ESTIMATION OF SUSPENDED SEDIMENT IN GIDAN-KWANU WATERSHED AREA,

NIGER STATE.

MUTALUBI MUYIDEEN ISHOLA

2016/1/59322EA

BEING FINAL YEAR PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) DEGREE IN AGRICULTURAL AND

BIORESOURCES ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,

MINNA NIGER STATE.

MAY, 2023
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project “Estimation of Suspended Sediment in Gidan Kwano area Minna, Niger State.”

carried out by MUTALUBI Muyideen Ishola (2016/1/59322EA) meets the regulations governing the Award of the

Degree of Bachelor (B.Eng.) of the Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State. And it is approved for its

contribution to scientific knowledge and literary presentation.

________________________ _____________________

Engr. Prof. J. J. Musa

Supervisor Date

_________________________ ______________________

Engr. Prof. S. M. Dauda

Head of Department Date

________________________ ______________________

External supervisor Date

 DECLARATION

I, MUTALUBI Muyideen Ishola with matriculation number 2016/1/59322EA hereby declare that this project

“estimation of suspended sediment in gidan kwano watershed area minna, niger state” presented in partial fulfilment

of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng). degree has not been presented before either

wholly or partially for any other degree elsewhere and information hereby obtained from published work of others

has been duly acknowledged.

______________________ __________________

Mutalubi Muyideen Ishola Date

 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Almighty Allah for his guidance, protection and provision throughout my academic

pursuit. I also dedicate it to my parent Mr. and Mrs. Mutalubi Mojebi for their support, prayer and advice from the

beginning of my academic journey till date. May Almighty Allah continue to bless, protect and ease all their affairs.

Amen
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I sincerely want to express my profound gratitude to Almighty Allah who has been my source of

strength, courage, wisdom, knowledge and divine health throughout my degree.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my project supervisor, Engr, Prof. J.J.Musa for his invaluable

guidance and support throughout this project. His expertise and feedback were crucial to the success of this project.

Also to the Department HOD. Engr. Prof. S. M. Dauda and the entire staff of the Department (Agricultural and Bio

Resources Engineering Department of the Federal University of Technology Minna.

I would also like to thank my fellow students for their assistance and feedback. My roommate and my ever

supportive friends.

Special thanks to my mum, Alhaja Rianatu Mojebi aunties and my brothers for their support and prayer towards the

success of completing this program.

Finally, I am grateful to the university for providing me with the resources necessary to complete my project and

also am using this moment to thank the Dankule’s family, starting from Alhaji H.L. Dankule, Alhaji I. Aloda and the

rest of the family for their support. To those I cannot mention, God knows you and he will bless you all.
 ABSTRACT

Suspended sediment is a critical component of soil erosion and water quality. This study aimed is to investigate the
impact of land use on suspended sediment in runoff from three different land management practices, i.e., bare,
cultivated, and uncultivated soil. Three plot of 1.49 square meters each were established for each land practice.
Runoff samples were collected and analyzed for suspended sediment concentration during the artificial rainfall
events. Results showed that the average suspended sediment for the uncultivated, cultivated and bare plots were
3.29, 3.69, and 5.62, respectively. The highest suspended sediment was found in the bare plots, followed by the
cultivated plot, and the lowest suspended sediment was observed in the uncultivated plot. The findings suggest that
land use management practices significantly impact the suspended sediment in runoff. This study highlights the
importance of implementing best management practices, such as conservation tillage and cover cropping, to
minimize soil erosion and improve water quality in agricultural lands.
 TABLEOFCONTENTS

Title Page i

Certification ii

Declaration iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgements v

Abstract vii

Table of contents ix

CHAPTER ONE 1

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem 5

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the study 5

1.4 Justification of the Study 5

1.5 Scope and limitation of the study 6

 CHAPTER TWO 7

2.0 Literature Review 7

2.2 Erosional Process 8

2.2.1 Erosion Process by Running Water 8

2.2.2. Sheet Wash or Surface Wash 8

2.2.3. Inter Rills and Channel Flow 9

2.2.4. Gully or Ravine Erosion 9

2.2.5 Causes of Soil Erosion 9

2.2.6 Effect of Soil Erosion 11

2.2.7 Control Measures of Soil Erosion 12

2.3 Soil Physical Properties 13

2.3.1 Soil Texture 13

2.3.2 Soil Structure 13

2.3.3 Soil Density 15

2.3.4 Soil Porosity 16

2.3.5 Soil color 17

2.4 SOME OTHER PROPERTIES 17

8
 2.4.1 Soil Cohesive Force 17

2.4.2 Soil micro organisms 18

2.5 Economic importance of soil deposition 19

2.6 Suspended Sediment Estimation 20

2.7 Transport and Deposition of Sediment 21

2.7.1 Sediment and Suspended Solids 22

2.7.2 Factors that Influence Sediment Transport 22

2.7.3 Water Flow 23

CHAPTER THREE 30

3.0 Material and Methodology 30

3.1 Study area 30

3.2 Material 31

3.2.1 Soil sample 32

3.2.2 Digital weighing balance 32

3.3 Methodology

32

9
 3.3.1 Topographical survey

32

3.3.2 Rainfall Runoff Scheme and sediment measurement 32

3.3.3 Rainfall intensity 34

3.3.4 Soil Erodibility and Runoff 34

3.3.5 Data collection 35

3.3.6 Particle Size Analysis 36

3.3.7 Soil Textural Class 37

3.3.8 Dry Bulk Density 37

3.3.9 Total Porosity 38

CHAPTER FOUR 39

4.0 Results and Discussion 39

4.1 Results 39

4.2 Discussion of Results 47

CHAPTER FIVE 50

5.0 Conclusions and recommendations 50

5.1 Conclusions 50

10
5.2 Recommendations 51

Reference 52

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

4.1. Soil textural classification 39

4.2 Geological coordinates 40

4.3 Bulk density, Particle density and porosity 41

4.4 Soil runoff/erodibility 42

4.5.1 Moisture Content for cultivated land 44

4.5.2 Moisture Content for uncultivated land 45

4.5.3 Moisture Content for bare land 45

4.6 sediment description and common quantity of sediment 46

11
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

4.1 Soil loss in kg/ha 43

4.2 Sediment description chart 47

12
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Soil is the natural material found on earth surface, consisting a mixture of mineral particles,

organic matter, water, air, and living organisms. It is the foundation for most land based

ecosystem, providing physical support, nutrients and water to plants, as well as habitat for a wide

range of soil dwelling organisms. Soil formation is a slow process, taking thousands of years,

and it is influenced by a variety of factors, including climate, topography, vegetation, and

geology (Rehman et al. 2015; Dinka 2020). Soil come in range of colors, textures, and

compositions and they play a critical role in sustaining life on earth.

Soil erosion by water is the process of soil particles detaches by rainfall and runoff water and

then being transported to small channels or rills by splashing shallow running water (Nikkami

and Ghafouri 2013). Basically, rainfall impacts on the soil surface indicate the beginning of the

erosion process. When raindrops fall, they loosen the connections that hold soil particles together

and discharge them a short distance. Water flowing over the soil surface readily picks up

loosened soil particles and carries them away. The top soil resources will be swiftly displaced

into the sea, the ocean, rivers, and streams at the current rate of soil loss caused by various agents

of erosion. Low agricultural output in Nigeria has been partially attributed to the poor soil quality

caused on by previous extensive erosion. (Musa et al., 2017). Basically, water and wind are the

13
two main causes of soil erosion, and each one causes a significant portion of loss every year

depending on how the land is used. In addition to these aspects, a cover crop reduces soil and

nutrient loss by lowering the kinetic energy of rainfall, which raises soil detachment resistance

(Bhat et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2019).

Soil degradation on farmland can result in soil erosion, sedimentation, and leaching. (Wang

et al., 2013). Preventing soil degradation involves a combination of sustainable land management

practices, such as reducing tillage, using cover crops, planting trees, applying organic fertilizers,

and promoting soil conservation practices. It is crucial to take action to prevent soil degradation,

as healthy soil is essential for food security, biodiversity, and climate change mitigation and

adaptation.

