Relationship Between Swelling Pressures Determined by A ConsolidationSwell Test and A Constant-Volume Test

Relationship between Swelling Pressures Determined by a Consolidation-
Swell Test and a Constant-Volume Test
by
Zin Moe Htut
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Engineering in
Geotechnical and Earth Resources Engineering
Examination Committee: Dr. Kuo-Chieh Chao (Chairperson)

Dr. Noppadol Phien-wej
Dr. Pham Huy Giao
Nationality: Myanmar
Previous Degree: Bachelor of Engineering in Civil Engineering
West Yangon Technological University
Myanmar
Scholarship Donor: AIT Fellowship
Asian Institute of Technology

School of Engineering and Technology
Thailand
May 2018
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to express my sincerest thanks my adviser Dr. Kuo-Chieh Chao who
give me the chance to do this research with him. His guidance, advice and support were
valuable during my studies and in completing this research. I would like to appreciate Dr
Tian Ho Seah (Alfa Geotech Co. Ltd) for his valuable guidance and suggestion for my study
and research.
Thanks are also due to the committee members of my thesis; Dr. Nopadol Phien-wej and Dr.
Pham Huy Giao. They helped me during my graduate study and analyze my research from
different perspectives. I would like to acknowledge all of my professors, friends, and my
family because of their encouragement, understanding, friendship, support and their help
during the time of study and research.
I would like to thank Dr. Hla Myo Aung (Head of Department Civil Engineering, Sagaing
Technological University) for his valuable guidance and support in sampling from
Mandalay. And I would like to thank Mr. Appipat Chaiwan (Engineer Lv.8 Geotechnical
Engineering Department, Mae Moh Mine Planning and Administration Division, Electricity
Generating Authority of Thailand) for offering the soil samples from Mae Moh mine. I
would also like to thank the laboratory technicians from Asian Institute of Technology,
Geotechnical laboratory for providing necessary equipment during the experiment.
Finally, I would like to special grateful to my loving parents for their valuable guidance,
encouragement and support entire my life.
ii
ABSTRACT
Expansive soil that has a significant potential to change in volume associated with changes
in natural water content. Expansion of the soil is a crucial parameter for assessing the
performance of foundations founded on expansive soil. Prediction of free field heave using
the important parameter of the heave index, CH based on two oedometer test results. The
heave index can be measured with the percent swell in the specific inundation stress in the
consolidation-swell test and the constant-volume test swelling pressure.
It is useful to obtain the relationship between the swelling pressure σ''CS determined from
consolidation-swell test and σ''CV determined from constant volume test, so that the heave
index can be obtained on the basis of a single test. The relationship between σ''CS and σ''CV
is based on the experimental result of expansive soil behavior and facilitates the heave
prediction from a single oedometer test for each soil. This method uses the parameter "m"
which relies on specific soil property.
This study focuses to examine the parameter “m” value based on the relationship between
swelling pressures of soil by using the two methods of oedometer testing, including
consolidation-swell method and constant volume method are determined. General basis soil
properties test involve; Particle size distribution, atterberg limit, specific gravity, compaction
and the natural soil water content are measured. The relationship between the parameter “m”
value and the degree of saturation of the soil are also determined. The relationship between
swelling pressures obtained from both method is important in the prediction of heave. The
soil sample used for the study is from different locations such as Myanmar and Thailand.
Furthermore, bentonite and sand mixture were tested in order to compare with the different
two soil samples. Besides the prediction of field-free heave, the comparison of the risk of
movement is determined from soil index properties. All the laboratory testing are followed
by the procedure of ASTM.
Keywords; expansive soil, swelling pressure, percent swell, consolidation-swell, constant

volume, m value, free field heave
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
Title Page i
Acknowledgements ii
Abstract iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Tables vi
List of Figures viii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Objectives of study 2
1.3 Scopes of study 2
2 Literature Review 3
2.1 General 3
2.2 Pysical and Chemical Properties of Expansive soil 3
2.2.1 Microscale behavior of Expansive soil 3
2.2.2 Interaction between the component of Expansive soil 4
2.2.3 Macroscale behavior of Expansive soil 5
2.2.3.1 Plasticity 5
2.2.3.2 Soil Structure and Fabric 5
2.2.3.3 Density and Water Content 6
2.3 Soil Suction 6
2.4 Environmental Condition 7
2.4.1 Moisture 7
2.4.2 Initial Moisture Condition 8
2.5 Stress Condition 8
2.5.1 History of Stress 8
2.5.2 External Loading 8
2.5.3 Soil Profile 9
2.6 Identification and Classification of Expansive Soil 9
2.6.1 Plasticity 9
2.6.2 Free Swell Test 10
2.6.3 The Potential Volume Change Method (PVC) 11
2.6.4 Expansive Index (EI) Test 11
2.6.5 The Coefficient of Linear Extensibility Test (COLE) 11
2.6.6 The Standard Absorption Moisture Content Test(SAMC) 12
2.6.7 Classification method base on Mineralogy and Chemical 12
Properties
2.6.8 The Other Existing Classification Methods 13
2.7 Geological Information of Sampling Location 13
2.7.1 Mandalay 13
2.7.2 Mae Moh, Lampang 13
2.8 Determination of Swelling behavior by Oedometer test 14
2.9 Free-field Heave Prediction 15
2.10 The “m” Method 16
iv
3 Methodology 17
3.1 Flowchart of methodology 17
3.2 Sampling 18
3.2.1 Mandalay clay 18
3.2.2 Lampang clay 18
3.2.3 Artificial clay 18
3.3 Identification and Classification of sample 18
3.4 Consolidation-Swell Test 19
3.5 Constant Volume Test 20
3.6 Determination of Swell Parameters 20
3.7 Calculation and Data Analysis 21
4 Results and Discussion 23

4.1 Introduction 23
4.2 Physical Properties 23
4.3 Particles Size Analysis 24
4.4 Compaction Test 24
4.5 Atterberg Test 24
4.6 Constant Volume Test 24
4.7 Consolidation-Swell Test 25
4.7.1 Effect of Initial water content 26
4.7.2 Effect of correction for specimen disturbance 26
4.7.3 Effect of Surcharge Pressure 26
4.8 The Relationship between CS and CV swelling pressure 27
4.8.1 Effect of Degree of Saturation on the m value 28
4.9 Determination of Heave Index 28
4.10 Predicted Heave Computation 28
4.10.1 Calculations 29
5 Conclusion and Recommendations 34

5.1 Conclusion 34
5.2 Recommendations 35
References 36
Appendix 134
v
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE PAGE
2.1 Common units conversion of Soil Suction (Nelson et al., 2015) 39

2.2 Device apply for the measurement of the Suction (Fredlund et 40
al.,1993)
2.3 The relationship between the plasticity index and expansion 40
potential of clays (Peck, Hanson, and Thornburn 1974)
2.4 The relation between activity (Ac) and class of clay (Skempton, 41
1953)
2.5 The Typical values for clay minerals activity (Skempton, 1953) 41
2.6 The relationship between PVC rating and category (After Lambe, 42
1960)
2.7 Expansion potential based on the expansion index (Nelson et al. 42
2015)
2.8 The correlation of Linear Extensibility (LE) to Clay content 43
(Nelson et al.2015)
2.9 Classification indices for Expansive clay (CMC 2004) 43
2.10 Classification method based on shrinkage Limit (Altmeyer, 1995) 44
2.11 Classification method based on the plasticity index and the 44
shrinkage limit (Holtz and Gibbs, 1956)
2.12 Classification method based on the plasticity index and the 45
shrinkage limit (Ramen, 1956)
2.13 Classification method based on soil suction, plasitcity index and 45
potential swell (Snethen et al., 1977)
2.14 Classification method based on clay content, SPT and swelling 46
pressure (Chen, 1988)
2.15 Classification method based on plasticity index (Chen, 1988) 46
2.16 Classification method based on expansion index (ASTM, 2008) 47
3.1 The results of dry density and water content 48
3.2 Applied stress increment for consolidation-swell test 48
4.1 Unified soil classification system of Casagrande’s(from ASTMD- 49
2487)
4.2 Basic physical properties of all used soil 50
4.3 The comparison of degree of expansion potential for Mandalay 51
clay according to existing expansive soil classification
4.4 The comparison of degree of expansion potential for Lampang clay 52
according to existing expansive soil classification
4.5 The comparison of degree of expansion potential for 53
bentonite+sand mixture according to existing expansive soil
classification
4.6 The results of swelling pressure determined from constant volume 54
test with different water content for three test material)
4.7 Consolidation-swell test results of Mandalay clay with 17.75% 55
water content (-2% optimum water-content)
water-content (optimum water-content)
vi
water-content (+2% optimum water-content)
4.10 Consolidation-swell test results of Lampang clay with 21.6% 58
water-content (optimum water-content)
4.11 Consolidation-swell test results of bentonite+sand mixture with 59
19.45% water-content (optimum water-content)
4.12 Summary of regression value base on trend line equation results for 60
all used soil
4.13 The results of “m” value determined from linear trend line 61
4.14 The calculation results of heave index value for all used soil 62
4.15 Free field heave calculation of Mandalay clay 63
4.16 Free field heave calculation of Lampang clay 64
4.17 Free field heave calculation of Bentonite+sand clay 65
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
1.1 Worldwide distribution of the expansive soil sites (Nelson et al. 67

