ISRIS staff in the validation of land use of Zambo-
anga del Sur in 2008.

Since the beginning of field validation activities, the main process of col-
lecting field data included gathering and using information with a paper-based
process that quite often involved a lot of data entry without access to real-time
information. Mobile Mapping changed many of these information gathering
processes and increased the efficiency and accuracy with which field users col-
lect and use spatial information. There are several softwares (e.g. ESRI Ar-
cPad) and hardwares available in the market and BSWM need to invest in
these handheld computer devices for field work activities.

4. Basic GIS Concepts

BSWM uses ESRI ArcGIS 9.2 for its GIS operations. The following con-
cept discussions, however, are quoted from ArcInfo manual to provide GIS
newcomers with basic GIS-related mapping concepts and principles. The
same concept may be termed differently as we move from one GIS software to
another. For those desirous to learn ArcGIS 9.2, the Deskhelp is available in
the website, http://webhelp.esri.com/arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.cfm?
TopicName=welcome .

4.01 The map

The map is a graphic representation of geographic features or other

spatial phenomena which occur in the environment. Geographic features are
things located on or near the surface of the earth. Geographic features can
occur naturally (rivers, vegetation), can be man-made constructions (roads,

82
pipelines, buildings), and can be land subdivisions (political boundaries, soils,
proposed land uses). Maps convey several types of information about the area
represented on the map. These locational information includes the location of
geographic features as well as spatial relationships between various features.
A map also contains attributes of the geographic features such as name and
quantitative information such as area or length.

4.02 The coverage

The coverage is a digital version of the map. In a coverage, features

are stored as simple points, lines, or polygons. Thematic descriptors such as
feature name, classification, properties, etc. are in a feature attribute table.
Thus, a coverage contains both locational data (which define points, lines, and
polygons) and attribute data (which describes points, lines, and polygons). Lo-
cations are described by coverage features while descriptive information about
features is stored in feature attribute table.

4.03 Coverage features

Feature locations are defined by coordinates and topological pointers to

other features. For example, a line can be defined by a series of connecting x,
y coordinate points and a list of other lines to which it connects at each of its
endpoints. A series of lines such as streets may enclose a city block. Coordi-
nates are stored for each lines defining the streets while the block is defined by
the streets comprising its border.

Features can also contain attributes which describe them. In our exam-
ple, the street would have street name, length, road type, etc. stored in attribute
table for the coverage. Each feature has one corresponding set of attributes
stored as a single record in the attribute table.

User-ID. The attribute records are related to features by the User-ID.

These User-IDs link coordinate features to their attribute table. Several kinds of
features maybe present in a coverage and each feature has associated loca-
tional information, and attribute information.

4.04 Types of coverage features

There are four types of primary coverage features which are used to
represent points, lines, and areas on maps:

Arcs represent line features, the borders of polygons, or both. One line
feature maybe made up of many arcs. Arcs can be topologically linked to their
endpoints (nodes) and to the areas (polygons) on each side of them.

Nodes represent arc endpoints and intersection of line features. A node

may be topologically linked to the set of arcs which connect to each other at the
node.
83
 Label points can be used for three different purposes in a coverage—to
represent point features, to assign User-IDs to polygons, or to place label text
within a polygon. However, any single label point cannot be used for all three
purposes.

Polygons represent area features. A polygon is defined by the series of

arcs which compose its border and by a label point positioned inside its border.
The label point ID is used to assign the polygon a User-ID. Descriptive data
about the polygons are stored in polygon attribute table (PAT).

4.05 Secondary coverage features

Tics are registration or geographic control points for a coverage. They

are identified by known coordinates on the map and used to orient a coverage.
They allow all coverage features to be registered to a common coordinate sys-
tem. Additionally, other coverages such as another layer of the same area or of
adjacent coverages can be spatially related using the same tics as geographic
control.

Coverage extent represents the map extent. It is a rectangle that de-

fines the coordinate limits (extreme minimum and maximum coordinates) of
coverage arcs and label points.

Annotations is text used to label coverage features. Annotation is not

topologically linked with any other features. Annotation is used only for display
purposes; it is not used in analytical processes.

4.06 Topology

The relationships used to represent the connectivity or contiguity of the

line, point and polygon features are referred to as topology. Topology is the
highest level of generalization at which geographic features can be stored. By
storing information about the location of a feature relative to other features, to-
pology provides the basis for many kinds of geographic analysis without having
to access the absolute locations held in the coordinate files.

Polygon topology. For area definition, a polygon is defined as a list of

arcs which make up its boundary or which comprise its border. Arcs are stored
as an ordered series of X,Y coordinates which define a line. Additionally, the
order of the coordinates stored for an arc define its direction. In addition to
each arc’s User-ID, all of the arcs in a map coverage are sequentially num-
bered from 1 to n, called the Internal-ID. These polygon/arc lists are automati-
cally created or updated by commands CLEAN and BUILD. Contiguity be-
tween area features in a map coverage can be represented using arc topology.
Since arc of a polygon border has direction, and a left and right polygon value,
it is easy to know which polygons are contiguous. As polygons are built, each

84
polygon is sequentially numbered, called the polygon Internal-ID number.

Arc-node topology. Nodes are endpoints of arcs. Each arc has a from-
node (its starting point) and a to-node (its ending point). This stores the direc-
tion of an arc. Paths through a network of arcs can be easily found because
each arc has direction and because a list of the arcs which meet at each node
can be identified.

Topology summary. The most common coverage files are as follows:

1. AAT—Arc Attribute Table
2. ARC—Arc coordinates and topology
3. ARF—Arc cross-reference file
4. BND—Coverage minimum and maximum coordinates
5. CNT—Polygon centroid table
6. LAB—Label point coordinates and topology
7. LOG—Coverage or workspace history file
8. MSK—Edit area masks
9. PAL—Polygon topology
10. PAT—Polygon/Point Attribute Table
11. PFF—Polygon Filter File
12. PRF—Polygon/Point cross-reference file
13. TIC—Tic coordinates and Ids
14. TOL—Coverage processing tolerances
15. TXT—Coverage annotation features

4.07 The Feature Attribute Table

The Feature Attribute Table is what differentiates a GIS software from

other softwares because this table is spatially linked to the polygons or map-
ping units. It is a special database that is automatically created during map dig-
itization and updated using CLEAN or BUILD command for the three feature
types—polygons, lines, and points. These data files hold all thematic data for a
map feature or reference thematic data in related database files. Each record
in a feature attribute table contains all the descriptors about a map feature. It is
important to note when locating a map feature in the feature attribute table, that
polygon, line and point features have two numbers associated with them, (1)
the Internal ID number that the software automatically assigns, and (2) a Cover-
ID, also known as User-ID which the user himself assigned.

The Internal ID Numbers are unique for each feature but automatically
created and maintained by the software using CLEAN and BUILD command
and do not necessarily remain fixed. These numbers should not be manually
altered. They can change when the map coverages are updated.

A User-ID is an integer value assigned by the user to each feature. It

will not change until the user changes it. The User-ID can be used to identify
the polygon (example is using the map legend) and thereby assign actual data

85
values (such as results of the laboratory analysis—pH, N, K, P, Ca, Mg, etc.) or
relate other items to a particular map feature.