Rainfall and runoff speed up water erosion stressing the ridge capacity to store water, leading to

surface runoff and topsoil erosion on the land. There is a non-linear relationship between rainfall,

runoff, and sediment output. (Pena-Angulo et., al 2019). A variety of raindrop characteristics,

including intensity, velocity, size, and kinetic energy, are among the most often utilized metrics

to produce erosivity indexes. The topic of rainfall erosivity has been investigated extensively

throughout the world. There had been little thorough research on the types of soil erosion

treatments and their effects on studies of rainfall erosivity, despite the fact that a variety of

methods have been employed to estimate rainfall erosivity using some indexes based on rainfall

intensity.

In Nigeria, the effects of rainfall, surface runoff, and soil type have all been connected to

sediment output and soil throughout agricultural farmlands. Sediment output into rivers and
14
streams is continuously increasing as a result of climate change and human activity (Lu et al.,

2019). The effects of sediment into the water bodies include changes of hydrological cycles, the

extinction of aquatic life, and surface water pollution. (Plentovich et al. 2020; Chen et al. 2020).

Due to this, there is less available good water for drinking and agricultural activities, as a result

of accumulation of sediments in reservoir (Daramola et al., 2019).

The primary factor affecting a lake volume and sediment inflow is discharge from basins that

enters the lake. An essential component in describing the quality of lake water is the

concentration of suspended sediments. In a reservoir, sediments generate problems that affect the

physical and chemical properties of water (Alemayehu et al., 2014). Physically, sediments

decrease the reservoir usable life and degrade the area visual appeal, pollutants and suspended

solids that block light from passing through the water column and have an impact on the entire

aquatic ecosystem (L. Cui et al. 2013; F. A. Zimale et al. 2018). Chemically increases the

toxicity, reducing the oxygen level needed by aquatic habitants in the water (Alemayehu et al.,

2014).

It is typical measure to estimate the sediment loads within a stream since suspended sediment

makes up the majority of the overall amount of sediment transported downstream and is simpler

to monitor than other components. The turbulence-induced current must have an upward velocity

larger than the settling velocity of the particles in order to remain suspended in the water column.

The size and density of the particles mainly determine this settling velocity. Wash material refers

to the finer portion of the sediment carried in the water column. (S. Ouellet-Proulx et., al 2016)

15
Sediment smaller than 63 m (clay and silt) that is transported by the flow over long distances is

frequently referred to as wash material.

The other component of suspended sediment is bed material, which represents the coarser

portion of the material that can be delivered in suspension in the water column. Through bedload

procedures such as rolling, sliding, and saltation, some of the bed material is moved downstream.

The hydraulic characteristics of the river, flow, and sediment morphology all affect how the bed

material is deposited. Most analyses do not take into account bedload and dissolved solids, and

the present study will not quantify them. Through turbidity monitoring, wash material and bed

material were simultaneously measured and therefore were not separated. Therefore, we refer to

all solid material that is transported in suspension in the water column as suspended sediment.

According to Onderka et al. (2013), there are three factors that influence the amount of

suspended sediment in a system: hydrological, meteorological, and physiographic. While

meteorological and hydrological variables, such as rain, snowmelt, and wind, are widely

available and simple to analyze, some physiographic elements, such as land use and soil

characteristics, are more difficult to incorporate into short-term (i.e. daily or sub-daily time steps)

predictive models. Although processes related to the transportation of suspended sediment have

been studied for a long time, it is still unclear how these processes affect forecasting suspended

sediment concentrations over a short time period (sub-daily).

In environmental and water resources engineering, accurate modeling of the suspended sediment

displayed by rivers is crucial because it has a direct impact on the environment, organization, and

management of water resources. Furthermore, it is essential to model suspended sediment

16
because it significantly affects the operation of dams and reservoirs as well as the water quality

and transport of substances (S.Q. Salih et., al 2020). However, estimating suspended sediment is

a difficult task for hydrologists because of its complex and nonlinear interactions with

geomorphological catchment characteristics and streamflow. It is a complex process that depends

on hydrological and meteorological elements to transport suspended material in rivers (V.

Nourani et., al. 2019).

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

In certain places, soil is lost, while in other places, soil is deposited as a result of soil erosion.

Soil is lost from the area where it is generated and eroded by wind, ice, gravity, or water. Due to

erosion, the upper soil layer is productive, inland soil is lost and other water bodies get sediment.

The increase in human activities has caused an increase in sediment runoff into waterways,

which can have detrimental effects on water quality.

The need to investigate suspended sediment levels and determine the most effective management

practices to reduce sediment runoff. Identifying and estimating the amount of suspended

sediments is the cause of this project work and providing vital and supportive information.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of land use on suspended sediment in runoff

from three different land management practice of Gidan Kwano area Minna, Niger State.

17
Some specific objectives are:

I. To determine the application rate.

II. To determine the amount of soil loss.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Suspended sediment can affect water quality by decreasing light penetration and increasing water

temperature. It can also carry nutrients and pollutants that can degrade water quality life.

Therefore, understanding how different land management practices affect suspended sediment

loads can help us better management and protect our water resources. Suspended sediment is

often a result of soil erosion caused by land management practices. Soil erosion can lead to

reduced soil productivity, increased runoff, and decreased nutrient availability. Understanding

the factors that contribute to soil erosion and suspended sediment loads can help us develop more

sustainable land management practices

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The research is limited in locations where sediment information is needed. The location is Gidan

Kwano and it is situated along Minna Bida Road at Kilometer 10. These locations have generally

located at 9ᴼ 32’13” N6ᴼ 26’38” E, 9ᴼ32’13.1"N6ᴼ26’38.0” E, 9ᴼ 32’12.9” N6ᴼ 26’47.0” E.

Nevertheless, estimations of sediment can be determined from measurements of hillslope and

channel erosion within the basin or analysis of erosion condition. An estimation of the sediment

can be made using certain drainage basin variables, such as the average slope of the basin.

18
 CHAPTER TWO

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

All landforms are impacted by the naturally occurring process of soil erosion. In agriculture, soil

erosion is the process of a field topsoil being worn away by the physical forces of water or by

pressures carried on by farming practices like tillage. Man depends on soil as a natural resource

to survive. Man life as a part of the earth population depends on the soil, which he uses to

cultivate his food and serves as the basis of all material possessions (Adegboyega, 2014).

Land degradation results in erosion whenever the original land changed in a way that lowers its

productivity and worth. Land can degrade in many different ways, including by wind, water,

overgrazing, dry land, salt, soil acidity, irrigation, and water logging. It may occur when natural

vegetation is cleared for pasture instead of being left alone, the soil structure deteriorates, or it

can be caused by salinity and acidification. After the land has been cleared of all vegetation, the

soil is exposed to the elements, becoming bare and loosening the soil particles. This causes the

soil to be readily blown away, leaving behind subsoil of lower quality, which is an issue for the

entire country. The gradual disappearance of soil caused by various denudation circumstances is

a common feature of geologic erosion. (Jibrin Ahmadu et al. 2019). Where man has tampered

with the environment, particularly by the removal of vegetation cover, soil erosion is accelerated.
19
Three basic processes—soil detachment, movement, and deposition—are involved in all types of

erosion, whether caused by water, wind, or tillage. Topsoil is moved elsewhere "on-site" where it

accumulates over time or is transported "off-site" where it fills in drainage channels. It is rich in

organic matter, fertility, and soil life.

A major loss of topsoil can result from soil erosion, which can be an easy process that goes on

largely unnoticed or one that happens rapidly. The importance of surveying and geo informatics

in reducing the threat to our land and the practice of soil conservation cannot be understated

(Olorunlana, 2014). Other severe soil degradation issues that can hasten the soil erosion process

include soil compaction, low organic matter, loss of soil structure, poor internal drainage,

salinization, and issues with soil acidity.