2015)
2.1 The atomic structure of alumino-magnesium and silicon- 68
tetrahedral octahedral (a) silicon-tetrahedron; (b) silica sheet; (c)
vii
the symbolic structure for silica sheet; (d) alumino-magnesium
octahedron; (e) octahedral sheet; (f) the symbolic structure for
octahedral sheet (Nelson et al, 2015
2.2 Graphic diagram of the structure of clay mineral: (a) kaolinite; (b) 69
illite; (c) montmorillonite (Nelson et al. 2015)
2.3 Typical clay particle (a) Montmorillonite 1000 by 10 Angstrom 69
thick (b) Kaolinite 10,000 by 1000 Angstrom thick
2.4 A clay micelle expressing the cations concentration close to the 70
exterior of clay particle (Nelson et al. 2015
2.5 The plasticity characteristics of clay minerals plotted on 71
Casagrande’s chart (Holtz, et al.)
2.6 Structures of sediment (Lamb, 1969) 72
2.7 The water content and dry density affected on swelling potential 72
(Chen, 1973)
2.8 Schematic illustration of soil suction (Fredlund, et al. 1993) 73
2.9 Seasonal moisture fluctuation in active zone (Chen, 1988) 74
2.10 (a) The potential volume change (PVC) apparatus; (b)The swell 75
index versus PVC
2.11 Map of Myanmar showing Mandalay, Middle Part of Myanmar 76
(Wikipedia, 2017)
2.12 Sample point at Pathein Gyi Township, Mandalay 77
2.13 Map of Thailand showing Lampang, North Part of Thailand 78
(Wikipedia, 2018)
2.14 Slope cut in the “yellow clay” nearby Mae Moh Golf Course 79
2.15 Heave index (CH) determination (Nelson et al. 2015) 80
2.16 Correction for compressibility of CS test and CV test (Nelson et al. 80
2015)
2.17 Heave of layer of expansive soil (J.D. Nelson, K.C.Chao, 2014) 81
2.18 The oedometer test results for different σi’’ values (Nelson et al. 81
2015)
2.19 Convergence of σCS’’ and σi’’ to σCV’’(Nelson et al. 2015) 82
3.1 Some surface shrinkage cracks near the sampling point of 83
Mandalay
3.2 The residual yellow clay near Mae Moh elctricity plant, Lampang 84
3.3 Sand and bentonite mixture 85
3.4 The compaction curve obtained from standard proctor compaction 85
test
3.5 Oedometer used for present study 86
3.6 The load cell of constant volume test 87
3.7 The results obtained from oedometer test (Nelson et al.2015) 87
4.1 Grain size distribution of tested soil 88
4.2 The results of test material on Casagrande’s plasticity chart 89
4.3 The constant volume machine 90
4.4 Constant Volume test result for bentonite+sand mixture of water 91
content 19.45%
4.5 Constant Volume test result for Lampang clay of water content 92
21.6%
4.6 Constant Volume test result for Mandalay clay of water content 93
17.75% (-2% optimum water content)
viii
4.7 Constant Volume test result for Mandalay clay of water content 94
19.75% (optimum water content)
4.8 Constant Volume test result for Mandalay clay of water content 21 95
.75% (+2% optimum water content)
4.9 Vertical Stress versus percentage strain curve from Consolidation- 96
swell test with swelling measurement for bentonite+sand mixture
at 10 kPa inundation pressure with 15.51 kN/m3 dry density and
19.45% water content (optimum water content)
19.45% water content (optimum water content)
19.45% water content (optimum water content
4.12 Vertical stress versus percentage strain curve from Consolidation- 99
swell test with swelling measurement for Lampang clay at 10 kPa
inundation pressure with 15.37 kN/m3 dry density and 21.6% water
content (optimum water content)
4.13 Vertical stress vs percentage strain curve from Consolidation-swell 100
test with swelling measurement for Lampang clay at 20 kPa
swell test with swelling measurement for Lampang clay at 30 kPa
swell test with swelling measurement for Mandalay clay at 10 kPa
inundation pressure with 16.31 kN/m3 dry density and 17.75%
water content (-2% optimum water content)
water content (optimum water content
Vertical stress versus percentage strain curve from Consolidation-
4.19 swell test with swelling measurement for Mandalay clay at 20 kPa 106
water content (optimum water content)
ix
water content (optimum water content)
water content (+2% optimum water content)
water content (+2% optimum water content)
water content (+2% optimum water-content)
The relation between the percent swell and initial water content
4.24 The relation between swelling pressure and initial water content 111
4.25 The results of oedometer apparatus compressibility for Mandalay 112
4.26 clay (-2% optimum water content) 113
The relation between applied pressure and percent swell
4.27 The relation between applied pressure and swelling pressure 114
4.28 Oedometer test results of Lampang clay for different σ”i value 115
4.29 Oedometer test results of Bentonite+sand mixture for different σ”i 116
4.30 value 117
Oedometer test results of Mandalay clay for different values of σ”i
4.31 (-2% optimum water content) 118
Oedometer test results Mandalay clay for different values of σ”i
4.32 (optimum water content) 119
Oedometer test results Mandalay clay for different values of σ”i
4.33 (+2% optimum water content) 120
4.34 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for bentonite+sand mixture 121
4.35 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Lampang clay 122
4.36 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Mandalay clay (-2% 123
optimum water content)
4.37 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Mandalay clay (optimum 124
water content)
4.38 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Mandalay clay (+2% 125
4.39 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for all used soil 126
4.40 The relationship between m value and degree of saturation for 127
Mandalay clay
4.41 The result of heave index from oedometer test for Mandalay clay 128
(-2% optimum water content)
4.42 The heave profile across the depth of swell potential for Mandalay 129
clay
4.43 The heave profile across the depth of swell potential for Lampang 130
clay
4.44 The heave profile across the depth of swell potential for 131
bentonite+sand mixture
x
xi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Expansive soil is generally known as active soil, plastic clay, and swell-shrink soil, crack
soil or black cotton soil that have a potential to swell or shrink under flocculation of natural
water content. These soils contain active clay minerals that increase dramatically as soil
moisture increases. Soil with smectite clay minerals, containing montmorillonite and
bentonite, have the most considerable swell-shrink capacity. The nature of these minerals
causes a massive volume change due to the increasing water content of a dried soil with
densely packed clay particles, severely altered by the light civil engineering structure based
on it due to alternating swelling and contraction.
The construction of buildings and other structures of civil engineering, such as, bridges,
airports, highways, marine port on expansive soil, is highly risky because such soil is
sensitive to wetting and drying cycles, causing expansion and contraction behavior under
construction foundations that lead to structural cracking and there are no structural elements
of those structures. The average annual cost of damage to structures due to shrinkage and
swelling is estimated at approximately £ 400 million in the United Kingdom, $ 15 billion in
the US and many billions of dollars worldwide (Jones & Jefferson, 2012).
It seems that most countries in the world suffer problems with expansive soils. Some
countries that have a problem with expansive soils are: Australia, Argentina, Burma, Cuba,
China, Ethiopia, Great Britain, Ghana, Iran, Israel, India, Kenya, Morocco, Mexico, Spain,
South Africa, Venezuela and Turkey. In general, the more arid the climate, the more serious
the problem (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993).
The behavior of expansive soil was examined in the laboratory by measuring swelling
pressure, soil suction and other factors correlated by different researchers (Jones and Hotlz,
1973). Several methods have been used to determine the swelling pressure. The computation
of heave prediction from oedometer test is widely used in practice of geotechnical
engineering. The heave equation utilized a parameter termed as the heave index, CH, that
defines the relationship between the percentage of swelling, εs%, and the existing stress on
the soil when it is saturated. This stress is called the inundation stress, σi (Nelson et al, 2015).
Volume change of expansive soil is a complicated process that is influenced by various