4.08 Tolerances

The tolerances used for a coverage define important characteristics of

the coverage. There are five tolerances which can affect the accuracy and
resolution of coordinates stored for a coverage: fuzzy tolerance, dangle length,
node match tolerance, weed tolerance, and the RMS error. We will discuss two
of these tolerances:

1. Fuzzy tolerance

This is the minimum distance between arc coordinates which separate

all arc coordinates in a coverage. During CLEAN, two or more arc coordinates
within the fuzzy tolerance are snapped together and become the same coordi-
nate point.

The resolution of a coverage is defined by the minimum distance sepa-

rating the coordinates used to store coverage features. Resolution is limited to
map scale used in initial digitizing. When such a map is digitized, a typical
minimum distance between coordinates that can be captured by the digitizing
tablet is 0.002 inches. At 1:63,360 map scale, this is about 10.56 feet on the
ground. The fuzzy tolerance is the distance that coverage features like arcs are
allowed to move. If this distance movement is not acceptable, a larger scale
map must be digitized. Take note that a fuzzy tolerance that is too small may
result in arc intersections not being created or slivers may not be successfully
cleaned. Conversely, too large fuzzy tolerance may cause polygons to collapse
or arcs merging when they shouldn’t.

Map Scale Fuzzy tolerance value at 0.002

1:250,000 12.700 meters
1:100,000 5.080 meters
1:63,360 3.210 meters
1:24,000 1.219 meters
1:6,000 0.304 meters

2. RMS error

The root mean square (or the tic registration error) is calculated auto-
matically when tics are used to register a map on the digitizer. The RMS value
represents the accuracy with which the cursor captured the locations of existing
tics for a coverage. Once defined, it affects the coordinate accuracy of all cov-
erage features captured. Given the precision of a standard digitizer, 0.003 is
the best average precision that should be attained. If the error is greater than
0.003, there is a need to re-register the tics before adding coverage features.
The lower the RMS number, the more accurate the digitizing will be.

86
 4.09 BUILD and CLEAN Commands

After digitizing and during the editing process, BUILD and CLEAN com-
mands are essential. The BUILD commands creates or updates a feature at-
tribute table for a coverage and defines polygon and arc-node topology.
CLEAN commands on the other hand, generates a coverage with correct poly-
gon topology by editing and correcting geometric coordinate errors, assembling
arcs into polygons, and creates feature attribute information for each polygon.
Practically, BUILD and CLEAN are similar commands. The basic difference is
that CLEAN uses a fuzzy tolerance when processing coverages and BUILD
does not. This means that CLEAN can detect and create intersections, BUILD
cannot. However, since BUILD does not use a fuzzy tolerance, the coordinates
will not be adjusted while topology is being built.

4.10 The Map Scale

Map scale is the ratio of the distance on the map to the distance on the
earth. It could be expressed as a fraction (1:1,000), as a verbal statement
(e.g., one inch equals one mile) or as a bar. The larger the scale, the bigger
the feature will appear on the map.

Scale affects resolution and precision. Imagine yourselves in an air-

plane taking off. As you rise from the ground, you can still see the detailed fea-
tures below—the roads, the cars, roofs of the houses, the swimming pool. But
as you rise and gain the flight altitude, the detailed features visible from the
eyes diminish, but the area coverage of the eye span increases.

And thus, as we move the map scale from 1:25,000 to 1:50,000 and
then to 1:250,000—likewise, there will be some mapping units that will disap-
pear because there is a minimum mappable area for every map scale that is
still visible to the eyes. Converting an original 1:250,000 map to 1:50,000 will
not be possible because the details were not there in the first place. Scale af-
fects resolution and precision.

4.11 Latitude and Longitude

Latitude is the angle measured north or south of the equator while longi-
tude is measured east or west of the Prime Meridian (an imaginary line running
from North Pole to the South Pole, through Greenwich, England). Latitude-
longitude is a unit of measure for spherical coordinate system.

4.12 Map Projection

The world isn’t flat. It’s more like an oblate spheroid, meaning it bulges
at the equator and is a bit flat at the poles. Because of its unique shape, it be-
comes difficult if not impossible to accurately approximate the shape and size
of the earth.
87
 Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the earth on a flat
surface. Some distortions of conformality, distance, direction, scale and area
always result from this process. Some projections minimize distortions in some
of these properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others. Some pro-
jections are attempts to only moderately distort all of these properties.

Map projections fall into four general classes—cylindrical projections,

conic projections, azimuthal projections, and miscellaneous projections. In
ArcInfo, the command is PROJECT [Cover/File] [input] [output] [sml_file]. The
command projects coordinates between two projections for a coverage or file.

Among the cylindrical projections, many national grid systems are

based on Transverse Mercator projection. This is a result from projecting the
sphere onto a cylinder tangent to a central meridian. Transverse Mercator
maps are often used to portray areas with larger north-south than east-west
extent. Distortion of scale, distance, direction and area increase away from the
central meridian. The TRANSVERSE Projection command option should not
be used with world coverages. In ArcInfo, the TRANSVERSE Mercator projec-
tion is specified by UNITS (usually meters), XSHIFT and YSHIFT (if neces-
sary), and a set of PARAMETERS. It is defined by a central meridian, a lati-
tude of origin, and scale factor for the central meridian, usually 1.

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is used to define

horizontal, positions worldwide by dividing the surface of the earth into 6 degree
zones, each mapped by the Transverse Mercator projection with a central me-
ridian in the center of the zone. UTM zone numbers designate 6 degree longi-
tudinal strips extending from 80 degrees South latitude to 84 degrees North lati-
tude. UTM zone characters designate 8 degree zones extending north and
south from the equator. UTM projection is normally defined by UNITS (usually
meters), XSHIFT or YSHIFT (if necessary), and the UTM zone, explicitly de-
fined by the zone number or by latitude-longitude values within the zone in the
parameters section.

It is incumbent upon the digitizers to consult the ArcInfo Manual for the
series of subcommands that accompanies the PROJECT command given the
projection desired. There are several projections available in ArcInfo. It is also
incumbent upon the digitizer to know the appropriate type of projection. This
projection issue may have to be discussed with the map users as early as the
survey planning stage.

5.0 Basic GIS Concepts— Spatial Data Management Using ArcView

5.1 The Project

A project is a file in which works are stored with ArcView. A project con-
tains all the views, tables, charts, layouts, and scripts for a particular ArcView

88
application or set of related applications. Project file names have .apr exten-
sion. So all GIS activities relating to Ilocos Norte for example, will be named
Ilocos Norte Project for easy retrieval in the future. All GIS activities relating to
Goal 1 can be named Goal_1 Project. So it is not necessary that projects are
named after a place.

5.2 The Project Window

When a project file is open, it would show a project window—views, ta-

bles, charts, layouts, script. Our activities are defined by the active window. An
Identify tool is used to click on a particular window item we want to be active.

5.3 The Project Views and View Themes

A view is made up of layers of geographic information for a particular

area or place. Each layer is a collection of geographic features such as rivers,
lakes, political boundaries, etc. Each of these layers are called themes.

You can imagine that if you put together a river theme, a road theme, a
lake theme, a political boundary theme—you can come up with a base map
view. You can overlay also your soil theme and come up with complete soil
map view.

5.4 Attribute Table

The Identify tool when clicked on a polygon feature at the view window
will open up the Attribute Table of that feature. This, however, cannot be edited
at the view window. But it is evident that when the soil theme is on the view,
the soil classification for the specific polygon clicked will be shown. Which
means to say that if we add the physical, chemical, morphological properties for
each of the mapping units, these will also be shown. And since the physical
and chemical (as well as some morphological properties like soil depth) are nu-
merical data, we can work on data aggregation and statistics.