2.2 Erosional Process

Erosion is the movement of solid materials (soils, mud, rock, and particles) downward or down a

slope in reaction to gravity, or by living creatures (in the case of bio erosion). Wikipedia (2019).

Weathering, which is defined as "the breakdown of rock and particles through processes where

no movement is involved, although the two processes may be concurrent," is distinguished from

erosion.

2.2.1 Erosion Process by Moving Water

Water erosion is caused by the power of moving water and strong rainfall, including flash floods,

where unexpected rainfall might happen many distant as the river sweeps down, carrying

20
everything in its path. They destroy bridges, buildings, and vital topsoil while uprooting trees,

moving boulders, and demolishing structures.

2.2.2 Sheet Erosion

Sheet erosion is a dynamic phenomenon that happens when rainwater separates soil from the

earth's surface and then transports it over land. Erosion is the removal of thin layers or sheets of

dirt from a sloped ground. He described this sort of erosion as being relatively undetectable

because the overall amount removed during any storm is typically modest, but if left unchecked,

the cumulative effect can be extremely destructive. (Jibrin Ahmadu et al. 2019)

2.2.3 Inter Rills and Channel Flow

When there is a concentration of overland flow, rill erosion refers to the removal of soil by water

from small but clearly defined channels or streamlets. Normal tillage procedures may easily

eliminate rill erosion because it is so little. In addition to other characteristics like rainfall

intensity and duration and texture, to name a few, slope also boosts runoff velocity. These effects

combine to generate inter-rill.

2.2.4 Gully Erosion

Relatively huge gullies form when the rills' water volume increases. If there is a lot of water flow

and some cutting and abrasion, gully erosion will happen. Rill erosion then transforms into gully

erosion as it continues to progress downward on the slope in advantageous spots where smaller

channels or rills connect to form larger channels with greater discharge.

21
2.2.5 Causes of Soil Erosion

Either natural or human factors cause soil erosion, although the intimate interaction of the two

causes occurs more frequently. Excessive land usage for agriculture has speed up the loss of

organic matter, making the soil more vulnerable to wind and water erosion. This accelerated

erosion caused a loss of soil fertility. Numerous variables affect erosion rate, including

i. precipitation amount and severity

ii. soil texture

iii. The slope's grade

iv. Vegetation-covered ground.

v. Rocks

vi Land usage

vii. The potential for erosion due to stream speed.

There are numerous causes of soil erosion, but rainfall and wind temperature have the biggest

effects on erosion rate. The eradication of vegetation is the main contributor to erosion. The

causes of soil erosion in Nigeria have been linked to the country's growing population, which

puts more strain on the land and makes the issue of soil erosion more urgent. The reason is that

many areas of Nigeria experience heavy rainfall, which undoubtedly increased the incidence of

soil erosion. The average annual rainfall in many of southern Nigeria's erosion-prone locations is

about 200 mm, with the rainy season lasting roughly eight months. Regular, powerful storms that
22
fall on exposed soil surfaces have been observed to add to the destructive power of other climatic

factors. This causes excessive soil horizon leaching, which is followed by the complete removal

of topsoil through sheet and gully erosion.

The removal of vegetation for road construction exposes the bare surface to denudational agents

like rainfall, which causes soil erosion. The length and degree of the slope are also to blame

because soil erosion is more pronounced on steep slopes, which results in an excessive loss of

productive soil materials.

2.2.6 Effect of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion has profound effects on the physical processes of infiltration surface runoff and

water holding capacity of soils. It also affects farming and farming practices, e.g. spray

irrigation, drainage, fertilizers and feed. Studies conducted on soil erosion have shown that it is

accompanied by serious environmental consequences. It was observed that all forms of land

degradation by soil erosion leading to food shortages which may have adverse effects on the

populace. It was argued that to a considerable extent, the loss of soil from cultivated land as a

result of soil erosion contributed to the decline in agricultural production in Nigeria. Soil erosion

result not only in the physical removal of surface soil, but also in losses of organic matter and

nitrogen components.

In addition to nutrients losses, the moisture retention characteristics, infiltration rate are

significantly affected. Soil erosion has become a serious danger to both life and property and has

led to loss of several homes and household properties as well as cultivated crops (Gruver, J. B.

2013) and also stated that the declining stage of forest wealth and heritage in Nigeria constitute a
23
threat to soil fertility, agricultural productivity and quality of life in general. He added that soil

erosion has led to the progressive deterioration of productive farmland, resulting in declining

farm incomes according to him, the problem has caused discouragement, farm abandonment,

debt and bankruptcies in some of the severely affected countries. Erosion is soil’s worst enemy

for many reasons such as:

i. It strips the soil of the nutrients rich in topsoil

ii. It removes vegetation from places where it’s already established

iii. It clogs surface water strangling aquatic habitat

iv. It can leave mud on the road

v. It also displaces sediment to unwanted areas.

2.2.7 Control Measures of Soil Erosion

The key to stopping erosion is to anchor moving across it. The best way to hold soil in place is to

plant vegetation in the soil, establishing a ground cover which has many benefits besides

controlling erosion grass shrubs and trees are all effective ground covers. Reliable and proven

soil conservation technique include ridge planting, inter-cropping, cover crops residues and

mulching, wind breaks, rain harvesting, strip cropping, terracing and contour farming. These can

be grouped as vegetative, agronomic and mechanical measures.

a. Ridge Planting: Reduces the need for frequent tillage and also leaves vegetative cover on the

soil surface year-round (FAO. 2019).

24
b. Intercropping: To prevent a lot of bare ground from being exposed, various crop varieties with

varied maturation times may occasionally be planted together. For instance, in Northern Nigeria,

between rows of millet, maize, or guinea corn, groundnut or beans may occasionally be planted

because beans can restore the fertility and structure of the soil.

c. The greatest technique to prevent erosion is to keep the land covered; this strategy has the

major benefit of guarding against erosion caused by both wind and rain. It reduces the amount of

soil particles that are washed away by rain and other natural forces, slows water flow across the

soil, reduces the acidic effect that soil movement has on the soil in the yard, and provides a

buffer that serves as a filter, reducing the movement of sediment and other materials such as

pesticides and fertilizers. The addition of organic matter, aesthetic value, and wildlife benefit are

all advantages.

2.3 Soil Physical Properties

Soil is a complex mixture of minerals, organic matter, air, water, and living organisms. Soil

physical properties also affect the species natural distribution, growth, and forest biomass

production (Abdulkadir 2018). It can also be defined as those properties that describe the

physical characteristics of soil, such as texture, structure, density, porosity, and color. Here are

some key physical properties of soil.

2.3.1 Soil Texture

Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay particles that make up a soil.

The texture of a soil has a major influence on its physical and chemical properties, which in turn

25
affect plant growth and soil processes. Soil texture is classified using the USDA Soil Texture,

which uses the percentage of sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample to determine its texture class,

this classification system is widely used in agriculture, environmental science, and soil science.

Considering the textural class and the associated physical properties of the soils in to

experimental sites, the soil are found in similar range particularly in relation to water holding

capacity (Acharya et., al 2014). The texture of soil can also be measured directly using particle

size analysis techniques, such as hydrometer or laser diffraction methods

2.3.2 Soil Structure

Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles into larger aggregates or peds. These

aggregates can range in size from individual sand, silt, and clay particles to larger clumps or

crumbs that are visible to the naked eye. Soil structure is an important physical property of soil,

as it influences soil porosity, permeability, water-holding capacity, and nutrient availability. The

structure of soil is influenced by a variety of factors, including the type and amount of soil

particles, the amount and type of organic matter, the presence of soil organisms, and

management practices such as tillage and compaction (Franzluebbers et., al 2014). Soil structure

can be improved through practices that promote soil health and reduce soil disturbance, such as

minimizing tillage, adding organic matter, and using cover crops. There are several different

types of soil structure, including:

Granular structure: This type of structure consists of small, rounded aggregates that are loosely

packed together. Granular structure is common in soils with high levels of organic matter and is

desirable for promoting root growth and water infiltration.