factors. It is important to comprehend the nature of expansive soil to identify the existence
and predict possible volume change. Swell parameters namely; percent swell εs%, swelling
pressure determined from consolidation-swell σ’’CS, and swelling pressure determined from
constant volume σ’’CV are significant parameters of prediction heave. The percent swell (the
amount of swell) is the percentage of volume change compared to the initial volume when
the soil moisture increases from the original state to the saturated condition. The swelling
pressure is the require pressure to retain the soil at its initial volume while the soil's moisture
increases. It is useful to obtain the relationship between σ''CS and σ''CV, in case the heave
index can be obtained on the basis of only a single test.
The relationship between σ''CS and σ''CV is based on the observed expansive soil behavior
and facilitates the estimation of heave from a single oedometer test for paticular soil. This
method uses the parameter "m" that depends on properties of the specific soil. The soil
1
sample used for the study is from different locations such as Myanmar and Thailand.
Otherwise, bentonite and sand mixture were tested in order to compare with the different
two soil samples. The percent swell and swelling pressure of expansive soil can be
determined using the ASTM (ASTM D 4546-14) standard test procedure. This is the method
of testing cohesive soils for one-dimensional.
1.2 Objectives of study
Present research proposes to examine the swelling pressures by using the consolidation-
swell method and constant volume method. The relationship between swelling pressures
obtained from both method is important in prediction of heave. The soil samples used for
the study are from different locations. The main objectives of the study are listed below:
• To understand the relationship between swelling pressures determined by constant

volume and consolidation-swell oedometer tests.
• To study the relationship between parameter m value and degree of saturation.
• To study the total free field heave of each soil.
• To compare the risk of movement determined from soil index properties to calculated
heave.
1.3 Scopes of Study
1. To obtain the soil samples from Mandalay area, Myanmar and Lampang province,
Thailand.
2. To perform laboratory test of the soil samples to obtain fundamental index properties.
3. To conduct the constant volume test and consolidation-swell test to obtain soil
relationship between these two tests.
4. To evaluate the parameter m value for each soil in order to understand the
relationship between m value and degree of saturation.
5. To predict free field heave.
6. To compare the risk of movement determined from soil index properties to calculated
heave.
2
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Expansive soils are clay soils which have shown significant volume variations, both of
swelling and contraction, in the presence of fluctuations in moisture content. The change in
volume of these floors can damage the structures on which it rests. It is essential to know
that there is expansive soil before starting the construction process so that undesirable
consequences can be predicted and controlled to a minimum. Another important feature of
expansive clay is its susceptibility to physical changes, depending on the quantity of water.
For example, clays have a high tendency to swell during the rainy season and cracks may
form when the water comes out during the dry season.
The deformation of these soils is influenced by several important factors, such as the
mineralogical composition of the soil, the void ratio, the initial dry density, the initial
moisture content, changes in soil moisture, surcharge pressure, etc. It is necessary to consider
the microscale and the macroscale as fundamental factors to understand expansive soil.
Microscale factors are composed of soil structure, pore fluid chemistry, and mineralogy.
These micro-scale factors affect the physical factors of the macro-scale, such as density,
water content and plasticity, to determine the engineering behavior of a soil.
The one-dimensional consolidator was widely accepted for testing swell soils (Fredlund,
1969). Nowadays, most geotechnical engineers are familiar with the oedometer test. There
are two important major parameters that need to be addressed as the expansive soil are the
percentage of swelling and the swelling pressures. There are numerous definitions so that
both the percentage of swelling and the swelling pressure are proposed by different
researchers.
In general, the potential of swelling or the percent swell is the change in the probable volume
of a soil specimen from its initial volume under a changing moisture content, swelling
pressure is generally defined as the required pressure to keep the soil in its initial volume
under a changing moisture content. The amount of soil expansion is strongly influenced by
the environmental conditions. Two soils with the same swelling potential may exhibit a
different swelling amount under different conditions.
2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Expansive soil

2.2.1 Microscale behavior of Expansive soil
The microscopic characteristic of the expansive soil contemplate the mineral composition of
the clay particles and how they react with the soil water chemistry. Mitchel has suggested
that the phenomena of swelling and contraction are caused by the presence of clay minerals
that have a very large area and, therefore, a great capacity for water absorption. Chemically,
the clay minerals are aluminum and / or iron and magnesium silicates (Grim 1959). The clay
particles size, less than 0.002 mm, are the smallest particles in the soil. In general, most
3
clayminerals have a sheet with a layered structure or flaky texture and could have various
forms.
A typical clay particle of the expansive soil made up of a microscopic plate that has negative
electric charges on its flaky surfaces and positive electric charges at its boundary. The two
fundamental crystalline units of the clay minerals are (1) the aluminum-magnesium-
octahedron and (2) the silicon-tetrahedron. The silicon-tetrahedron consists of silicon and
oxygen atoms. Since the valency of silicon is (4+), it can bind to negative charged ions, such
as hydroxyl (OH-) or oxygen (O2-). Similarly, the aluminum-magnesium-octahedron formed
of aluminum or magnesium atoms adjacent by hydroxyl.
As a result, the size of the mineral particles in a soil is affected by the bond nature between
the octahedral and the silica slabs. Based on the stacking sequence of the sheets, clay
minerals can be classified into three different groups;
1. Kaolinite
2. Montmorillonite
3. Illite
Kaolinite is a typical two-layer mineral that has a single tetrahedric plate joined by a single
octahedral plate to form what is called a 2 to 1 lattice structure (Chen, 1988). According to
the structure of the clay particles, the chemical bond at the bottom of the silica plate is strong,
but the bond between the bottom of the silica plate and the octahedral plate is weak.
Montmorillonite is a three-layer mineral that has a single sandwich of octahedral plates

between two tetrahedral plates to give a reticular structure of 2 to 1. (Chen, 1988). The
structure of the Montmorillonite particles formed that the bond between the bases of the two
silica plates is very weak.
Illite has similar structure to that of Montmorillonite, but some silicon atoms are substituted
by aluminum and, moreover, potassium ions are present between the tetrahedral and adjacent
crystals. These ions cause the bond between the bottoms of the silica plates to be stronger.
Figure 2.2 represents the schematic diagram of the structure of kaolinite, illite and
montmorillonite.
The nature of the bonds between the octahedral and the silica slabs affected the size of the
clay particles.The thickness of the Montmorillonite can be as small as 10 Angstroms, while
the thickness of the Kaolinite can be as large as 1000 Angstroms.
2.2.2 Interaction between the component of Expansive Clay
According to the nature of the soil, the mineral, cations and associated water can be
considered as fundamental components of the soil that, collectively, as a single unit called a
4
clay micelle. Figure2.4 shows the ideal model of clay micelle. The mineral charge is
neutralize as the result of positive charged cations surrounding to the surface of internal
negative charged mineral core. Water that is attracted to clay particles due to the high cation
concentrations is called osmotic water. The cations in the micelle that can be adsorbed firmly
on the surface of clay minerals balance these electric surface forces.
2.2.3 Macroscale behavior of Expansive soil
The theoretical understanding of expansive clay is based on the contemplation of the