And not only that, if we add the qualitative ratings for flooding, erosion,
fertility and suitability in addition to the physical and chemical properties, we will
be able also to come up with erosion map, flooding map, fertility map, suitability
maps (per crop) plus N level map, P map, K map, Ca map, Mg map, pH map,
soil thickness map, etc., etc. without digitizing again.

To be able to open the attribute table and add additional data on the soil
theme, we have to exit the view window and make the project window again
active, and click on Tables and then click Start editing button. Take note that if
there are 100 polygons or mapping units in a map (usually there are more), and
that there are 10 properties we want to add, there will be 1,000 entries we have
to make, 10 for each polygon. When you do attribute table editing, you will re-
alize the importance of and be thankful for the concept of User_ID assigned

89
each polygon. We are dealing with hundreds of units of spatial data and it is
important to locate properly on the map each mapping unit before entering mor-
phological, physical, chemical, and other properties.

It is not the purpose of this handbook to replace the ArcView manual but
to introduce GIS concepts as well as to demonstrate the power of GIS and its
application on soil survey. That by editing the attribute table, we can add
chemical, physical, biological, morphological and many other characteristics to
the soil mapping units such that in one click, we can browse them all and even
come up with many new maps based on a singular soil map.

5.5 Geocoding

Geocoding is the process by which you add point locations defined by

address information to your map. It is the computer equivalent of pushing pins
into street map on your wall. When you geocode tabular data containing ad-
dresses, ArcView reads the addresses, finds where they are located on your
map, and creates a new theme containing a point for each address it was able
to find. ArcView also supports place name aliases, useful for familiar places as
“City Hall” or “General Hospital” than the street addresses of which are not
commonly known. At any rate, since these are point locations, pit diggings and
auger borings can be geocoded for future reference.

6.0 The GIS Spatial Data Model

6.1 The Vector Data Model

In high school physics we learned that vector lines are lines with magni-
tude and direction. Vector data model represents geographic features similar
to the way maps do. Each location is recorded as a single x,y coordinate. Vec-
tor data are composed of points, lines, and polygons. This basic spatial data
model is also known as the arc-node topology. The vector data are stored as
pairs of x,y coordinates, usually with ID numbers; the data are stored in sepa-
rate data tables. One of the strengths of the vector data model is that it can be
used to render geographic features with great precision. However, spatial
analysis / filtering is not possible. The combination of overlay creates difficul-
ties.

6.2 The Raster Data Model

The raster data sets are composed of rectangular arrays of regularly

spaced square grids cells. Each cell has a value, representing a property or
attribute of interest. The cell values represent nominal, ordinal, or continuous
data. Number in cells can be integer or floating point. While any type of geo-
graphic data can be stored in raster format, raster data sets are specially suited
to the representation of continuous, rather than discrete data. As the scale of

90
display increases, precision also decreases and shapes cannot be precisely
represented.

6.3 The Shapefile Data Model

ESRI Shape Files are used mainly in ArcView 3.x and ArcGIS, al-
though supported in other software as well. Because of the simple data and file
structure, shapefiles draw very quickly in ArcGIS 9.

A shapefile stores nontopological geometry and attribute information for

the spatial features in a data set. The geometry for a feature is stored as a
shape comprising a set of vector coordinates. Because shapefiles do not have
the processing overhead of a topological data structure, they have advantages
over other data sources such as faster drawing speed and edit ability. Shape-
files handle single features that overlap or that are noncontiguous.

Shapefiles can be fully managed (created, edited, and deleted) within

ArcGIS 9's environment. Shapefile data files can also be managed using oper-
ating system tools, such as the Windows Explorer. The shapefile standard is
public, so any software can be made to read or write shapefiles.

A single shapefile represents features that are either point, line, or poly-
gon in spatial data type. If you create a shapefile, you need to choose what
feature type you want at the time of creation.

Spatial referencing of shapefiles is enforced by maintaining explicit X

and Y coordinates for each point or vertex in the layer. Typically, this is done at
the time of data creation, where a new dataset is drawn in reference to existing
datasets that are already georeferenced.

For each shapefile there is an associated dBASE (relational database)

table. For each feature within the shapefile, there is an associated record
within the attribute table.

Shapefiles require a minimum of three files to store the related geo-

graphic and attribute information. These three files can be easily recognized by
their last three letters:
• *.shp - the file that stores the geometry of the feature
• *.shx - the file that stores the index of the feature geometry
• *.dbf - the dBASE file that stores the attribute information

**FGDL has added a fourth file with a .prj extension that defines the
shapefile's projection. This file can be recognized by ESRI's ArcView 3.2 pro-
jection extension and by ArcGIS 8.x, 9.x Toolbox projection wizard.

6.4 Comparison of vector and raster data model

The comparison is tabulated on page 92.

91
 ITEM OF COMPARISON VECTOR RASTER
Primary focus Geographic feature Location
“What do I know about “What do I know about
this geographic feature?” this location?”
How data represents Uses x,y coordinates Store rows and columns
geographic features of cell values

How data represents x,y coordinates in As cells also in Cartesian

location Cartesian system coordinate system
How boundaries are Boundaries are well Boundaries are not
represented defined defined

How feature shapes are Accurately As squares, thus more

represented generalized and less
accurate
General use For high quality For spatial modeling
cartography where operations
accuracy and precision
are important
Overlay Complex operation Allows simple and fast
overlays

7.0 Creating and Printing Maps

While ArcInfo is used for map digitization, ArcView is used for map crea-
tion and printing in BSWM. While it may be important for Team Leaders to
learn the basics of map digitization using ArcInfo although they need not digi-
tize, it is a must for soil surveyors to learn the basics of operating ArcView. Soil
mapping using GIS will soon be de-facto process and approach. Leaping from
analog to digital is the only way to survive in the competition for bringing soil
data to the general public. Soil survey methodology is now available in the
internet; gone are the days when only Soil Survey staff can do soil survey. In
this Age of Information Technology, who cares if only BSWM has the mandate
to produce soil maps? There are other government and private agencies now
with capability to produce and offer soil maps.

This manual will not replace the ArcView manual on how to retrieve digi-
tal data, layout and put symbols and labels on your maps. But we will focus on
the principles of cartography. The basic assumption of this manual is that the
surveyor is familiar with the basics of ArcView.

7.1 What is cartography?

Cartography can be described as the graphic principles supporting the

art, science, and techniques used in making maps or charts. It was developed
in a time before the computer and geographic information system (GIS) tech-

92
nology. Throughout its development, which continues to these days, many criti-
cal principles have been established to advance cartography, such as Jacques
Bertin's visual variables for symbology, size, value, texture, color, orientation,
and form. He defined these variables to assist someone in representing one
symbol differently from another. Other advancements have been developed
through studies of human psychology and visual perception.

Traditionally, maps have been created to serve two main functions. The
first function has been to store information. Creating a map has been a way to
record information for future reference. The second function has been to pro-
vide a picture to relay spatial information to a user.

The purpose for designing a map is critical to its design. When design-
ing a map, a mapmaker needs to know the answers to some fundamental
questions, such as: What is being mapped? Who is the audience? How is this
map being presented, on its own or as part of a report? What medium will be
used to display this map?

7.2 Map formats

Generally, maps can be in two formats. One is a general reference map

such as a United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic map or a city
map. In this form, the map is providing information to convey where things are
in relation to each other. The second is a thematic map, where the map is used
to convey information about a particular theme or multiple themes, such as land
use, population, or health statistics.