26
Blocky structure: Blocky structure consists of aggregates that are blocky or angular in shape,

with relatively flat surfaces. This type of structure is common in soils with high clay content and

can limit water infiltration and root growth if it is too dense.

Prismatic structure: Prismatic structure consists of vertical columns or prisms that are separated

by distinct cracks or fissures. This type of structure is common in soils with a high clay content

and can limit water movement and root growth if the columns are too close together.

Platy structure: Platy structure consists of thin, flat plates or layers that are oriented horizontally.

This type of structure is common in soils that have been compacted or are subject to traffic and

can limit root growth and water infiltration.

Soil structure is an important aspect of soil health and can be managed through a variety of soil

management practices. Understanding the structure of soil can help farmers and land managers

make informed decisions about how to manage their soils for optimal productivity and

sustainability.

2.3.3 Soil Density

Soil density is a physical property of soil that refers to the mass of soil per unit volume. It is

typically measured in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft³). Soil

density is influenced by a variety of factors, including the type and amount of soil particles, the

degree of compaction, and the amount of organic matter present.

Soil density can affect soil function and productivity in several ways. It can influence root

growth and plant development, affect water infiltration and retention, and impact the movement
27
of air, nutrients, and microorganisms through the soil (Terry J. et., al). Soils with high density

may be more prone to compaction, which can further reduce soil porosity and limit root growth

and water infiltration.

The bulk density of soil refers to the density of the soil and its pore spaces. It is measured by

taking a soil sample and determining its dry weight and volume, and can be used to estimate soil

porosity and compaction. The particle density of soil refers to the density of the solid mineral

particles that make up the soil. It is typically higher than the bulk density, as it does not take into

account the pore space between particles.

Soil density can be managed through a variety of soil management practices, such as reducing

tillage and compaction, increasing soil organic matter, and improving soil structure. These

practices can improve soil porosity and water infiltration, and promote healthy root growth and

plant development.

2.3.4 Soil Porosity

porosity is a physical property of soil that refers to the amount of pore space within the soil. It is

defined as the volume of pore space in a soil sample divided by the total volume of the soil

sample, expressed as a percentage. Pores are the spaces between soil particles that are not

occupied by solid material, and can be filled with air or water.

Soil porosity plays an important role in soil function and productivity. It affects the movement of

air, water, and nutrients through the soil, and is a key factor in determining soil structure and

28
texture. Soils with high porosity have more pore space and are generally better aerated, more

permeable to water, and more conducive to plant root growth.

Porosity can be affected by a number of factors, including soil texture, structure, and compaction

(Acharya et., al 2014). Soil texture refers to the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay

particles in the soil. Soils with a high proportion of clay particles generally have a lower porosity

than soils with more sand or silt. Soil structure refers to the way soil particles are arranged into

aggregates or peds, and can affect porosity by creating larger or smaller pore spaces. Soil

compaction, which can be caused by heavy equipment, foot traffic, or livestock, can reduce

porosity by compressing soil particles and closing off pore space.

The optimal porosity for a particular soil depends on its intended use. Soils used for agriculture,

for example, generally need to have a balance of pore space that allows for adequate water

retention and air exchange, while also promoting healthy plant growth.

2.3.5 Soil color

Soil color is a physical property of soil that refers to the hue or shade of the soil. It can range

from almost black to white, with various shades of brown, red, yellow, and gray in between. Soil

color is determined by a variety of factors, including the amount and type of organic matter, the

mineral composition, and the degree of oxidation and weathering.

The color of soil can provide important information about its physical and chemical properties,

including fertility, drainage, water-holding capacity, and the presence of minerals or

contaminants. For example, soils that are dark in color often contain high levels of organic

29
matter and are more fertile than lighter soils. Red and yellow soils may indicate the presence of

iron oxides, while gray soils may indicate poor drainage or low oxygen levels (Abbey W. et., al

2017). Soil color is typically described using the Munsell color system, which classifies soil

color based on three attributes: hue (the color), value (the lightness or darkness of the color), and

chroma (the intensity or strength of the color). This system allows for standardized and precise

descriptions of soil color, which can be useful for comparing and analyzing soils from different

locations.

2.4 SOME OTHER PROPERTIES

2.4.1 Soil Cohesive Force

Soil cohesive force refers to the attractive forces that exist between soil particles of the same

type, such as between clay particles or between silt particles. These forces arise due to the

presence of electrostatic changes on the surface of the soil particles, which cause them to stick

together.

The strength of the cohesive forces in a soil depends on a number of factors including the

particle size distribution, the surface area of the particles, the mineral composition of the soil,

and the presence of organic matter (Franzluebbers et., al 2020). Cohesive force can play an

important role in soil mechanics, as they affect the ability of a soil to resist deformation and

support applied loads.

30
Cohesive force can also influence other soil properties and processes, such as water retention and

movement, nutrient availability, and soil erosion. Understanding the cohesive forces in a soil is

therefore important for a range of applications, including agriculture, construction, and

environmental management.

2.4.2 Soil micro organisms

Soil microorganisms are living organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye and

that inhabit the soil. They include bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses, among others.

Soil microorganisms play a vital role in soil health, nutrient cycling, and plant growth.

Bacteria and fungi are the most abundant and diverse groups of soil microorganisms they are

involved in breaking down organic matter in the soil and releasing nutrients for plant uptake

(John H. et., al 2017). They also play a role in maintaining soil structure, water-holding capacity,

and disease suppression.

Protozoa and nematodes are also important soil microorganisms that help to regulate the

populations of other soil organisms and contribute to nutrient cycling. Algae and photosynthetic

bacteria contribute to soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and producing organic matter

through photosynthesis.

Soil microorganisms are affected by a range of environmental factors, including soil moisture,

temperature, pH, nutrient availability, and the presence of other microorganisms. Soil

management practices such as tillage, crop rotation, and organic matter addition can also impact

soil microorganisms. Understanding the diversity and function of soil microorganisms is

31
important for maintaining soil health and fertility, and for promoting sustainable agriculture and

ecosystem functioning

2.5 Economic importance of soil deposition

Soil deposition refers to the process of sedimentation where soil particles are deposited in a

specific location. It can occur naturally through processes such as erosion and sediment transport

by water, wind, or glaciers, or through human activities such as land use changes, construction,

and mining. Soil deposition has several economic benefits, including

I. Agriculture: Soil deposition can improve soil fertility and increase crop yields, leading to

increased food production and economic growth. Sediments deposited by rivers or floods

can contribute to the development of fertile floodplains, which are ideal for agricultural

activities.

II. Infrastructure: Soil deposition can also be beneficial for the construction of infrastructure

such as roads, bridges, and buildings. It can provide a stable foundation for construction,

and the deposited sediments can be used as construction materials such as gravel, sand,

and clay.

III. Erosion control: Soil deposition can help to control erosion by stabilizing slopes,

reducing sediment runoff, and preventing soil loss. This can reduce the costs of erosion

control measures and protect valuable resources such as farmland and infrastructure.

IV. Recreation: Soil deposition can also create new recreational opportunities such as the

formation of beaches and the development of wetlands. This can generate economic

benefits through tourism and outdoor recreation.

32
 Overall, soil deposition plays an essential role in maintaining healthy ecosystems,

supporting agriculture, and promoting economic development.

2.6 SUSPENDED SEDIMENT ESTIMATION

In addition to reducing light penetration using a water column, suspended particles, nutrients,

and pollutants are transported by water, which has an impact on the entire aquatic ecosystem

(Zhang, C. et al., 2022). The process of using traditional techniques to monitor a lake's water

quality primarily entails collecting and analyzing water samples in a laboratory. These traditional

techniques are more accurate, but they only use a small number of water samples over a long

period of time, so they might not be a good representation of the lake's overall water quality.