microscale and macroscale aspects. The microscopic aspects indicate the composition of the
minerals the structural composition of the soil particles and the chemistry of the pore fluid,
which the properties commonly influence aspects of the macroscale, such as dry density,
plasticity and water content from a soil. The expansive clay minerals are generally formed
over a long periods of the time due to the erosion of rocks by chemically from low
concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted solvents. For a long time, the accumulation
of clay deposits is over-consolidated due to the application of highly external loads by the
glacial or volcanic activity process. Another process could be possible with colluvial, wind
or alluvial deposition. This deposition has settled in the land and is thicker in a depressed
area. As a result, clay particles are enforced closer, the soil turns into stronger and stiffer
from the sedimentation process over a long period of time under high compression pressure.
In general, expansive clay minerals are formed over long periods of time due to the gradual
chemical erosion of rocks from low concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted
solvents.
2.2.3.1 Plasticity
The plasticity index (PI) is directly related to the expansion potential of the expanding
clay. In general, the soils show behavior like plastic in a broad range of water content. As a
result, higher fluid limits lead to greater potential for swelling and contraction. Figure 2.5
shows that the rich clayey area of Montmorillonite has the highest plasticity index near the
U line. The soil above A line is clays and the below is silts. The U line specifies the upper
limit for natural soils, therefore no soil should be above the U line.
2.2.3.2 Soil structure and fabric
Another influence properties of the expansion of clay minerals can be suggested by the
structure of soil particles and the gap between interactions of particles. Depending on the
formation of soil deposits, flocculated structure clays tend to expand more than dispersed
structure clays because the particle interaction between micelles has larger space that could
be absorbed more water. Figure 2.6 depicted the structure formation of sediment clay
particles. Structure and fabric are transformed by compaction at high ratio of water-content
and remolding.
5
2.2.3.3 Density and Water Content
Both percent swell and swell pressure are governed by dry density and water-content of the
soil. Thus, the lower density soil exhibits the greater volume change takes place. Swell
pressure determinations manifest that soils with a lower degree of dry density create less
swell pressure than stiffer soil. Swelling pressure is directly proportional to the dry density.
However, the initial water content is inversely proportional to swelling pressure. If the initial
water content is high in the soil, the swell pressure will be decreased. Figure 2.7 shows that
oedometer test result from the experiment of Chen (1988), the specimens are the same initial
water content and different dry density.
2.3 Soil Suction
Soil suction is defined as the energy required for extracting unit volume of water from soil
(Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993). Soil suction theory was majorly developed in relation to
soil-water-plant system. Soil suction was introduced into geotechnical engineering to explain
the mechanical behavior of unsaturated soil at Road Research Laboratory in England
(Croney and Coleman, 1948). Chen (1988) suggested that the drier the soil, the greater is the
soil suction. Soil suction is an important property of unsaturated soil to stimulate the
constitutive model. In general, soil suction can be classified into two major components,
such as Matric suction (Ψm) and Osmotic suction (Ψo). The sum of that both suction is term
as Total suction (Ψ). The common units for soil suction are Atm, kPa, centibar, pF. The pF
unit is expressed as the typical logarithm of height in centimeters of the column of water
needed to provide suction. Table 2.1 summarizes the relationship between different
commonly used units of suction.
Matric suction which is related to capillary action in pore spaces of soil structure is the
difference between pore-water pressure and pore-air pressure at the interface between pore
water and pore air. Osmotic suction is related to the ionic concentration in soil structure that
consists of different phases soil particles, pore water, pore air, and interfaces between pore
fluids. Aitchison (1965) stated that the following definition for suction from thermodynamic
criteria. These definitions are generally accepted concepts in geotechnical engineering.
Generally accepted concepts in geotechnical engineering. Figure 2.8 shows the schematic
illustration of soil suction.
Where,
Ūv = Partial pressure of water vapor over curved surface (meniscus), pore-water vapor of
soil water
Ūv1 = Patial pressure of water vapor over flat surface of identical soil water
6
Ūv0 = Saturation pressure of water vapor over flat surface of pure water at the same
temperature
RH = Relative humidity = Ūv/ Ūv0 x 100%
The total suction of soil, defined as the free energy of pore-water vapor of soil, can be
determined by measuring the water pressure of soil or the relative humidity in the soil
structure. The psychrometer and non-contact filter method are used for total suction
measurements. Psychrometers measure the relative humidity of soil directly by means of
thermocouples and filter papers are used as sensors to measure relative humidity indirectly.
Matric suction can be measured by direct or indirect measurement. The negative pore-water
pressure is directly measured with tensiometers and axis-translation device by using high air
ceramic inlet disks. The tensiometers can be used both in the laboratory and in the field, but
the axis-translation device can be used only in the laboratory. Contact filter paper method,
with some difficulties to ensure perfect contact between soil sample and filter paper, can be
used for indirect matric suction measurements. Various types of porous sensors are also used
to measure the matric suction indirectly. Thermal conductivity sensors fall into this category.
The osmotic suction of soil can be measured by several procedures such as pore fluid
squeezer technique and the saturation extract procedure. The measurement is based on the
electrical conductivity of pore-water in the soil, which is a function to dissolve salt
concentration in pore-water. Pure water has lower electrical conductivity than salt solutions.
The amount of electrical conductivity can be used to calculate the total salt concentration of
pore-water, associated with soil osmotic suction.
From the measurements of several researchers reached to the conclusion that the osmotic
suction is less sensitive to change in water content of the soil change in total suction can
fairly represent the change in matric suction of soil, which is difficult to measure at the high
suction ranges. This difficulty is caused by the cavitations and air diffusion of water in
measuring system at the high negative pore water pressures. Table 2.2 shows the devices
that are usually applied for the measurement of soil suction.
2.4 Environmental Condition
2.4.1 Moisture Fluctuation
Moisture content plays a key role in changing the volume of expansive soil. The environment
conditions have influenced on the variation of moisture content. Gravity is the major support
to transfer moisture. For example, precipitation, seepage of surface water, and snow melting
into the soil. Capillary force is a remarkable indication of water transfer for fine-grained soil.
Chen suggested that theory of capillary rise in clay could possibly more than 1000feet. The
inconsiderable magnitude of 1 or 2 percent in changing of moisture content could cause
detrimental swelling.
7
The following factors are the main influence impact on swelling or shrinkage of soil.
• Climate
• Temperature
• Ground water table
• Vegetation
• Permeability of soil
• Drainage and manmade water sources
Moisture variation can occur up to the certain depth term as active zone. The zone of seasonal
moisture variation due to the above factors. Determination of depth of active zone is
necessary to find out necessary modification in design and construction of foundation resting
on expansive soil.
2.4.2 Initial Moisture Condition
The initial moisture content of soil controls the quantity of swelling, that affected for both
in undisturbed and in the remolded sample. Consequently, changing amount of moisture
content is directly proportional to the amount of volume. The initial moisture content of
extremely dry clays with lower than 15 percent will absorb water up to about 35 percent,
cause significant damage to structures. Thus, the drier soil sample will enlarge more than the
wetter soil with the same swell potential.
2.4 Stress Condition
2.4.1 History of stress
Overconsolidated clay has a greater potential to expand than the normally consolidated clay
with the same proportion of void ratio. The repeated drying and wetting process leads to
reduce the potential for soil swelling in the laboratory. This phenomenon is term as soil
fatigue. Cyclic loading and unloading process of soil also showed the same effect. After the
certain circle of these process, swell potential and swell pressure remains unaffected.
2.4.2 External Loading
The magnitude of external loading will affect the amount of the volumetric change in the
soil. If external loading is large enough to compensate the swell pressure of the soil, no
considerable or very little vertical movement may occur in the structure.
8
2.4.3 Soil Profile
The position and depth of the expanding soil layers will dramatically affect volume of soil.
If the soil layer is expanding in the active zone, volumetric changes will occur dramatically.
When the saturated soil layer is overlapped by the thickness of the soil layer, the volume
change is minimal.
2.5 Identification and Classification of Expansive soil
The identification of expansive soils is critically important in a geotechnical investigation

before and during construction. Generally, the identification of swelling potential on
expansive soils can be classified into two main properties, the mineralogical or chemical
properties of soils and physical properties. Physical property of soils include such as free
swell, potential volume change and atterberg limits. Mineralogical or chemical properties of
soils include cations exchange, specific surface area and capacity of clay content (Nelson,
2015). By utilizing routine laboratory test, only physical properties identification are used to
measure in the usual practice of geotechnical engineering. Although the practice impractical
and economical, the mineralogical identification method remains important to explore the
basic properties of clay minerals especially in agricultural and geological practitioners.
According to Nelson, methods based on Physical Properties are following;
Method based on physical properties (After Nelson et al. 2015)
• Plasticity
• Potential Volume Change (PVC)
• Expansion Index (EI) Test
• Free Swell Test
• Coefficient of Linear Extensibility (COLE)
• Standard Absorption Moisture Content (SAMC)
2.5.1 Plasticity
The liquid limit and plasticity index are useful indices to estimate the swelling characteristics
of most of the clays. As a result, many research indicated that the liquid limit and the swelling
of clays both depend on the quantity of water content. The utilization of Atterberg limits as
indicators of soil behavior has been the widely used method in soil engineering laboratory
practice. Plasticity Index (PI) and Liquidity Index (LI) are basic indices of the Atterberg
limits. Casagrande (1948) states that Plastic Index is the most commonly used predictor of
soil expansive behavior. The relation between the expansion potential of clays and plasticity
index can be classified in Table2.3.
9
According to Skempton (1953), soils have the most potential for swelling is called active
clay. The relation between activity and class of potential can be classified in Table 2.4.
Sodium Montmorillonite is the most swelling potential rather than other clay minerals are
shown in Table 2.5.There are three classes of clays according to activity that is related to
Atterberg limits and natural clay content can be calculated as follows:
Activity (Ac) = (2.1)