7.3 Basic mapping principles

There are many types of maps, each with general and possibly specific
requirements. While a skilled cartographer is usually required to make maps
with specific or special requirements, anyone can make good, general, and in-
formative maps by considering the following simple guidelines. These guide-
lines have been organized into seven areas that you can use as a checklist for
creating or improving your maps:

7.3.1 Purpose—Typically, a map does not have more than one pur-
pose. Trying to communicate too much in one map—having more than one pur-
pose for the map—tends to blur the message and confuse the map reader. Us-
ing two or more maps, each focused on a single message, is always a better
strategy.

7.3.2 Audience—Who will be reading your map? Are you designing a

map for a few readers or for a large audience of hundreds or millions of peo-
ple? It's better to target your map to the person least prepared to understand
your map's message.

93
 7.3.3 Size and scale—The physical size of a map relative to the geo-
graphic extent shown on the map will dictate the scale of the map and deter-
mine how you will represent the actual size and number of features shown on
the map. Data is often collected at a particular scale. However, if you're not dis-
playing the data at that scale, be sure your data fits. For example, roads typi-
cally collected for 1:24,000 mapping will be far more detailed than needed for a
smaller scale map (such as 1:2,000,000), so be sure to reduce the number of
roads drawn on your map. There are less visible details on a low scale map
than on a high scale map.

7.3.4 Media —also plays an important role, because a map printed on

newsprint will not show fine details clearly, whereas one printed on high-quality
paper will. In addition, the details on a digital map could vary depending on the
viewing program. For example, a static map used on a Web page would be de-
signed to encompass less information than one designed for browsing using a
program such as ArcReader.

7.3.5 Focus—Refers to where the designer wants the map reader to

first focus. Typically, cool colors (blues, greens, and light gray) are used for
background information, and warm colors (red, yellow, black) are used to cap-
ture the reader's attention.

7.3.6 Integrity—You may want to cross validate some of your informa-

tion, such as the names or spelling of some features. If the data was produced
by another organization, it is customary to give that organization credit on the
map.

7.3.7 Balance—How does your map look on the page or screen? Are
the parts of the map properly aligned? The body of the map should be the domi-
nant element. Try to avoid large open spaces. Be flexible in where you place
elements (that is, not all titles need to go at the top). Should some components
on the map be contained within a border? In the graphics below, the first exam-
ple displays a map layout with unnecessary open spaces, whereas the second
graphic makes better use of space within the layout.

7.3.8 Completeness—A map generally should contain some basic ele-

ments, such as a title, legend, scale bar, and north arrow; however, there are
exceptions. For example, if a graticule exists, it is not necessary to place a north
arrow. Basically, place all the information you think your readers need to fully
understand the map.

Before publishing your map, it is always a good idea to have someone

else look it over, especially for spelling and overall appearance.

7.4 Elements of map

7.4.1 Map body—The primary mapped area. You can display more

94
than one image of your primary mapped area within your document. For exam-
ple, you may want to portray change by showing several images with differing
but related information, such as population maps of various years. Your map
may also contain a locator map (a smaller-scale map used to help the reader
understand where the main area of interest is located), an inset map (used to
give more detailed information of an area within the main map that may not
easily be understood), or an index map (often used to show where in a series
of maps one map exists). All are used to assist in communicating your informa-
tion to others. In ArcMap, each of these mapped areas is referred to as a data
frame.

7.4.2 Title—Used to tell the reader what the map represents. This is
often placed on a map layout as text.

7.4.3 Legend—Lists the symbology used within the map and what it
represents. This can be created using the Legend wizard in the layout and ed-
ited further once created.

7.4.4 Scale—Provides readers with the information they need to deter-

mine distance. A map scale is a ratio where one unit on the map represents
some multiple of that value in the real world. It can be numeric (1:10,000),
graphic (a scale bar), or verbal (1 inch equals 10,000 inches). Maps are often
referred to as large or small scale. This size reference refers to the ratio (or
fraction). For example, a 1:100 scale map is larger than a 1:10,000 map, be-
cause 1/100 (0.01) is a larger value than 1/10,000 (0.00001). A smaller-scale
map displays a larger area but with less detail. The graphic below on the left
displays the details you might see in a small-scale map, and the graphic below
on the right displays the details you might see in a large-scale map.
The scale is inserted in the map layout view.

7.4.5 Projection—A mathematical formula that transforms feature lo-

cations from the earth's curved surface to a map's flat surface. Projections can
cause distortions in distance, area, shape, and direction; all projections have
some distortion. Therefore, the projection type is often placed on the map to
help readers determine the accuracy of the measurement information they get
from the map.

7.4.6 Direction—Shown using a north arrow. A map may show true

north and magnetic north. This element is inserted in the map layout view.

7.4.7 Data source—The bibliographic information for the data used to

develop the map.

7.4.8 Other map components—These include (but are not limited to)
dates, pictures, graticules or grids, reports, tables, additional text, neatlines,
and authorship.

95
8.0 Mapping and GIS

So how are mapping and GIS related? For starters, GIS has its roots in
mapping—both involve maps and attributes, and both use geographic data in-
volving map scales, projections, and coordinate systems.

There are three basic users for both mapping and GIS—the viewer, the
maker, and the designer. Before outlining their roles, it must be stated that
these users can overlap—a viewer may be the maker or a maker be the de-
signer—or they can all be the same person.

8.1 Viewer—This person, who can be described as the end user, is

generally the reason for the existence of the map or data. The viewer is the
person using a Web mapping program to determine the route from his or her
home to the museum, the oil company executive who needs to locate potential
drilling sites, a person planning a mountain hike, or a newspaper reader who is
making the association between a new industrial site and his or her home.

8.2 Designer—The designer can be involved at the beginning, end,

and throughout the GIS or mapping product creation process. This person de-
termines what data to use, what tools to use, how to acquire the data, and so
on. The designer can be the person who creates the output by defining what
questions will be answered and how data is going to be displayed on the map.
The map designer could also be the person specifying which symbols to use
to represent roads or the project developer who is writing the contract proposal
for an environmental assessment using GIS.

8.3 Maker—This is the person working with the data by editing, creat-
ing, acquiring, querying, or analyzing it. The maker is the person who is merg-
ing the road dataset, digitizing the rivers, editing the parcels, attaching the ad-
dress locations, buffering the protected lands, analyzing the population projec-
tions, importing the elevation models, or identifying the new school locations.

How else are mapping and GIS related? GIS is used for display, analy-
sis, storage, and retrieval. The mapping output is used to display and store in-
formation. From this, a person can retrieve information and use that informa-
tion in analysis. Mapping and GIS are becoming closer to one another through
technological advancements. For example, a map is no longer a static product,
and visualization is not dependent on a printable medium. Viewers have been
given the ability to interact with the display.

Basically, the cartographic principles of mapping can be thought of as

the rule for output, and GIS can be considered the tool to bring information to-
gether.

96
The Soil Survey Manual. Interpreting Soil Data Using FAO Suitability Method. Soil Survey Division
Staff. Bureau of Soils and Water Management (2): 97—102, 2008

Interpreting Soil Data

Using FAO Suitability Method
Soil Survey Division Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

1.0 Introduction

BSWM applies the FAO method of land evaluation for soil survey data
interpretation. It is usually referred to as the soil suitability rating. But because
this is soil and not land evaluation, where there is multi-disciplinary approach to
soil survey, land evaluation rather soil evaluation is used in the final report. If it
is purely soil survey, soil suitability rating is applied. Since it is only on occa-
sions that soil survey is done alone, soil/land evaluation will be discussed.