They are time-consuming, expensive, and have limited spatial and temporal coverage (Antoine,

G. et al., 2020). This study develops site-specific connections for mapping Secchi disc depth,

suspended sediment concentration (SSC), and turbidity on Lake Tana. The relationship

developed for SSC is used to generate a ten-year time series of SSC for Lake Tana.

Monitoring optically active substances, such as suspended sediments or particles in a waterbody,

is now possible because to the advent of remote sensing technology. Recent studies have shown

that the distribution of suspended matter in inland waters can be mapped using a variety of

satellite remote sensing data, including that from the Landsat TM, Landsat ETM+, and Landsat-

8, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), the Medium Resolution

Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS), the Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR),

the Sea Viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor (SeaWiFS Earlier research has suggested the

Landsat-7 ETM+ and Landsat-8 bands as a spectral self-phase modulation (SPM), turbidity, and
33
Secchi disc depth (SDD) indicator for Lake Tana (Juez, C. et., Al 2019), But for the investigation

of dynamic changes in sediment, its limitation on temporal resolution is insufficient. Particularly

at the Gumara river inlet of Lake Tana (Kaba et al. 2017) employed Terra-MODIS to explore the

association between water quality metrics and Terra-MODIS derived re-flectance. However, this

study examines the association with water quality measures using Terra-MODIS-derived

reflectance data throughout the entire lake region.

2.7 Transport and Deposition of Sediment

Sediment is a collection of biological and inorganic debris that can be swept away by water,

wind, or ice. Although the term is frequently used to refer to soil-based, mineral material (such

as clay, silt, and sand), sediment also includes organic substances that are degrading and

inorganic biogenic material. While organic silt often consists of debris and decaying matter like

algae, mineral sediment is typically the result of weathering and erosion. However, as they are

transported downstream during a flood or other strong flow event, even huge rocks can be

categorized as silt (Perlman, H. (2014). In many bodies of water, sediment is a naturally

occurring element, albeit it is subject to anthropogenic influences.

2.7.1 Sediment and Suspended Solids

In the Air almost all bodies of water include fine silt, which the water flow carries with it. The

term "suspended" refers to sediment that is floating in the water column. Both "suspended

sediment" and "suspended solids" are interchangeable in this context. The measurement

technique is the primary distinction between the two.

34
Although the data produced by the various measuring methods have similar meanings, they

cannot be used interchangeably or compared. Filtering and drying a complete water sample

yields the suspended sediment concentration (SSC), which is expressed in mg/L. Subsampling is

used to get total suspended solids (TSS), which are also expressed in mg/L. The TSS test

frequently disregards bigger suspended particles, such as sand, despite being appropriate for

homogenized or well-mixed samples with very small sediment. As a result, the SSC

measurement is frequently within 5% of the genuine particle concentration and is typically

higher and more accurate for a water body as a whole. The U.S. Geological Survey advises SSC

analysis over TSS when sampling surface water due to the incomparability between suspended

sediment measurements and total suspended solids measurements (www.Fondriest.com).

2.7.2 Factors that Influence Sediment Transport

Transport of sediment is not steady. In reality it is always susceptible to undergo change.

Sediment movement can be affected by a variety of external factors in addition to the variations

in sediment load carried on by geology, geomorphology, and organic components. Changes in

water flow, water level, meteorological events, and human impact can all affect sediment

migration.

2.7.3 Water Flow

The particle size and water flow rate determine whether sediment will be eroded, transported, or

deposited.

35
The most crucial component of sediment movement is water flow, commonly referred to as

water discharge. Sediment is taken up, moved, and dumped in a river by the flow of water.

Sediment cannot move downstream even if it settles out or stays in suspension. To start the

transfer, flow is needed. There are basically two methods for calculating flow. Water discharge

can be expressed more simply as a volume of water carried over time or as an area (a cross-

section of the river) multiplied by velocity.

Flow (ft3/s) =Area (ft2) * Velocity (ft/s) (2.1)

or Flow (ft3/s) =Volume (ft3)/ Time (s)

The equations explaining the interaction between sediment movement and water flow are a little

more complicated. Multiple factors operating on the sediment, such as relative inertia, turbulent

eddies, and velocity changes in speed and direction, contribute to the complexity of sediment

transport rates. These forces include bed geometry, particle size, shape, and concentration.

Particularly difficult to quantify is the sediment transport rate because any measurement

technique will interrupt the flow and change the reading. Most formulae for flow rate and

sediment transport rate try to simplify the situation by neglecting factors such channel width,

shape, and curvature, sediment cohesiveness, and irregular flows. The settling rate and the

boundary layer shear stress are the two fundamental flow variables in the transport of sediment.

According to (Michael, V. et al. 2016), the drag force, which keeps a particle suspended, and the

gravitational force, which is a function of the particle size, regulate the settling rate, also known

as Stokes settling, which is the pace at which sediment descends through a liquid. Knowing this

36
relationship clarifies some of the forces sediment movement must contend with in terms of

particle size.

vs = (g * (ρp – ρf) * Dp2) / 18μ (2.2)

where,

vs = settling velocity

g = gravitational constant

ρp = particle density

ρf = fluid density

Dp = particle diameter

μ= fluid viscosity

The amount of force needed for water flow to overcome relative inertia and start transporting

sediment (via bed load or suspended load) is explained by shear stresses in the boundary layer of

a sediment bed.

τ = ρf * u*2 (2.3)

where,

τ = shear stress

ρf = fluid density

u = characteristic velocity of turbulent flow (shear velocity) (see following equations)

37
In a basic freshwater river system, u* can be calculated as:

u* = Sqrt (g * h * S) (2.4)

where,

u* = shear velocity

g = gravitational constant

h = river depth

S = river slope

This equation depends briefly in the ocean and in other more complicated water systems. The

Von Karman-Prandlt equation should be applied instead. Both the liquid's viscosity and the

sediment's roughness have an impact on the shear stress. It's also important to take into account

the turbulence that the water flow at the bottom creates. The Law of the Wall is another name for

this.

u/u* = (1/κ) * ln(z/z0) (2.5)

where,

u = averaged flow velocity

u* =shear velocity

κ = Von Karman constant (0.4)

z = roughness height above the bed

z0 = roughness height as flow velocity approaches zero

38
A fundamental understanding of some of the forces affecting the sediment in the water can be

gained from the aforementioned equations. The Shields stress equation can be used to gain a

deeper understanding of the conditions necessary for sediment transport. Shields stress and

particle Reynolds number can be used to forecast the amount of flow needed for significant

sediment transport. According to (T. Benson 2014, June), a particle's resistance to viscous force

is expressed by its Reynolds number. Alternatively stated, the Reynolds number shows whether

or not a flow is viscous enough to overcome the relative inertia of sediment. The boundary layer

shear stress equation can be used to compute the Reynolds number for sediment movement in a

sediment bed.

Rep = (u* * Dp) / ν (2.6)

where,

Rep = Reynolds number of the particle

u* = characteristic velocity of turbulent flow (shear velocity)

Dp = particle diameter

ν = kinematic viscosity (viscosity/ fluid density, (μ/ρf)

The crucial Shields stress is the point at which water flow starts to carry silt. Based on particle

size, this yields an empirical curve that roughly predicts the flow rate at which a sediment

particle would move.