%
Where,
Ac = Atterberg limits and clay content combined parameter”
2.6.2 Free Swell Test
The free swell test involves placing a known volume of dry soil that passes the sieve No.40
(425 micron) into water and measures the increase in the volume of soil without any
limitation of surcharge after having immersing in water. Nelson et al. (2015) indicated that
the free swell of the soil is measured as the ratio between the changes in volume from dry
state to wet state with respect to the initial volume, expressed as a percentage. Holtz and
Gribbs (1956) suggested that soils having free swell values as low as 100 percent may exhibit
considerable damage to light loaded structures,
(2.2)
Where,
FSI = Free Swell Index
Mitchell, 1993 states that methods used to identify clay minerals in soils include X-ray
diffraction, electron microscopy, differential thermal analysis and wet chemical analysis,
this can be considered from the mineralogical point.
2.6.3 Potential Volume Change (PVC)
The Potential Volume Change test contains placing a remolded soil specimen in a oedometer
ring as shown in Figure 2.10. Firstly, the remolded sample was compacted in a fixed
oedometer ring, then water added to the device in order to swell the sample under restrained
10
condition. The swell index can be converted from the pressure reading of proving ring to
potential volume change. It has been used by many State Highway Departments in The
United State as well as some geotechnical engineers (Nelson et al. 2015). Lambe (1960)
established the PVC rating as describe in Table 2.6.
2.6.4 Expansion Index (EI) Test
“Expansion Index (EI) test base on consolidation-swell oedometer test which consists of the
sample passed through No.4 sieve, then water is added to obtain the degree of situation
between 49 to 51per cent. The sample is compacted under apply 144 psf (7kPa) vertical
stress with inundation of water. The classification of expansion potential of soil described in
Table 2.7. The expansion index can be calculated by using following equation:”
(2.3)
2.6.5 Coefficient of Linear Extensibility (COLE)
The coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE), which is the one-dimensional length change
of natural soil clod between different moisture conditions, is commonly used to determine
soil shrink-swell capacity (Grossman et al., 1968). The COLE test measures the linear
deformation of an undisturbed, unconfined sepcimen on drying from 5psi (34kPa) suction to
oven-dry suction (150,000psi=1,000 MPa). The method consists coating undisturbed soil
specimens with a pliable plastic resin. The resin coating need to be impermeable to water
although permeable to the water vapor. They are weighed in water and air to achieve their
volumes. The sample is dried in the oven and another volume measurement is performed in
the same way. COLE is a measurement of the sample size change from the wet to dry and is
estimated from the bulk densities of the plate to a 5 psi suction and dry moisture conditions
in the oven. The value of COLE is given by the following equation:
(2.4)
Where;
ΔL / ΔLD = linear strain relative to dry dimensions,
ϒdD = dry density of oven-dry sample,
11
ϒdM = dry density of sample at 5psi (34kPa) suction.
The National Soil Survey utilizes the Linear Extensibility (LE) as an sign of clay mineralogy.
The relationship between of LE to the clay content is related to mineralogy as shown in table
2.8.
2.6.6 Standard Absorption Moisture Content (SAMC)
The SAMC test is the new swelling potential index for expansive soils, it was proposed in
China’s Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrades (CMC 2004). Yao et al. (2004)
proposed several tests and presented standard moisture absorption (SAM). The SAMC test
involves the undisturbed soil specimens on a porous stone in a constant wet container on a
saturated sodium bromide solution. SAMC can be determined by the following equation.
(2.5)
Where:
We = weight of sample at equilibrium (77˙F and 60% relative humidity),
Ws = weight of oven dry sample
China’s Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrades (COMC 2004) introduces a

method for the classification of soils with a large area depending on absorbed moisture index,
free-swell and plasticity index. The values are shown in Table 2.9.
2.6.7 Classification methods base on Mineralogy and Chemical properties
Method based on Mineralogy and Chemical properties consist the following test:
Method based on Mineralogy
• Differential thermal analysis (DTA)

• Electron microscopy
• X-RAY diffraction (XRD)
Method based on Chemical properties
• Total Potassium (TP)

• Specific Surface Area (SSA)
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
12
2.6.8 Other existing classification methods
Identification and classification of swell potential using the index properties of soil is the
most popular approach. Followings are the existing classifications by various researchers.
All methods do not require additional data than index properties and common data available
in practicing soil investigation method. Table 2.10 – 2.16 describe the existing classification
methods of degree of expansion.
2.6 Geographical Information of Sampling Location
2.7.1 Mandalay
Mandalay is located in the arid area of central Myanmar by the Irrawaddy River at at 21.98°
north, 96.08 ° east. Mandalay is located along the Sagaing fault and the tectonic plate
boundary between the India and Sunda plates. The largest earthquake in magnitude 7, which
took place in 1956. In the neighborhood of Sagaing, this destruction is the greatest, it is
called the great Sagaing earthquake. Mandalay has a dry climate and tropical humid.
Mandalay features an almost equal length of the wet and dry season. Figure2.11 shows the
location of Mandalay region on the map of Myanmar.
2.7.2 Mae Moh, Lampang
Lampang province is located in relatively dry climate region of northern Thailand at 18° 18’
north 99° 30’ east. The temperature is around 40 degrees Celsius in summer. Summer
typically starts from March until June. Rainy season starts from June until November.
Mae Moh Mine is located at the eastward of Lampang province, which is the largest open-
pit lignite mine in Southeast Asia, founded in 1917. It is located 630 kilometers away from
Bangkok at Mae Moh district, Lampang province in the north of Thailand. There are many
coal electricity plants using this type of coal. The soil samples was collected the golf course
nearby the Mae Moh electricity plants. Figure 2.13 describes the location of Lampang on the
map of Thailand and Figure 2.14 shows the slope cut in the “yellow clay” nearby Mae Moh
Golf Course.
2.8 Determination of Swelling Behavior by Oedometer Testing
Many laboratory tests have been performed to research the swelling behavior of expansive
soil in different ways. Free swell, loaded swell, constant volume, restricted swelling, zero
swell and consolidation-swell oedometer test are the prominent method at the present time.
Among these methods, oedometer test is widespread use methods for measurement of
swelling behavior that relate to the settlement of foundation.
Oedometer test is executed by applying the incremental loads to a specimen and determining
the response of deformation. The result from oedometer test is used to estimate in situ soil
13
settlement of foundation. When Terzaghi first exposed his concept of the effective stress, his
hypothesis was verified on the basis of the experimental results obtained using a piece of
equipment termed the oedometer (Terzaghi 1925, 1943). This device is also called a
consolidometer.
The oedometer test is designed to duplicate the deformation of one-dimensional and drainage
conditions in the field. To simulate these conditions, a rigid confining ring is used to prevent
lateral displacement of the soil sample. The porous stones are placed at the top and bottom
of the specimen to pass drainage in vertical direction. Because the consolidation process
includes the movement of water from the soil, it is necessary to control the soil from being
dried during testing due to evaporation. For this purpose, the consolidation cell is filled up
with water.
There are two common methods that are usually performed to determine swelling pressure,
especially in expansive soil. The first and foremost method is that the consolidation-swell
(CS) test, in which the sample is initially subjected to the vertical stress specified in the
oedometer, and flooded under that vertical stress. The percent swell can be measured as the
vertical strain that occurs due to wetting, and the consolidation-swell swelling pressure
(σCS’’) can be measured as the stress that would be required to restore the sample to its
original height. Another widespread use method is constant volume oedometer test. In this
method, the sample is initially subjected to a prescribe vertical stress, but during inundation,
the sample is confined from swelling and the stress that is required to prevent swell is termed
constant volume swelling pressure (σCV’’) (Nelson et al.2015). Consequently, heave index
(CH) is the important parameter to predict the expansion of soil. The heave index can be
defined as a linear relationship between percent swell and applied stress.
Figure 2.15 shows the stress paths in order to measure the heave index (CH). The line BDE
is assumed as the linear, the CH value is the same for all values of inundation stress. The
value of CH can be measured from the relationship between the swelling pressure of
consolidation-swell test and constant volume test. Heave index (CH) slope of the line can be
calculated by the following equation.
(2.6)
Where, CH = Heave Index
εS% = Percent swell corresponding to the particular value of σi’’
σCV’’= Swelling pressure obtained from constant volume test.
σi’’ = Vertical stress at which the sample is inundated.
14
Fredlund (1969) stated that the soil specimen has actually undergone some rebound between
the time of sampling and testing. This rebound also reduces the measured swelling pressure
below that of the in-situ value. A correction is applied for the compressibility of the
oedometer equipment itself. The deflection of the equipment can be measured by substituting
steel plugs into soil samples and performing load cycles and unload cycles. Figure 2.16
shows the example of correction of measured consolidation-swell and constant volume
oedometer data for each loading and unloading process.
2.9 Free-field Heave Prediction
The heave prediction method began in the late 1950s. The method originated from the use
of one-dimensional oedometer (consolidation) test results to estimate the expansion of the
volume of saturated soil. The prediction method uses the results of oedometer test presents
the obvious advantages of using normal testing equipment which is familiar to most
geotechnical engineers. Free-field heave is the heave that takes place with no other loads
applied to the soil such as by a foundation or an embankment (Nelson et al.2015). The soil
profile for heave of each layer is calculated by is divided into several layers. The free-field
heave can be calculated using equation (2.7). Figure 2.17 depicted the heave of layer of
expansive soil.
(2.7)
Where,
ρ = Total free-field heave,
ΔHi = Heave of layer i,
CH = Heave index of layer i,
Hi = Initial thickness of layer i,
σCV’’ = Swelling pressure obtained from CV test of layer i,
σf’’ = Final vertical net normal stress of layer i.”
2.10 The “m” Method
15
Since 1992, there are many researchers who proposed some form of the equation that
relationship between σCS’’ and σCV’’. These include Edil and Alanazy (1992), Reichler
(1997), Bonner (1998), Thompson et al. (2006), Nelson et al. (2006, 2012). Another
important method can be obtained by measuring the nature of the oedometer test results of a
series of tests performed on the same sample (Nelson and Chao, 2014). This method termed
as the “m” method. The parameter of “m” relies on the nature of expansive and other
properties of the soil and that facilitate to estimate σCV’’ from σCS’’, without carrying out a
constant volume test.
In usual geotechnical engineering process, only the CS test is usually conducted, and only
the CS swelling pressure is determined. The oedometer tests performed on the same soil at
different values of σi’’ that the test results will look as shown in the idealized data in Figure
2.18 (Reichler 1997; Gilchrist 1963). This graph shows that the swelling pressure determined
from the CS test decreased as σi’’ increased. If the soil does not swell when it is inundated,
i.e., a constant volume oedometer test, the inundation stress will be equal to the swelling
pressure. Therefore, at the point where σi’’ is equal to σCV’’, the value of σCS’’ will converge
to σCV’’. Point M in Figure 2.19 equivalents to the point M in Figure 2.20 and shows the
point where σim’’ = σcv’’. This point can be seen in Figure 2.19 by plotting a line with a slope
of 1:1. The line equation in Figure 2.20 can be seen the following equation;
(2.8)
Where:
m = slope of the line
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
16
3.1 Flow Chart of Methodology
Sample collecting
Identification of
collected soil
Consolidation Analyses
Compare the risk (Oedometer test)
categories to existing
classification method
Consolidation-swell test Constant volume test
Determine M value base