The use of suitability principle however, does not preclude the use of
other methods of soil data interpretation. But for the purpose of this manual,
suitability rating is normally the de facto soil data interpretation method dis-
cussed with the clients.

2.0 Difference between land and soil evaluation

The FAO definition of land “is an area of the earth’s surface the charac-
teristics of which embrace all reasonably stable attributes of the biosphere in-
cluding those of the atmosphere, the soil and the underlying geology, the hy-
drology, the plant and animal populations, and the results of the past and pre-
sent human activity, to the extent that these attributes exert a significant influ-
ence on the present and future uses of the land by humans.” (FAO, 1985, p.
212).

Land is an integrated geographic concept, both physical and human;

and includes human occupation to the extent that this influences land use. In
land evaluation, the soil is just one of the components. The difference between
soil and land evaluation will be distinct when we discuss the concept of Land
Utilization Types which is a very important concept in the FAO method. It is
much simpler to do soil evaluation than land evaluation.

3.0 Why evaluate?

3.1 Land varies in its physical and human geographic properties (land is
not created equal);

97
 3.2 This variation affects land uses;

3.3 The variation is at least in part can be systematized such that it can
be mapped and land behavior can be predicted;

3.4 Decision makers such as agricultural development planners and pol-

icy makers can use these predictions to guide their decisions.

4. Principles of Soil / Land Evaluation

4.1 Soil / land evaluation requires a comparison of benefits obtained and

the inputs needed on the different types of soils/lands to assess the
productive potential, environmental services, and sustainable liveli-
hood. There will at least be two soils/land uses being compared and
evaluated.

4.2 Land evaluation requires a multi-disciplinary and cross-sectional ap-

proach.

4.3 Land evaluation should take into account the bio-physical, economic,
social and political context as well as the environmental concerns.

4.4 Land evaluation should consider all stakeholders.

4.5 The scale and level of decision should be clearly defined prior to land
evaluation process.

5.0 Concepts and definitions

5.1 Functions of lands where soil/land evaluation can be used

5.1.1 Functions related to biomass production (agriculture, forestry,

grazing, acquaculture, freshwater fisheries)

5.1.2 Functions relating to environment (land has storing, filtering,

and transforming capacity; and regulates atmospheric and
nutrient cycles)

5.1.3 Functions related to human settlement (land is platform for

human activity, and hosts the infrastructure for housing, trans-
port facilities, recreation, and industry.

5.2 Limiting factors

5.2.1 A wide range of limiting factors—physical, economic, and

social can restrict suitability of the land for different kinds of

98
 use. These are what we look for when we define the parame-
ters for evaluation.

5.2.2 Take note that in soil evaluation, we do not look at the cli-
matic, economic and social factors but we restrict ourselves to
the soil physical, chemical, morphological, and possibly bio-
logical limitations. We just determine if the soil requirements
for growing specific crops are met. In land evaluation, we go
additional steps and more complicated scenarios in determin-
ing the limiting factors such as if there is market for the crop
and at what price can it be sold and still have a profit margin.

5.3 Diagnostic criteria

5.3.1 Diagnostic criteria based mainly on physical soil / land quali-

ties and characteristics are taken as basis for evaluation; and
critical values determined.

5.3.2 Given the parameter, we define what is best, good, or worst

for the land use under evaluation.

5.4 Land Utilization Type (LUT)

This is a kind of land use described in degree of greater detail

than that of a major kind of land use. It encompasses crop or crop-
ping system with a set of technical specifications within a socio-
economic setting. This LUT definition is very important specially if
we are conducting land evaluation and not soil evaluation. In land
evaluation, it is important to consider the socio-economic setting as
part of the assumption. This is equally important but not so critical
if we do soil evaluation.

5.5 Land Use Requirements

This is the condition of the land necessary for the successful and
sustained implementation of specific Land Utilization Type. It
represents the “demand” side of the land use.

5.6 Land Qualities

This is a complex attribute of land which acts in a manner dis-

tinct from the actions of other land qualities in its influence on the
suitability of the land for a specified kind of use. It represents the
“supply” side of the land use equation. Since land quality is a com-
plex attribute, it is normally measured by land characteristics which
are parameters that can be measured in the laboratory or directly
observed in the field.

99
6.0 Aims of soil / land evaluation

The following questions should be answered by the end of the exercise:

6.1 How is the land currently managed and what will happen if present
practices remain unchanged?

6.2 What improvement in management practices within the present use

are possible?

6.3 What other uses of land are physically possible and economically
and socially relevant?

6.4 Which of these uses offer possibilities of sustained production or

other benefits?

6.5 What adverse effects, physical, economic, or social are associated

with each use?

6.6 What recurrent inputs are necessary to bring about the desired pro-
duction and minimize the adverse effects? What are the benefits of
each form of use?

7. Steps to soil / land evaluation

7.1 Define the Land Utilization Types (LUT)

This should be conducted with the client as early as the negotia-

tion phase of soil survey. The proposed LUT’s should be included
in the MOA or Terms of Reference. Take note that unlike Land
Use, Land Utilization Type encompasses crop or cropping system
with a set of technical specifications within a socio-economic set-
ting. This should be defined before soil survey or researched in the
course of soil survey.

Once these LUT’s are specified or known, it is the duty of the

Team Leader to research on the Land Use Requirements of each
crops. This is table research. Possible sources of information are
the Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI), the internet, agronomy books.
Other agricultural requirements like environmental and conserva-
tion needs are also researched. Consider parameters important for
survival and high yield, existence of critical values, availability of
data corresponding to land qualities, and availability of knowledge
with which to evaluate the corresponding land qualities.

7.2 Set the parameters and establish critical levels

The Land Use Requirements is used to set the parameters and

100
 criteria for each LUT’s and normally presented as Table 1. The op-
timal levels of the limiting factors are defined. For example, root
crops like cassava and sweet potatoes do not thrive on water-
logged conditions. Flooding is therefore a limiting factor for root
crops. There is a need to establish the critical levels. Can the root
crop still thrive on slight flooding for a certain number of days?

These requirements are summarized and tabulated and referred

to as the Land Use requirements (Table 1) —the condition of the
land necessary for the successful and sustained implementation of
the specific Land Utilization Types.

7.3 Summarize the soil/land qualities and characteristics

Land qualities cannot be measured directly and these are complex

land attributes that influence land suitability. (Example: LQ1—soil
moisture availability)

Land characteristics are specific parameters that can be observed

in the field or measured in the laboratory that constitute land quali-
ties. (Example: To measure LQ1—soil moisture availability we
need to determine soil texture, soil structure, organic matter, water
holding capacity, soil drainage). The FAO framework allows use of
land characteristics directly to assess suitability.

What to look for in identifying land qualities:

7.3.1 Those which affect physical suitability (e.g. presence of haz-

ards)

7.3.2 Those which reduce yields (limiting factors that have to do

with intrinsic needs of crops; e.g. water, nutrients, tempera-
ture)

7.3.3 Those which increase costs (these refer to additional invest-

ments needed to correct the limiting factor).

The soil/land qualities and characteristics are normally pre-

sented as Table 2. As we will be matching it with the Land Use Re-
quirements, these should be in the same format as Table 1. (E.g.:
if pH is the first parameter considered in Land Use Requirements
for the various Land Utilization Types, pH should also be the first
parameter considered in soil characteristics.)