τ* = τ / (g * (ρp – ρf) * Dp) (2.7)

where,

39
τ* = Shields stress

τ = shear stress

g = gravitational constant

ρp = particle density

ρf = density of fluid

Dp = particle diameter

When the flow rate can move particles of a certain size, the critical Shields stress marks the

transition from inertia to transport. (M. I. Shahzad et al. 2018), Although these equations help in

defining the minimum flow rates for the transportation of sediment, they do not independently

establish the rates at which material is loaded and transported. For the bedload movement of

particles between 0.2-2 mm, van Rijn created one sediment transport rate equation.

qb = 0.053 * [(s-1) * g]0.5 * d501.5 * [T*2.1 / D*0.3] (2.8)

where,

qb = bedload transport rate

s= specific density of sediment

g = gravitational constant

d50 = median particle diameter

T* = transport stage parameter

D* = dimensionless grain size

40
Even more difficult to understand is the suspended load transit rate (still assuming cohesion less

material and a sediment size of 0.2-2mm).

qs = u * h * ca * [ ((a/h) Z’ – (a/h)1.2) / ((1-a/h) Z’ * (1.2-Z’))] (2.9)

where,

qs= suspended load transport rate

u = average flow velocity

h = average flow depth

ca= reference concentration

a = height above the bed, relative to particle size

Z’ = suspension number

Although there are other sediment rating curves available, not all water bodies can be applied to

them equally. This is due to the fact that sediment transport rates are influenced by seven

primary variables in all applications.

qs = f (τ, h, D, ρp, ρf, μ, g) (2.10)

where,

qs = sediment transport rate per unit width

τ = shear stress

h = depth

D = particle diameter

ρp = particle density

41
 ρf = fluid density

μ = water viscosity

g = gravitational constant

The size-shape-density distribution of the suspended particles (typically represented as a

standard deviation of the particle diameter) and the sediment transport rate are both functions of

these seven factors. A river's largest discharge does not necessarily translate into its carrying the

most sediment. The sediment load will still be influenced by the size and makeup of the sediment

particles as well as the topography of the surrounding area. As a depth-integrated sediment mass

above a unit area, the sediment load itself is determined. It is varying for a variety of causes, but

it can be predicted using the time-average sediment concentration. Although it depends on flow

to begin and maintain transport, sediment load is not computed from flow rates because the main

determinants of sediment load are environmental conditions.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

42
The main campus of the Federal University of Technology covers an area of 18,900 hectares

(18,900ha), and it is situated along Minna Bida Road at Kilometer 10. These locations have

generally located at 9ᴼ 32’13” N6ᴼ 26’38” E, 9ᴼ32’13.1"N6ᴼ26’38.0” E, 9ᴼ 32’12.9” N6ᴼ

26’47.0” E. The rivers Gwakodna, Wemi nate, Grambuku Legbedna, Tofa, and their tributaries

drain the entire site. The most prominent characteristics are River Dagga, Garatu Hill, and Dan

Zaria dam, and they are all seasonal rivers (Musa et al., 2013). The observe region is

distinguished by two distinct seasons: the rainy season and the dry season. The observe location

typical temperature and rainfall total are 27.5°C and 1229 mm, respectively. Loamy and sandy

soil that is often adequately drained characterizes the observation site. Rice, spinach, okra,

sorghum, and maize are among the popular plant species cultivated in irrigation systems.

43
Figure 3.1. Map of Niger state showing the study area

3.2 Materials

Location information is collected by GPS receivers for mapping field boundaries,

roads, irrigation system, questionnaires, soil auger, stop watch, mallet, a

44
 sprinkler irrigation setup, wooden plank, measuring cylinder, containers, textural

chart, meter rule and record book

3.2.1 Soil Sample

Loamy, clay, and sandy soil types predominate in the research area, however loamy and loamy

sand are also present. In order to achieve an accurate moisture determination value for the

studied field, soil samples were collected from the field inside the study area and transported to

the laboratory for analysis. 2017 (Rosales).

3.2.2 Digital weighing balance

To determine the actual weight of soil loss and suspended silt in the research region,

soil samples and suspended sediment from the field were measured using a

computerized weighing scale.

3.3 Methodology

3.3.1 Topographical survey

GPS and a laptop Google application were used to calculate the topographical

coordinates of the farmlands. (Rosen 2017). The coordinates and elevation of the

farmland upper and lower ends were read and recorded as they were read along

the slope of cultivation. The farmlands slope was then calculated using the

readings.

45
3.3.2 Rainfall Runoff Scheme and sediment measurement

In areas where varied soil types were taken into consideration during the rainfall event, the

runoff plot was built using wood that was 1.24 meters long and 1.2 meters wide. Sites with

uncommon conditions, such as gullies, rills, or fissures, were actively avoided. The slope next to

the plan was clear of all obstructions. A pit was dug at the scheme closing to serve as the

collector chamber for runoff and sediment basins. This collector chamber is positioned below

ground level. In agreement with the research of (I. Abudi, G. Carmi, and P. Berliner 2012), a

portable rainfall simulator was applied to simulate rainfall on the catchment region. The different

types of soil in the study region have been divided into bared, cultivated, and uncultivated soils

for the layout.

After the sediment had settled and the clean water had been drained, the sediment

from the barrel was collected and sent to the lab to be oven dried to a constant

weight. The total amount of soil lost from the plot is calculated by dividing the

weight by the runoff plot area.

The method for estimating a bucket's volume is found in equation 1 (online

resources “mathworld”).

2 2
h × π (R +r + Rr)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (meter) =
3

(3.1)

Where,

R = radius of the top circular bucket (m)

46
 d = radius of the bottom circular bucket (m)

h = height of bucket (m)

𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 (𝑚) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3)

(3.2)

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑚2)

3.3.3 Rainfall intensity

using a sprinkler rainfall simulator to simulate rain on the ground. At the current soil water

conditions, an initial 20-minute rainfall application with an intensity of about 64 mm/h took

place. A second 20-minute application (wet run) was made a little over five hours later. This set

up was utilized because the study was conducted when there was very little rain in the study

location during the time of year. The sprinkler system used in the simulations of rainfall (T.

Iserloha et al., 2013) produced rainfall characteristics that were said to be close to those of

natural rainfall, however the intensity varied significantly between replicates.

Rainfall intensity ranged from 38.2 mm/h to 56.3 mm/h, with a mean of 49.1 mm/h

and a standard deviation of 4.7 mm/h. When simulating rainfall, borehole water

was used, and although Dennis Fox (2021) found that some soils experienced

lower erosion rates when using borehole water instead of deionized water, it was

47
 assumed that these effects were minimal for this soil because it has a clay

mineralogy and contains little sodium, making it relatively resistant to chemical

dispersion. (Musa et al. 2017) The rainfall height ranges from 1.2 to 4.5 meters.

3.3.4 Soil Erodibility and Runoff

By measuring the mass of the soil eroded under various observed rainfall and soil conditions, a

runoff plot was utilized to analyze the processes and quantify soil erosion at the location. Using a

rain simulator (sprinkler system), the soil erodibility and runoff were measured. A water pump

delivered water to the sprinkler line. to demonstrate the impact of rainfall intensity and gather

data for the USLE. For a total of 30 minutes, runoff was tested every 5 to 10 minutes. Only net

down-slope splash erosion—as opposed to total splash erosion, for which sediments are splashed

in all directions—was quantified since splashed-off sediments were collected on splash boards.

Down-slope splash erosion rates are slightly underestimated because lateral down-slope splash

from close to the tray edges would have been lost. Samples of splash and runoff were dried in an

oven at 105°C to determine the amount of soil lost per hectare. The cylindrical barrel was used to

collect and quantify the amount of runoff water, calculated soil loss (Kuti, I. A., and T. A.

Ewemoje. 2021).

Soil Loss (kg/ha) = Runoff (m) × Soil Loss (kg/m) × (10,000)/ Area(m 2)

(3.3)

Equation 4 was used to calculate sediment and is the total deposits that left each plot in

the Gidan Kwano watershed (runoff plot).

48
 𝑆𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (Kg ha−1) =soil loss (kg/ha) + suspended sediment (kg/ha)

(3.4)

3.3.5 Data collection

Three sites in Gidan Kwanu identified as farm A (cultivated land), B (uncultivated land), and C

(bared land) were chosen for the purpose of study. These places are located at the following

coordinates 9ᴼ 32’13” N6ᴼ 26’38” E, 9ᴼ32’13.1"N6ᴼ26’38.0” E, 9ᴼ 32’12.9” N6ᴼ 26’47.0” E.