on both swelling
pressure results from CS
and CV test
Evaluate the relationship

between M value and
degree of saturation
Predict Heave
17
3.2 Sampling and testing material
In this study, three materials are selected for testing namely; Mandalay clay, Lampang clay
and artificial clay (bentonite+sand).
3.2.1 Mandalay clay
The Mandalay clay material is obtained from Patheingyi Township, in eastern Mandalay.
The sampling point was selected with the guidance of Dr. Hla Myo Aung (Mandalay
Technological University). Geological in Mandalay area is younger Holocene, alluvial
deposits. Patheingyi still consists largely of rice fields, but in the past two decades, it has
become home to a number of universities. Groundwater tables were below the sampling
depth at the extraction of the sample. Sampling points were grown in open field by weed and
grass. Soil layers are solid clay soil deposits with low to very low permeability. It was very
dry and hard in the original state, but only a little water is needed to soften and sticky. The
sample was excavated from 3feets under the natural ground level, some cracks up to one to
two centimeter wide at the surface.
3.2.2 Lampang clay
The disturbed soil sample was collected from Mae Moh mine, the eastward of Lampang
province. Geology in Mae Moh is fluvial deposits and consolidated rocks and coal beds.Mae
Moh is the largest open-pit lignite mine in Southeast Asia. There are many coal electricity
plants using this type of coal. The soil sample was collected and transported by Mr. Apipat
Chaiwan, Mae Moh Mine Planning, and Administration Division from EGAT (Electric
Generating Authority of Thailand). The sampling point is near the golf course of Mae Moh
electricity plants.
3.2.3 Artificial clay
Many researchers utilized bentonite belong to an expansive soil in order to compare with
other expansive soil. Bentonite forms by chemical weathering of volcanic ashes which
consisting mostly of smectite mineral that is montmorillonite. There are two main classes of
bentonite namely, sodium and calcium bentonite. Sodium bentonite is known as a clay with
high potential of swelling and exhibiting viscous and thixotropic characteristics (Thamer
Hal-Yaqoub et al. , 2016). Samples were prepared to mix 50% of sodium bentonite to sand
in order to make a soil swell and figure shows these soil sample.
3.3 Identification and classification of sample
Atterberg limits test were determined in this study in order to identify the soil state that
between liquid and plastic state. In this test consist of Casagrande cup test and rolling thread
test to examine the liquid limit and plastic limit. Plasticity index can be determined by
18
calculation the difference between liquid limit and plastic limit (PI= LL-PL). Many
researchers mentioned the value of Plasticity Index (PI) are used to classify the degree of
expansion for expansive soil.
Based on standard Proctor compaction, the values of dry density and water content of soil
samples were measured under ASTM D-698 procedures. Figure 3.4 shows the graph of
optimum water versus maximum dry density of soil. The values of density and water content
are listed in Table 3.1.
3.4 Consolidation-Swell Test
In consolidation-swell test, 20 mm thick remolded specimens were prepared in a 67 mm

diameter floating ring. The mass of soil required is weighted and separated into three equal
portions to compact them into three equal layers interior the ring. Using the small steel rod,
the soil is separately compacted layer by layer in the confining ring. The equipment used for
this test is shown in Figure 3.5.
For each layer, the same amount of compaction is used to ensure that uniformity of sample.
The soil sample is placed in the center of a short cylindrical consolidation ring which is made
of steel, is very strong compared to the sample, in order to prevent any lateral strain. Thereby
ensuring that have one-dimensional consolidation. Consequently, the two porous stones
were placed at the top and the bottom of the specimen, with the filter paper between the
porous stones and the specimen, to allow flow of pore water out of the specimen. With
porous stone on the top and bottom, the water can flow out from the center of the sample in
both directions.
Thereafter, a loading cap is placed on top to spread applied loads over the entire area of the
sample and a dial gauge or digital device is used to measure the vertical displacement. When
the load is placed on the loading cap, the specimen starts ready to consolidate and measure
the vertical displacement versus time. Adjust the seat pressure to approximately 5 kilopascals
for around 5 minutes and ensure that the reading is stable after applying seat pressure. The
loading steps of applied stress incremental is shown in Table 3.2.
Then, the water is added to the consolidation cell in order to swell freely the specimen. The
amount of swell is recorded at the end of 24 hours inundation. Then incrementally increase
the vertical applied stress for several times and measuring the vertical deflection with each
load. In general, the duration of each load increment is based on when the sample
deformation becomes steady. After the data measured from each loading increment, create
a table of applied stress versus vertical strain. Otherwise, the percent swell ( s%) and the
swelling pressure (σCS’’) can be measured by calculating the sample height change from
each reading.
19
3.5 Constant Volume Test
In constant volume test, the specimen is confined in order to prevent swelling, and the stress
required to prevent any swelling to maintain a constant value is denominated the constant
volume swelling pressure, (σCV’’). The consolidation cell is used for this test, and follow the
ASTM D-4546 procedure. First of all, the specimen is compacted to the consolidation ring,
the soil is used from the compaction mold, and record the weight of the specimen with the
ring. Then assemble the specimen into the load cell, the two porous stone placed in the
bottom and top of the ring. The two filter paper will put between both porous stone and
specimen ring. When the filter is placed that is a need to roll it on carefully to avoid air
bubbles and smooth. Figure 3.6 depicts the load cell of constant volume test used in this
study.
Thus, the top cap placed on top of the porous stone, and that is connected with the steel frame
ensure to restrain the specimen swell. The initial seating pressure of 5 kilopascal applied
before adding water. In general, the vertically applied pressure used in this method is equal
to the field overburden load or structure load. Thereafter, the displacement transducer device
assembled properly touching on top of the cap to measure the swelling pressure of the
specimen and the transducer is set to zero before starting inundation.
Then the specimen is immersed in the cell with water. Water is added until covering the top
of the porous stone to ensure swelling of a specimen. Subsequently, vertical incremental
stress are applied to prevent swelling and begin the software to take the reading of specimen
swelling with 5 seconds interval time in first 5 minutes of loading test. After running 3
minutes of 3.5 kilopascals of seating pressure, the reading was changed to 3 minutes intervals
and run the test is performed until the reading shows that the swelling pressure is constant.
The transducer reading is checked and the vertical pressures are applied when the reading
shows swell of the specimen. The variation of deformation at the time of the sample is
flooded preferably within 0.005 mm and 0.01 mm. When the transducer reading shows
around the 0.005 mm deformation compared to the first reading, the specimen is kept under
pressure and run until when there is no change in deformation of a specimen and complete
the test.
3.6 Determination of Swell Parameters
Swell percent and swelling pressure, derived from conventional consolidation test, are basic
swell parameters that are useful in prediction of heave analysis. Swell percent is defined as
the percentage that probable volume change of soil sample from its original volume under
moisture content changes. The pressure required to reduce the volume of the specimen to its
original volume was termed the swelling pressure of the soil (Fredlund, 1969).In
consolidation-swell test, swell percent ( s%) and swelling pressure (σCS’’) are determined
20
from applied stress versus vertical strain curve. In this method, swelling pressure is the
pressure required to reduce the volume of the sample to its original volume.
In constant volume test, the swelling pressure of soil (σCV’’) is obtained from stress versus
strain curve but swell percent cannot be determined by this method. The swelling pressure,
in this case, can be defined as the pressure at which there has no tendency to change in
volume increase or decrease. Figure 3.7 shows the results of the swell percent and swelling
pressure obtained from consolidation-swell test and constant volume test. It is obviously
seen that the swelling pressure obtained from both tests is significantly different in
magnitude, the swelling pressure of consolidation-swell test (σCS’’) is much larger than that
of constant volume test (σCV’’). The correction of both oedometer test data were performed
before plotting the applied stress versus vertical strain.
3.7 Calculation and Data analysis
After testing done, the heave index CH can be measured from the CS test and CV test data.
Generally, the results of oedometer test are plotted in the form of vertical strain versus
vertical applied stress on the logarithmic scale. An example of CS test and CV test data are
shown in Figure 2.15. The line BDE can be calculated by a linear straight line connected
with point B, (the point described as the percent swell in the consolidation-swell test) and
pint E, (the point described as the swelling pressure determined by constant volume test).
The slope of line BDE has represented the heave index CH that can be calculated by
following equation 2.6. For both methods, the swelling pressure of soil is measured by using
in compacted at three different water content of soil for Mandalay clay and only optimum
water content for Lampang clay and B-S mixture. The swelling pressure obtained and water
content relation is investigated. The predicted amount of heave for three soil calculated from
the following equation 4.1.
[ε s % ]i
CH =
 σ '' 
100 × log  cv'' 
σi  (2.6)
Where,
CH = Heave Index
εS% = Percent swell corresponding to the particular value of σi’’
σCV’’ = Swelling pressure obtained from constant volume test.
σi’’ = Vertical stress at which the sample is inundated.
21
σ '' 
∆H = C H H log  cv''  (3.1)
 σi 
Where,
ΔH = Heave of layer,
CH = Heave index of layer,
H = Initial thickness of layer,
σ cv'' = Swelling pressure obtained from CV test of layer,
σ i'' = Inundation stress
As described above, both consolidation-swell test and constant volume test would be needed
to measure heave index CH. It is easy to obtain a relationship between both methods and so
that CH can be determined from only the CS test. This method is denoted as “m” method that
has proposed by Nelson and Chao in 2014. The parameter “m” facilitate to estimate from,
without running constant volume test. The detail of the “m” method are reported in chapter
2. If the soil does not swell when it is fully saturated, i.e., a constant volume oedometer test,
the inundation stress will be equal to the swelling pressure. Thus, at the point where σi’’ is
equal to σCV’’, the value of σCS’’ will converge to σCV’’. This point can be measured by
plotting on a line with a slope of 1:1. The equation of the line can be determined the following
equation 2.8. In this study, the parameter “m” was determined for each soil and compared
the degree of expansion for each expansive soil base on the Plasticity Index (PI).
log σ cs'' − log σ cv''