7.4 Compare Land Use Requirements with Land Qualities

In suitability evaluation, we compare the land use requirements

(which serve as the criteria we have set) with the actual soil (or land)
101
conditions. This is basically one-on-one comparison. The objective is
to arrive at a final rating—whether the area is suitable or not suitable to
the LUT under consideration.

S1 Highly suitable No limiting factor

S2 Moderately suitable One or two limiting factors
S3 Marginally suitable Three limiting factors
N Not suitable More than three or more limiting factors

7.5 Summarize the results of the evaluation in tabular format

For soil evaluation which is the objective of this paper, the result-
ing suitability rating per LUT is presented in tabular format. This is Ta-
ble 3. This normally answers the question on which soil mapping units
are highly, moderately, marginally, and not suitable for specific LUT.

For land evaluation, generally the procedure goes additional

steps to look into the climatic suitability, economic suitability, etc. before
presenting in tabular format.

The limitations are usually identified and discussed in detail. Ex-

ample: S2d where d as a limitation refers to effective soil depth. The
top soil is thin. The following legends are generally used to identify the
soil limitations:

d effective soil depth

h soil drainage
t soil texture
g coarse fragments
s slope
e erosion
f flooding
m elevation
r inherent fertility

7.6 Summarize the soil / land management recommendations

The area per LUT per suitability rating is also prepared and pre-
sented as Table 4. This will answer the question on how many hectares
are highly, moderately, marginally and not suitable to the LUT.

Table 5 is for soil / land management recommendations given

the limitations of the soil mapping units. This is the essence of the
whole exercise. Or instead of a tabular format, the surveyor may opt to
write the soil / land management recommendations in paragraph format,
grouping the soils according to suitability to an LUT and specifying the
soil management recommendations for each soil group.

102
The Soil Survey Manual. Negotiating Soil Survey with Clients: Preparing Soil Survey Specifications.
Soil Survey Division Staff. Bureau of Soils and Water Management (2): 103—110, 2008

Negotiating Soil Survey with Clients:

Check-list of Soil Survey Specifications
Soil Survey Division Staff
Bureau of Soils and Water Management
Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City

In concluding soil survey agreement with prospective clients and users

of the soil survey information, it is important to consider the following items:

1. Needs assessment
2. Preparing the Terms of Reference
or the Memorandum of Agreement
3. Pre-mapping activities
4. Field mapping activities
5. Quality control
6. Soil survey data interpretation
7. Reporting
8. Soil Geographic Database
9. Other services from BSWM

1.0 Needs Assessment

Soil survey is conducted not just for the sake of soil survey. Before any
serious plan for soil survey can be made, it is important for the soil survey ne-
gotiator to discuss with the client who needs the soil information, and for what
purposes they are needed. From the answers, we can determine the type and
detail of soil survey data required and the form of the output expected from the
soil surveyors.

Soil survey is demand driven. There are special purpose surveys such
as survey of potential garbage dump site with short time period of applicability;
and there is the general purpose survey with many applications and long time
period of applicability such as soil resources inventory of a municipality for inte-
gration of their Strategic Agriculture and Fisheries Development Zones
(SAFDZ/s) with the Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP). It is essential to
define who will use the soil survey report and what kind of soil information will
they need from the report.

Soil survey clients vary from policy makers and local government lead-
ers, to agricultural entrepreneurs to environmentalists. Even architects and civil
engineers would require soil survey data. The soil survey needs have to be
clarified with the client.

103
 It is also important for the soil survey negotiators to determine the pro-
posed survey area so that the proposed budget could be matched with the de-
tail of soil survey information needed. Are there possible acid soils or saline
soils in the proposed survey area? What is the current land use? Proposed
land uses? The basic consideration is cost-efficiency. We need a good plan so
that funding and logistics will be sufficient to carry out the survey.

2.0 The Terms of Reference or the Memorandum of Agreement

Important items to consider are:

Technical Matters:
2.1 Objectives of the soil survey
2.2 Map scale.
This is mutually agreed by the client and the surveyors
by determining the Minimum Decision Area (MDA) for which
the soil survey output will be used. The cartographic concept
corresponding to the MDA is the Minimum Legible Delineation.
MDA = MLD converted to ground scale. The Minimum Legible
Delineation (MLD)* is defined as 0.4 cm2, the formula is:
Scale Number (SN) = [ √(MDA, ha x 250)] x 1000
E.g.: for MDA = 1.6 hectares, the formula gives SN = 20,000,
so the scale is 1:20,000. This is called the decision scale.
2.3 Map outputs (specify if in analog or digital format)
2.4 Intensity of observation
2.5 Soil interpretation to be used

Administrative Matters**
2.1 List of personnel / technical expertise required
2.2 Logistics (vehicles, laboratory analysis)
2.3 Schedule
2.4 Budget (should include cost of laboratory chemicals and GIS)

**Where counterpart fund is involved, the role of participating agencies

should be specified and their financial contributions.

3.0 Pre-mapping activities

It is important that by the time project mobilization is ready to com-

mence, the following are available:

Minimum Legible Delineation (MLD). This is the smallest area on the map that can be legibly
delineated. According to the Cornell University group on Adequacy of Soil Resource Inventories, the
MLD is defined as equal to 0.4 cm2_m which is equal to 40 mm2_m. This definition is based on the obser-
vation that in most published soil surveys there are rarely delineations smaller than 0.4cm2. According to
Rossiter, there are other authors like Vink who think that MLD could even be lower, 0.25 cm2_m.
(Source: Rossiter, D.G. 1999. Lecture Notes: Soil Geographic Databases. Soil Science Division, Interna-
tional Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences. http://www.itc.nl/personal/rossiter/teach/sis/
SoilGeographicDataBases.pdf )
104
 3.1 Relevant reports and maps pertaining to the study area
3.2 Possible areas for sampling
3.3 The working map to be used during field work, preferably
superimposed with tentative soil map and proposed map legend

By the time project mobilization begins, the Team Leader should be

able to make courtesy calls with the local government officials including baran-
gay captains to inform them of the project. At the same time the courtesy calls
are being made, reconnaissance of the study area is conducted to confirm pos-
sible sampling sites. The purpose of initial mapping is to understand the soil
pattern and to establish a mapping legend for the actual field mapping phase.
Another purpose is to establish the soil-landscape equation or concept. The
soil-landscape model captures the relationship between the soils in the area
and the different landscape units.

4.0 Field Mapping

As field survey progresses, the base map is also being made.

Data organization in the field is important. Soil survey is first of all a set
of scientific observations and secondly, an interpretation of these observations
into a coherent theory of pedogenesis and soil geography. As in any scientific
investigation, it is important to keep an accurate and complete field notes. A
field notebook for observations may be minor today but an important document
tomorrow. Use standard forms, standard terminology, and standard numbering
scheme. The exact location of the sampling points, preferably using GPS is
important.

Notations on the working map should be made right in the field and cor-
rections on the tentative map made right after field work.

All soil samples should be immediately air-dried and properly labeled for
submission to the Laboratory Services.

Proposals for a new soil series should cover at least 800 hectares and
500 hectares for soil variant.

5.0 Quality Control

Progressive soil correlation should be done during the course of the

field survey activities. Progressive soil correlation is a process that identifies
and records all the issues and decisions surrounding soil map unit level infor-
mation throughout the course of a soil survey. Field reviews and field assis-
tance visits ensure technical standards are met. During field review or assis-
tance—changes, deletions, or additions to the taxonomic units and map units
recognized since the last review are evaluated.