For the purpose of learning more about the impact of rainfall intensity, the irrigation system was

used as a rain simulator. Pumping the water took 15 to 30 minutes at various intensity. The

different rainfall intensities used to determine the rate of erosion. To determine the porosity

percentage (compatibility) and textural distribution of the soils in the study area, a soil texture

chart was employed. The appropriate farm owners and other people with significant

understanding of the farmland are used to gather the information. The aim of the information

collection was to identify the visible effects of erosion on their farmlands, determine whether

erosion is an issue, and get a broad understand of farming in the area.

3.3.6 Particle Size Analysis

The mechanical soil analysis and fractionalization method was used to determine the particle size

analyses of soil samples. The soil texture is determined by the soil sample sand, silt, and clay

content, which is determined by the particle size analysis. A 2mm sieve was used to separate

about 50–70g of soil samples, and the separated soils were then put into containers. The sieved

samples totaled 50g, which was weighed and measured. A 5% sodium hex metaphosphate

solution was created by dissolving 50g of sodium hex metaphosphate in 1 liter of distilled water.
49
Each sample in the containers received 100ml of the prepared solution. After being transferred

from the container onto a dispersion cup, the soil suspensions were agitated mechanically for 15

minutes. The stirred soil suspension was transferred to a measuring cylinder with a 1-liter

capacity, and distilled water was added to each cylinder to raise the level of the soil suspension

to the cylinder's 1-liter mark. It was made sure that all of the soil particles were in suspension in

each cylinder by stirring the soil suspensions in each for two minutes using a hand stirrer. The

hydrometer was then carefully placed in each suspension of soil in the measurement cylinder,

ensuring that it was not resting on any of the cylinder sides. The readings of the hydrometer at 40

seconds were recorded for all the samples, and the thermometer readings of the samples were

taken immediately after taking the hydrometer readings. The cylinders were then left undisturbed

on a stable surface, and after 2 hours, the hydrometer and the thermometer readings were

measured and recorded.

3.3.7 Soil Textural Class

Particle size analysis findings were used to identify the soil textural class. On the soil textural

triangle and a table, the various percentages of sand, silt, and clay were calculated and arranged

according to the soil textural class of the soil samples gathered from each agricultural land.

3.3.8 Dry Bulk Density

The coring method was used to determine the bulk density of the collected soil samples. With the

use of core rings of known volume, is driven gently into the ground. They were removed gently

50
from the soil without disturbing the collected samples in the rings. This was repeated on other

study area on various sampling location and another was done on a bare farmland without cover.

The samples were kept in polyethene bags and oven dried at 120°c for 24 hours. Precautions

were taken during soil sampling to avoid compaction within the core cylinder. The Dry Bulk

Densities were then calculated by the ratio of weight of dried soil per unit volume. The bulk

density is normally expressed as g/cm³.

weight of dried soil−Weight of container

Bulk density = (g/cm³)
volumeofcorering

3.3.9 Total Porosity

The total porosity can be calculated using the values gotten from the determined bulk densities of

the soil samples.

Total porosity (%) = = ( 1−ρb

ρp )
Χ 100

Where ρb = dry Bulk density (Mg/m³) and ρp= particle density (g/cm³)

51
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and Discussion

4.1 Results

4.1.1 Soil textural classification

The soil texture content as seen from the various sample locations is shown in table 4.1. It was

noted that in the research location, soil had a high sand and loam content and a typical amount of

clay. The particle size distribution results in the following ranges for sand, silt, and clay,

respectively, of 46.0% to 76.20%, 11.30% to 23.50%, and 11.0% to 30.0%.

52
Table 4.1 Soil textural classification.

Condition of
Samples %Sand %Silt %Clay Textural class
soil

1 68.91 16.72 14.37 Sandy Loam

Cultivated
2 64.25 20.71 15.05 Sandy clay loam

1 56.00 23.50 20.50 Sandy clay loam

Uncultivated
2 46.00 24.00 30.00 Loam

1 76.20 12.80 11.00 Sandy Loam

Bare land
2 68.80 11.30 19.90 Sandy Loam

4.1.2 Geological coordinates

Difference in slopes in the study area is shown in table 4.2 and was determined using data from

the GPS map's locations. The difference between the upper and lower elevation readings

demonstrates that the research area terrain is almost level.

Table 4.2 Geological coordinates.

Upper Lower
Condition of Coordinates Coordinates
elevation elevation Slope (%)
soil (upper) (lower)
(ft) (ft)

Cultivated 9.53667,6.44740 9.53699,6.44723 728.3 724.5 0.52

53
 Uncultivated 9.53666,6.44637 9.53692,6.44639 738.0 732.2 1.72

Bare land 9.53647,6.44400 9.53696,6.44387 723.5 711.3 0.79

4.1.3 Bulk Density and Porosity

The soil samples were collected using a core ring to know the soil strength of the farmland.

Then, the soil sample was analyzed in the laboratory to determine the bulk density and porosity

to show the percentage of micro-pore spaces available for water and air movement through the

soil. The same core ring was used on all the study areas, and the average percentage of bulk

density and porosity was gotten.

Table 4.3 Bulk density, Particle density and porosity

Farm Sampl Bulk Particle Porosit Average Averag Averag

e Density(g/c Density(g/c y (%) BD(g/cm e PD e
m³) m³) ³) Porosit
y (%)

Cultivated 1. 1.11 1.32 15.91

2. 1.22 1.42 14.08 1.21 1.41 14.44

3. 1.30 1.50 13.33

Uncultivat 1. 1.24 1.45 14.48

ed
2. 1.16 1.36 14.70 1.12 1.32 15.47

54
 3. 0.96 1.16 17.24

Bare land 1. 1.19 1.40 15.00

2. 1.21 1.40 13.57 1.16 1.36 14.99

3. 1.07 1.28 16.40

4.1.4 Soil runoff/erodibility

In accordance with the research of Dennis Fox et al. (2021), table 4.3 presents the value obtained

from experiment after oven drying to obtain soil loss on the runoff plot at a mean intensity of

33.48 mm/min, with a range of 23- 40 mm/min rainfall intensity. According to the findings, bare

ground is more prone to erosion than both cultivated and uncultivated land.

Table 4.4 Soil runoff/erodibility.

Weight Volume Soil Loss

Rainfall Sediment Soil
Condition of Time of dry of
Sample intensity Yield Loss (kg/ha)
soil (min) runoff barrel
(mm/min) (kg) (Kg/m)
(kg) (m)

1. 0-10 35.50 0.928 0.678 0.018 2.97

Cultivated 36.7
2. 10-20 38.70 0.702 0.452 0.012 1.98

Uncultivated 1. 0-10 40.30 1.000 0.750 36.7 0.020 3.30

55
 2. 10-20 39.00 0.770 0.500 0.014 2.31

1. 0-10 23.40 1.254 1.074 0.029 4.79

Bare land 36.7
2. 10-20 24.00 0.900 0.720 0.020 3.30

Figure 4.1 Soil loss in kg/ha

56
 Series1 Series2
4.79
5
4.5
4 3.3 3.3
3.5 2.97
3 2.31
Hectares

2.5 1.98
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Cultivated Uncultivated Bare land
Land Management Practices

4.1.5 Moisture Content for cultivated land

The observed soil moisture contents from the cultivate land are shown in table 4.4.1. The soil

samples were taken between 0 and 10 cm below the surface, with the final sample taken at a

depth of 5 cm. It was noted that the soil's moisture content in the area ranged between 3.84%

and 12.09%, with an average of 6.70%.

Table 4.5.1 Moisture Content for cultivated land.

57
 Average
Weight of Weight of Moisture
Soil Weight of Moisture
Sample container oven dried content
depth(cm) wet sample content
(g) sample (%)
(%)

1 0-10 20.0 145.048 129.400 12.09

2 10-20 20.11 145.268 139.438 4.13 6.70

3 20-25 19.98 153.317 147.641 3.84

The soil moisture content as measured from uncultivated land is shown in table 4.4.2. The same

techniques were used again, and the soil in the region had the highest moisture content, ranging

from 3.99% to 13.74%. This indicates that the soil had the lowest moisture content near the

surface and the highest moisture content when the soil was collected at a depth, with an average

moisture content of 7.36%.