=m
log σ cv'' − log σ i'' 2.8
22
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction
The objective of this research is to evaluate the relationship between swelling pressures
determined by consolidation-swell test, constant volume test. Furthermore, the prediction of
free field heave for each soil sample is determined. The laboratory test results are compiled
to characterize the soil. These test results are used for determination of the swelling pressures
from oedometer test, other geotechnical relate classification of soil samples. This chapter
describes the physical properties, classification of test material, compaction properties and
oedometer test results. Constant volume tests were conducted to determine swelling pressure
and consolidation-swelling tests were performed on the test material to determine swell
properties of three test material, such as; percentage of swelling, swelling pressure.
4.2 Physical properties
In this study, the following basic soil physical properties tests were determined to classify
the expansive soils in this study:
• Sieve analysis test,

• Hydrometer test,
• Atterberg Limits test,
• Specific gravity test,
• Standard proctor compaction
According to Casagrande’s Unified soil classification system from Table 4.1, Mandalay
clay, Lampang clay, and bentonite + sand mixture are inorganic clay or high plasticity clay
(MH). The summary results of basic soil properties are presented in Table 4.2.
4.3 Particle size analyses
In this study, wet sieving analysis was carried out with sieve sizes; 4.76 mm, 2.2mm, 1.18
mm, 600 μm, 300 μm, 150 μm, and 75 μm. The particles passing 75 μm sieve were
accumulated, and hydrometer analysis was determined. Both test were performed according
to ASTM C136, ASTM D422 respectively. Figure 4.1 shows the results of the particle size
distribution of three types of soil samples obtained from sieves and hydrometers analysis.
The grain size analysis chart shows that all soil types used in this study are inorganic clay,
fat clay or high plastic clay.
23
4.4 Compaction test
Standard Proctor compaction was conducted to measure the optimum water content and
maximum dry density for three type of test materials. T`he procedure of testing follows
ASTM D-698. As shown in Figure 3.4, the maximum dry density of Mandalay clay is
significantly higher than other two soils, while the optimum water content of Lampang clay
has remarkably highest value. The determination results of compaction test for three types
of soil are shown in Table 3.1.
4.5 Atterberg limits test
The Atterberg limit containing the limits of liquids (LL), plastic limit (PL) and plasticity
index (PI) are the indices useful for estimating the degree of expansion potential of
expansive soils. The plasticity index value of Mandalay clay and Lampang clay have 42.2
and 50.2 respectively. Considerably, the bentonite+sand mixture has the dramatic value of
plasticity index that showing around 256.3. The results are already described in Table 4.2.
According to the Casagrande’s Unified soil classification system, all used soil are CH.
According to the plasticity index and soil expansion potential of Peck, et al.,(1974), three
type of soil have very high expansion potential if it has the plasticity index over 35. The
results have shown very high expansion degree for three types of soil according to the
research of Peck, et al., (1974). The results of high liquid limit value were measured from
Mandalay clay, Lampang clay possesses around 59.6 and 69.5 are shown in Figure 4.3. The
liquid limit value of all soil samples rest in between U-line and A-line from the chart of Holtz
et al., (2011). According to existing expansive soil classification, the comparison of the soil
expansion potential degree from previous research for three type of soil are shown in Table
4.3, 4.4, and 4.5.
4.6 Constant volume test
In this test, the remolded sample is initially subjected to a prescribed vertical applied stress
and inundated with water after 3minutes applying the 3.5 kilopascals seating pressure. The
specimen is compacted in the consolidation ring by small compacted steel rod with
prescribing water content and dry density in order to accurate the measurement. Five
specimens are prepared for three types of soil sample using air dry test material with different
water content.
During loading phase, specimens are enabled to absorb water, however the specimen is not
allowed to swell. The specimen is confined from swelling by exerting more vertical stress
during inundation. The stress that required to maitain the initial height is measured. The
results of constant volume swelling pressure for each soil sample is shown in Table (4.6)
and the relation of time and swelling pressure are shown in Figures 4.4 - 4.8.
24
The equipment used for this study is manual type oedometer is shown in Figure (4.3), it is
difficult to control for applying the specific surcharge pressure. The applied vertical load
increment was controlled manually by the adjustment of loading ram. The water content of
the soil samples were determined by drying the soil in the oven before and after the test, and
the mean value was taken as the water content of the sample. The results show the swelling
pressure determined for different water content as measured by the constant volume test
method. The observation results clearly indicate that the swelling pressure of Mandalay clay
is decreasing with the increase of water content.
4.7 Consolidation-swell Test
One-dimensional consolidation-swell tests were carried out in oedometer on remolded