105
 Final correlation is conducted when the soil survey is near completion.
It serves as data check and identifies any incomplete work necessary to be
completed before demobilization.

Format of Correlation Report:

1. Heading: Bureau of Soils and Water Management

Soil Survey Division
Project Title
First/Final Correlation Report

2. Introductory Paragraph

3. Explanation on the Map Legend

4. Field and Publication Names and Symbols

5. Series Established by this Correlation

6. Series Dropped or Made Inactive

7. Instructions for Map Development

8. Approved List of Typical Pedons and their Morphological Properties

9. List of samples for laboratory analyses

10. Certifications by Chief of Party and the Correlator

6.0 Soil survey data interpretation

Generally, when only soil survey activity is involved, soil suitability

evaluation is conducted based on FAO principles of land evaluation. Soil suit-
ability rating is based on the morphological, physical, and chemical properties
of the soils surveyed.

For multi-disciplinary land evaluation of which soil survey is only a com-

ponent, land suitability rating is conducted. Climatic and socio-economic data
are considered in addition to soil data. In the definition of LUT, the level of
technology and the level of mechanization are part of the assumptions.

It is important for the project proponents to clarify with the clients the
type of soil survey data interpretation desired. There are other methods of soil
survey data interpretation besides suitability rating. One example is Soil Pro-
ductivity Capability Classification developed during the JICA Phase II Technical
Cooperation Project (1995—2000). It is a quantitative rating and can be auto-
mated using program developed during JICA-EPMMA Project (2000-2004).

106
7.0 Reporting

This section covers what a basic soil survey report should contain:

7.1 Introduction

The introduction generally contains a brief description of the study

area, the purpose and scope of the soil survey. A location map is a
must.

7.2 The soils of the study area

Generally, the soils are enumerated under four headings, based on

agro-ecological zones: (a) lowland soils; (b) upland and hillyland
soils; (c) mountain soils; and (d) miscellaneous land types.

Each of the soils are described as follows: (a) the central soil con-
cept (b) Typifying Pedon with morphological characteristics and
laboratory analyses; (c ) Location of the Typifying Pedon; (e) simi-
lar soils and their differentiae; (d) Soil mapping units, underlined.

The soil map

Summary table specifying the soils, soil mapping unit symbols, and
area or extent of each soil mapping unit.

7.3 Soil suitability classification

Definitions
Land Utilization Types
Table 1—Land Use Requirements
Land Limitations / Soil Qualities / Soil Characteristics
Table 2— Soil Qualities and Characteristics
Suitability Evaluation
Table 3—Soil Suitability Rating per LUT
Table 4—Soil Suitability Summary in Hectarage
Soil Management Recommendations per soil mapping unit and
LUT (Table 5 or paragraph format)
Suitability Maps

7.4 For land evaluation for which a soil survey report is only a compo-
nent, only 7.2 applies. The land evaluation chapter could follow the
requirements of 7.3 as a guide.

107
8. Soil Geographic Database

8.1 Map digitization

Map digitization is not part of the soil survey package which only in-
cludes maps in analog format. This should be clear to both soil survey negotia-
tors and to clients.

However, under the BSWM Rationalization Plan, the move to merge

ISRIS and Cartographic Operations Division into Soil Information Technology
and Geomatics Division renders analog maps obsolete. All map outputs from
the BSWM will have to be digital.

Soil Survey Division is proposed to be expanded into Soil Geography

Division and soil maps will just be one of its client-based output. As a long-term
strategic plan, it is important for Soil Survey Division to likewise go digital.

However, for the purpose of this manual, we will assume that outputs
are still analog maps. There is a separate charge and separate BSWM unit
(Cartography/ ISRIS) involved if the client desires map outputs to be in digital
format. The additional charges, however, includes providing the client with digi-
tal maps in shapefiles. This of course assumes that the clients have GIS facili-
ties to be able to open the digital map files. Map digitization should be included
in the Terms of Reference (TOR) or the Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) as
a specific item. This would enable Cartography/ISRIS to line up staff for the
GIS aspect of the soil survey. Any agreement for its inclusion as part of the
total soil survey service package will have to be arranged and discussed with
the respective chiefs of Cartography and ISRIS.

8.2 Integrated soil information system

ISRIS can also work out for application of an integrated soil information
system for the clients with GIS facilities but unlike provisions for digital maps
which can be included in the soil survey TOR or MOA, a separate TOR or MOA
will have to be signed for the integrated soil information system. This is be-
cause the soil information system is usable only when there are soil data to be
inputted, which will be available after soil survey.

BSWM makes available to the general public (specifically to the Local

Government Units) the Agricultural Resources Information System (ARIS)
which includes spatial and attribute database storage and retrieval (or query)
with soil productivity capability classification or suitability rating applications.
This will enable clients to develop data collection and interpretation for various
soils in their area of interest. ARIS was developed during the third phase of
technical cooperation project with JICA that combines and upgrades (from
mainframe to window-based) the Soil Information System, Land Resources In-
formation System, and the Water Resources Information System developed
under Phases I and II of the technical cooperation. The ARIS can be tailor-fit to

108
the needs of the LGU. The client provides the hardware while ISRIS provides
the software and the maintenance of the software.

9. Other services from BSWM

In concluding arrangements with LGU’s and others who are inter-

ested with soil survey, it may be worthwhile to mention the other soil survey-
related services offered by BSWM:

9.1 Fertility Mapping, Land Use Mapping

Fertility mapping done by Soil Survey Staff is based on profile sampling,

not composite sampling of topsoil. By considering the more stable subsoil, the
laboratory results are presented as weighted mean and the output map is reli-
able as a fertility benchmark data for decades. The soil classification is also
validated.

Land use mapping is an activity of Agricultural Land Management and

Evaluation Division (ALMED).

9.2 SAFDZ Integration to CLUP — Updating

BSWM assists in the updating of the Strategic Agricultural and Fisheries

Development Zones (SAFDZ) in the Comprehensive Land Use Plan (CLUP) of
the Local Government Units (LGUs), required under the Agricultural and Fisher-
ies Modernization Act (AFMA). Soil survey is one of the components in this
updating project. This is a multi-disciplinary activity that involves land re-
sources inventory—land management units, soils, climate and water resources,
agro-socio-economics, soil fertility, suitability evaluations, and proposed agricul-
tural development plans. This is spearheaded by ALMED.

9.3 Relief Model

Soil map clients usually desire not only digital and analog map outputs
but also a relief model of their area. This activity is undertaken by staff of the
Cartographic Operations Division.

9.4 Topographic survey (farm-level)

For soil conservation activities, the topographic map is indispensable for

preparations of farm plan. Topographic mapping services are provided by the
Soil Conservation Division.

9.5 Laboratory analyses of soil, water, and plant tissue samples

The analysis of soil samples are usually part of the soil survey package
and included in the TOR or MOA. Soil Survey Division makes the arrange-
109
ments with the Laboratory Services Division for the analyses of the soil sam-
ples.

Samples outside of the soil survey package can be also be analyzed at

the BSWM laboratories. Unlike survey expenses which are computed on per
hectare and detail of survey basis, the cost of laboratory analysis per sample
per element is fixed and the rate is available in the BSWM homepage. The
cost is subsidized; and the charges are made because these outside soil sam-
ples are normally not included in the Laboratory’s Work Program. Proponents
usually bring the samples to the Soil Sampling Reception Room at the base-
ment and make arrangements themselves with the Laboratory staff for the type
of analysis desired. Note that under Republic Act 9485 also known as the Anti-
Red Tape Act of 2007, BSWM will be establishing a Client Center to serve as
one-stop-shop. Proponents will have to make arrangements with the Client
Center staff for assistance on where to bring soil samples for analysis.