Table 4.5.2 Moisture Content for uncultivated land.

58
 Weight of Average
Weight of Weight of Moisture
Soil wet Moisture
Sample container oven dried content
depth(cm) content
(g) Sample sample (%)
(%)

1 0-10 20.54 148.20 142.52 3.99

2 10-20 20.12 139.45 133.62 4.36 7.36

3 20-25 20.14 129.54 113.89 13.74

The observed soil moisture content for the bare ground is shown in table 4.4.3. The soil at that

location had the least quantity of water, ranging from 0.17% to 3.79%. This indicates that the soil

had the least water at depth and the most at the surface. with a 2.80% average moisture content.

Table 4.5.3 Moisture Content for bare land.

Weight Average
Weight of Weight Moisture
Soil of oven Moisture
Sample container of wet content
depth(cm) dried content
(g) sample (%)
sample (%)

1 0-10 20.27 142.72 137.51 3.79

2 10-20 20.11 139.20 138.96 0.17 1.87

3 20-25 20.06 127.39 125.32 1.65

4.1.7 Sediment description and common quantity of sediment

59
Table 4. represents the sediment description and the typical amount of sediment. The crops that

were seen in the study area were maize, tomatoes, peppers, and potatoes. The bare land is higher

in soil erosion compared to others, nevertheless, as a result of the rains stabilizing, runoff in the

experimental plot increases in sediment eroding. In comparison to the poor relationship between

rainfall and sediment, which has no effect on overall deposit loads. The theoretical calculation of

sediment is carried out by estimating various catchment parameters, such as area, runoff, and

vegetative cover, (Zhang, T. et., al. 2020).

Table 4.8 sediment description and common quantity of sediment.

Condition of Soil First sediment Second sediment Average Sediment

Uncultivated 3.90 2.68 3.29

Cultivated 4.30 3.08 3.69

Bare 6.04 5.20 5.62

Figure 4.2 Sediment description chart

60
 Sediment description

5.5
4.5
3.5
Hectares

2.5
1.5
0.5

Uncultivated cultivated Bare

Series1 3.29 3.69 5.62

Land management practice

4.2 Discussion of Results

The results of the analysis of the soil textural categorization in the study location were consistent

with earlier research carried out closer to (Abdulkadir 2018). In comparison to cultivated

(68.91% and 64.25%) and uncultivated (56.00% and 46.00%) land, the results demonstrate that

bared land beneath the sand sample had a greater percentage (76.20% and 68.80%). Silt (23.50%

and 24.00%) and clay (20.50% and 30.00%) have a higher percentage under uncultivated land.

The percentage of sand is comparable, as the percentage of clay and silt is higher in the

uncultivated land. Soils of the sandy Loam textural class could be regarded as fertile (Yakubu et.,

al 2018). Even when the intensity of the second application of rainfall is higher than the intensity

of the original application, table 4.3 illustrates that the initial application of rainfall contains

more sediment from the runoff. This might be as a result of the soil inherent cohesive power

when it is wet. The runoff sediments were oven dried to determine the rate of soil loss on each

area, which was a minimum of 33.48 mm/min. The rate of rainfall ranged from 23 to 40

61
mm/min, which is similar to the findings of Dennis Fox et al. (2021). According to the findings,

bared land has higher runoff silt than both cultivated and uncultivated ground. similar to Tong,

X. et. al. (2019) work.

The moisture content shows how much water the soil can hold. Researchers looked into the

correlation between soil moisture content and the proportions of clay, silt, and loam. Although in

theory, clay texture is known to have a higher capacity to hold water. Liu et al. in (2020).

According to table 4.4.1, 4.4.2, and 4.4.3, bare land has a very low capacity to hold water

(1.87%), whereas cultivated and uncultivated land have larger percentages of water holding

(6.70% and 7.36%) respectively. This is in comparison to the work done by Musa et., al. (2017)

in the same area, which showed results with values between 4.0% and 15.1%.

4.2.2 Bulk Density and Porosity

The bulk density and analysis show the soil strength and compaction. The values of the bulk

density from Table 6 showed that the average bulk densities of samples collected from cultivated

farmlands were higher than those collected from uncultivated and bare farmland. On the other

hand, the values of bulk densities gotten were lower than those of previous works done on a

nearby study location in Gidan-Kwanu. Bulk density values ranged between 1.458 g/cm³ to

1.606 g/cm³ from Abdulkadir's (2018) works. Lawal et al. (2014) also recorded a bulk density

range of 1.6 g/cm3 and 1.9 g/cm3. Differences in bulk density values could be linked to the core

ring's volume and the depth at which the soil sample was taken. Although bulk density values in

Table 6; is within range with the work from Enokela and Egharevba (2012) recorded a bulk

density value of 1.04 g/cm³ to 1.80 g/cm³.

62
The amount of micro pore space available for water and air to pass through the soil is shown by

the porosity of the soil sample taken from the research area. According to the research area

average porosity data, bare and uncultivated land are more porous on average than cultivated

land, which has an average porosity 14.44%. The acquired porosity is based on research by Musa

et al (2017), and it value ranges from 7.05% to 57%. Contrarily, as noted by different researchers

such as, Abubakri (2021) and Varsha et al. (2018), farmed farmland was found to have less

porosity as a result of soil disturbance.

4.2.1 Relationship between precipitation and sediment

Intensity, length, and slope were the factors that caused the sediment cover to change. Water

absorption changes the slope, and the cultivated soil produced sediment yields of 4.30, 3.08, and

3.69 on average. The range of sediment values from the studied agricultural plot were practically

in agreement with earlier research done by (Musa et., al. 2014). Uncultivated soil has values

between 3.90 and 2.68, with a mean of 3.69. The difference and rate of erosion in the values

obtained from the bare plot, 6.04 for the first occasion and 5.20 from the second occasion,

whereby its average is 1.3 times greater than uncultivated land. These findings are in comparison

to those of Musa et al. (2014). which showed results with values between 3.30, 3.62 and 4.72.

63
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS

Soil texture content for the study area was evaluated from the particle size analysis through

estimation of sand, silt, and clay of the soil samples. It was observed that the soil in the study

area which consist of sandy, sandy loam and loam soils are known for their water retaining

ability which gives high percentage of texture content to silt and clay in uncultivated area

compared to cultivate and bare region. Therefore, it is concluded that bare land is mostly affected

by the soil type and rainfall intensity as a physical factor in Gidan Kwano. Also soil exposed to

rainfall impact is easily detached like the soil on the bare land compare to soil with cover or

residue covering the topsoil. Therefore, reducing the effect of rainfall using crop cover and

laying crop residue on farm land is advisable.

High percentage of clay loamy soil and organic matter content in the study area reduces the uses

of expected soil erodibility, it is concluded that the sediment varies significantly with rainfall and

types of vegetative cover within the region. Sediment concentration in runoff during prolonged

rainfall on an initially dry soil surface first increases rapidly, then decreases gradually. This

pattern reflects the dynamic nature of changes in the soil surface conditions with respect to the

effect of surface runoff during rainfall events.

Agricultural practices are contributing to erosion and sedimentation. It is important to note that

this is a simplified methodology and there may be additional considerations and factors that need

64
to be taken into account depending on the specific study and site conditions. Additionally, there

are different methods of estimating suspended sediment depending on the available resources

and level of accuracy required.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Some recommendations are;

1. Development of new and innovative measurement techniques of suspended sediment.

2. Investigating the effect of environmental factors on sediment transport.

3. Evaluate the accuracy of existing models and methods.

4. To study the impacts of suspended sediment on aquatic ecosystems.

5. Development of management strategies to control sediment transport and reduce sedi-

mentation in water bodies.

65
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