Please note that water samples are analyzed for their irrigation qualities
and not for potability. The BSWM laboratories can also analyze plant tissue
samples. The Laboratory has no capability for heavy metal analysis. Minera-
logical as well as aggregate analyses which are special types of laboratory
analyses are done at the Research Division and will have to be arranged sepa-
rately.

9.6 Charges and fees

BSWM is a national soil resource agency under the Department of Agri-

culture and its map outputs are of scale from 1:250,000 (regional) to 1:50,000
(provincial-municipal). This is good for long-term to medium-term development
planning at municipal level. To be able to serve as many LGU’s with its limited
budgetary resources, soil survey activities are undertaken on counterpart fund-
ing scheme. Usually, the per diems of the technical staff and the survey move-
ment within the project area (provisions for vehicle and fuel) are shouldered by
the LGU as well as part of the materials and supplies and the laboratory costs.
The TOR or MOA will spell out the counterpart fund of the participating agen-
cies in the survey project.

Map outputs higher than 1:50,000 which is usually farm-level are con-
sidered Special Soil Investigations. This is borderline of BSWM mandate and
not included in the Work and Financial Plan under the General Appropriations
Act for which no budget is allocated by the national government. The propo-
nent shoulders all the survey costs. BSWM, however, will allow the staff to un-
dertake the soil survey on official time because Special Soil Investigations are
considered incremental activities and reported as part of its accomplishment.
The possible exception for proponent to shoulder all costs is when another gov-
ernment (non-income generating) agency is the requisitioning party (e.g: soil
survey of a government agricultural research station). In this case, a TOR or
MOA can be drawn similar to the LGUs for which BSWM can allocate a coun-
terpart fund.

110
 LITERATURE CITED

Barrera, Alfredo. 1961. Handbook of Soil Surveys for the Philippines. Bureau
of Soils and Water Management, Department of Agriculture and Natural Re-
sources, Manila.

Buol, Stanley Walter, Francis D. Hole, and Ralph. J. McCracken. 1973. Soil
Genesis and Classification. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Castaneda, Virgilio and Tadao Hamazaki. 1996. Description Manual for Low-
land Soils. SRDC Technical Information Series No. 1, Soils Research and
Development Center, Elliptical Road, Diliman, Quezon City.

Environmental Systems Research Institute. 1992. ArcInfo Starter Kit. ESRI,

380 New York St., Redlands, CA, USA 92373

Environmental Systems Research Institute. 1996. Using ArcView GIS. ESRI,

380 New York St., Redlands, CA, USA 92373

Environmental Systems Research Institute. http://webhelp.esri.com/

arcgisdesktop/9.2/index.cfm?TopicName=Basics_of_making_maps

FAO. 1977. Guidelines for Soil Profile Description. Rome

FAO. 1985. (definition of land)

GJP (Group of Japanese Pedologists). 1984. Soil Survey Handbook (in Japa-
nese), Hakuyusha, Tokyo.

Guinto, Danilo. 1990. Code Book for the Soil Information System. Soil Survey
Division, Bureau of Soils and Water Management, Elliptical Road, Diliman,
Quezon City (unpublished)

Hundley, Stephen J. 1993. Establishing Soil Series. Monograph presented

during the Third International Forum on Soil Taxonomy and Sustainable
Land Management, Diliman, Quezon City.

Natural Resources Conservation Service. Part 620—Soil Interpretations Rating

Guide. http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/contents/part620.html

Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2003. Keys to Soil Taxonomy.

Ninth Edition. United States Department of Agriculture.

PCARRD. 1988. Soil Taxonomy: Key to Effective Land Use: Proceedings of

the 14th International Forum on Soil Taxonomy and Agro-technology Trans-
fer. June 16—27, 1986. Book Series No. 51. Los Banos, Laguna.

111
Rossiter, D. G. 2000. Lecture Notes and Reference: Methodology for Soil Re-
source Inventories, Second Revised Version. Soil Science Division. Inter-
national Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC). http://
www.itc.nl/~rossiter/teach/ssm/SSM_LectureNotes2.pdf

Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A., Benham, E.C., and Broderson, W.D.

(editors), 2002. Field book for describing and sampling soils. Version 2.0.
Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lin-
coln, NE, USA.

Soil Conservation Service. 1980. National Soils Handbook Notice No. 63.
United States Department of Agriculture. Washington D.C.

Soil Conservation Service. NSSH Part 609: Quality Control, Quality Assur-
ance, and Soil Correlation. United States Department of Agriculture.
Washington D.C. http://soils.usda.gov/technical/handbook/contents/
part609.html

Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy and Agricultural Handbook No. 436.
USDA-SCS, US Government Printing Office, Washington D.C.

Von Post, L. 1937. The Geographical Society of Irish Bogs. Ir. Nat.J., 6:210-
227

112
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The original intent of this publication is to come up with a documentary
manual on current soil survey standards and practices of the Soil Survey
Division. This is in view of dearth of soil survey practitioners and the coming in
of new blood who have little experiences on soil survey work. However, we do
recognize that we are a part of a continually evolving body of science; for
which some of our practices may be considered obsolete by international
scientific standards.

Since BSWM adopts the US Department of Agriculture soil survey

practices and soil classification at higher levels (Soil Taxonomy), it is therefore
incumbent upon the local soil surveyors to consider the changes and
modifications introduced in their latest Soil Survey Manual. We are grateful to
Dr. William F. Effland for the free copy of the Field Book for Describing and
Sampling Soils, Version 2 which we have quoted extensively in this manual for
adoption by local soil surveyors.

We have also quoted extensively from the BSWM Soil Information

System manual, the original (and yet to be updated) by Dr. Danilo Guinto,
undertaken as part of the BSWM-JICA Technical Cooperation Phase I and in
collaboration with then JICA Expert Dr. Soichi Tokudome way back in the early
1990s. During Phase II, Mr. Virgilio Castaneda of Soil Survey Division and Dr.
Tadao Hamazaki worked together to come up with a manual for field
description of paddy soils. All these developments in the local soil survey
scene in the 1990s have been incorporated in this Manual.

The GIS component of this manual is rather tricky since many soil
surveyors are not computer literate and we are dealing with advance mapping
tool which is not even taught in regular computer schools but as advance
courses in universities offering natural resource management courses. GIS
develops by leaps and bounds and as we publish this manual, ArcGIS 9.3.1 is
already available in the market to think that we have just upgraded to ArcGIS
9.2. Our objective in the GIS part of the manual is to introduce GIS concepts
to the surveyors, not to enumerate step by step activities. Surveyors should
refer to the ESRI manuals and webpages if they want to go through self-study
on GIS. To be able introduce basic GIS concepts, we have to go back to the
manual of ArcInfo, to get the definitions, but it gets nowhere unless the digital
data are eventually retrieved and manipulated; and so we have to introduce
also basic concepts from ArcView. We acknowledge the significant
contributions of ESRI in the development of GIS as a body of knowledge.

Finally we like to thank the Bureau of Soils and Water Management

staff for their significant inputs in the manuscript, a workshop was conducted
for this purpose. We thank also the management lead by Director Silvino Q.
Tejada for continuing support to develop and promote soil survey.

113