expansive clay specimens under incremental applied vertical stress in order to study the
effect of the swelling such as the percent swell and the swelling pressure. In this test, the
swelling pressure (σ”cv) is defined as the vertically applied pressure required to recompress
a fully inundated soil sample to its initial void ratio (eo). It is determined from one-
dimensional consolidation-swell tests, whereas a fully inundated sample is compressed back
under vertical applied stress.
In this study, fifteen remolded specimens are prepared with different water content, whereas
three specimens were carried out the consolidation-swell test for each one type of soil at the
same water content with different inundation stress up to 10, 20, and 30 kilopascals. The
incremental loading steps of vertical applied stress are shown in Table 3.2. From Table 4.7
to 4.11 describes the results of swelling pressures and percent swell measured from a
consolidation-swell test of three types of the test material.
Figure 4.9 to 4.23 is the result of swelling pressure and percent swell measured by a
consolidation-swell test for three types of the test material. For Mandalay clay, the
oedometer tests are done with three different water content and keeping the same dry density.
It is based on optimum water content, minus two percent of optimum water content, and plus
two percent of optimum water content. For Lampang clay and bentonite+sand mixture, only
the optimum water content is used to determine the consolidation-swell test.
According to the laboratory test results, a notable value of the largest swelling pressure and
percent swell occur in the bentonite+sand mixture, it shows around 1540 kilopascals and
18.3% respectively. The observation results of Mandalay clay shows 850 kilopascals
swelling pressure and the percent swell of 10%. Otherwise, the highest swelling pressure of
Lampang clay is 705 kilopascals and the maximum swell potential is 10 %.
25
4.7.1 Effect of initial water content
Chen (1988) proposed that the initial moisture content of the expansive soils controls the
amount of swelling. The importance of initial water content on percent swell and swelling
pressure for specimens compacted to a dry density of 16.31 kN/m3 for Mandalay clay, as
determined by consolidation-swell test, as shown in Figure 4.24 and 4.25. According to the
figures, the highest swelling pressure of 850 kilopascals and 10% of swell potential are
observed in the lowest water content of 17.75%.
The results clearly stated that the water content increased with a decreasing the swelling
pressure. The swelling pressure is the pressure needed to regain its original height that can
be measured from the stress versus strain curve used for the determination of swelling
percent. As the water content increases, swelling capability decreases to absorb water as the
saturation increases, reducing the ability to swell. The result of the percent swell and swelling
pressure values are in good agreement with suggested by Chen (1988).
4.7.2 Effect of correction for specimen disturbance
In this study, the apparatus compressibility characteristic of oedometer test was measured.
Fredlund (1969) indicated that the compressibility of apparatus has a significant effect upon
the measured swelling properties of a soil. The corrected swelling pressure could be 300
percent more than the uncorrected swelling pressure. The deflection of the apparatus was
measured by replacing a steel disk for the soil specimen where the filter paper is used, and
conducting a loading and unloading step. The correction for 15 remolded oedometer test is
determined in this study. The measured compressibility of oedometer apparatus and filter
data for Mandalay clay is presented in Figure 4.26. The observation result shows that the
differences value between corrected and uncorrected value are not too much in the present
study. It is reasonable to assume that the strength of the oedometer equipment used in the
present study is mechanically strong.
4.7.3 Effect of surcharge pressure
The effect of apply pressure on percent swell and swelling pressure for all used soil is
described in Figure 4.27 and 4.28. The results clearly show that the percent swell and
swelling pressure determined from the consolidation-swell test of all type of soil is
significantly reduced with the increasing applied load. The observation results can be
clarified by the fact that when the soil swells, it exerts an applied pressure that can be
counteracted by an externally imposed load. Consequently, when the swelling pressure is
greater than the applied load, the soil swell, if the external pressure increases, swelling
decrease.
26
4.8 The relationship between CS and CV swelling pressures (The m Method)
The main objective of the study is in order to evaluate the relationship between the swelling
pressure, σ” cs, obtained from consolidation-swell test and the swelling pressure, σ”cv,
obtained from constant volume test. Since 1992, many researchers have been investigated
that the relationship between σ” cs and σ”cv. They have proposed some formula that uses a
simple ratio between σ” cs and σ”cv. The “m” method used in this study has come from the
formula of Nelson and Chao (2014). They have compiled the data from previous research
and derived from observations of oedometer test results from a series of tests conducted on
identical samples.
As shown in Figure 4.25 for Lampang clay, the swelling pressure, σ”cs, determined from CS
test decrease, when the inundation stress σ” I increase. It is clearly shown that the value of
σ”i is directly related to the value of σ”cs. If the soil does not swell any longer when it is fully
saturated, the inundation stress σ”i would be the same with the value of the swelling pressure,
σ”cv, obtained in CV test. In, other words, the value of σ”cs is converge to σ”cv, where the
point σ”i is equal to σ”cv.
Figure 4.29 to 4.33 depict the relation between swelling pressure and inundation stress for
three types of soil used in this study. It is observed that the results show the swelling pressure
decreases along with the inundation stress increase. Gilchrist, 1963 and Reichler, 1997
proposed that the oedometer tests performed on the same soil at different values of σ” i have
shown that as σ”i increase, the swelling pressure determined in the CS test decreases.
According to the experimental observation, the results of this study are in good agreement
with those researchers.
The slope of the m value can be determined by plotting 1:1 line between the logarithmic
consolidation-swell test swelling pressure, (log σ”cs) versus logarithmic inundation stress,
(log σ”i). Figure 4.34 – 4.36 shows the results of m value measured by the slope of the line
for each soil. The summary of regression (R2) value in order to determine the m value from
the trend line equations of each soil are described in Table 4.12. Among these equations,
polynomial trend line shows the best (R2) value, although the equation of polynomial trend
line is complicate to calculate. The formula observed from linear trend line provides the most
relevant equation to compute the slope of a line (m value). The summary results of m value
and the relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for all used soil is shown in Figure 4.37. According
to the observation results from figures, the idealize equation of the linear trend line is
described below;
y = -m x + c
(4.1)
Where, y = Constant volume swelling pressure, σ”cv
27
x = The inundation stress, σ”i
m = the slope of the curve, m value
c = constant value, depending on soil properties
Table 4.13 shows the results of m value determined from linear trend line equation for each
soil with different water content. According to Nelson et al, 2015, the parameter m value can
be determined from equation 2.8. In this study, the experiment results show that the m value
measured from trend line equation has corresponded with that from previous research
equation. Thus, the calculation of parameter m value is in good agreement with proposed by
Nelson et. al, (2015).
log σ cs'' − log σ cv''

=m
log σ cv'' − log σ i'' (2.8)
By rearranging the equation 2.8, the swelling pressure of constant volume can be determined
from equation 4.2, it is convenient to obtain constant volume swelling pressure from m value
without running the test.
logσ cs'' + m logσi''

logσ cv'' =
1+ m (4.2)
4.8.1 Effect of initial water content on m value
The observation results evidently state that the initial water content plays the key role in the
changing m value at the same soil. In other words, m value varies according to different
water content conditions for the particular soil. It is clearly shown that the parameter “m”
value decreased with an increasing water content. Figure 4.40 shows the highest value of m
for Mandalay clay is 0.95 when the degree of saturation is 56 percentage. But, when the
degree of saturation increases up to 71 percent, the value of m decreases up to 0.7. Therefore,
it is reasonable to suggest that the m value is inversely proportional to the degree of
saturation.
4.9 Determination of heave index
The heave index, CH is an important parameter in the computation of free-field heave, which
is the ratio of percent swell determined from consolidation-swell test to the applied vertical
stress to the specimen. The heave index of the soil developed from two or more oedometer
test can be calculated from consolidation-swell test data along with constant volume test
data. The concept of heave index has been discussed in chapter 2. In this study, heave index
28
CH value of each soil under different applied pressure was measured. The calculation results
of heave index value for all used soil are presented in Table 4.14.The heave index value can
be determined by using equation 2.6.
The calculation result of Mandalay clay shows that the parameter m value is related to the
heave index value at the particular soil. It is reasonable to assume that the heave index is
governed by the parameter m value, the heave index CH value increases with an increasing
m value. In other words, the heave index value is directly proportional to the parameter m
value at the particular soil.
4.10 Predicted heave computation
Prediction of heave methods was advanced since 1950. They are based on the extension of
the method of estimating volume changes caused by consolidation in saturated soils using
the results of one-dimensional consolidation tests. The obvious benefit of using conventional
oedometer test is that most geotechnical engineers are familiar with the equipment. In this
study, heave prediction method of Nelson and Chao 2014 equation is used to compute the
free field heave for all used soil. To predict the heave of a soil profile, the soils are required
to divide into a number of layers of thickness. The free field heave, ρ can be calculated by
using equation 2.7. The observation results from calculation show the free field heave is
directly proportional to the heave index value. It is clearly stated that the free field heave
increases with the increasing of heave index value.
4.10.1 Calculation
For Mandalay soil
ϒd = 1665 kg/m3 m = 0.8
ϒt = 1961 kg/m3 εs% = 10%
W = 17.75 % σ”cs = 850 kPa = 86676 kg/m2
σ”I = 10 kPa = 1020 kg/m2 σ”cv = 163 kPa = 16622 kg/m2
The value of heave index can be computed by the following equation.
29
[ε s% ]i
CH =
σ '' 
100× log cv'' 
 σi 
CH =
[0.1]
163 
log 
 10 
CH = 0.0825
The heave index of Mandalay clay is 0.0825.
Assume the soils over the entire depth of potential heave will become fully wetted (S = 100
percent).
ϒt . zp = σ”cv
Zp = 16622 / 1961
Zp = 8.476 meter / 10 layers = 0.85 meter
The soil throughout the depth of potential heave is divided into 10 layers and the heave of
each layer is determined.
Top layer: 0 to 0.85 m
The midpoint of the first layer is 0.425m below the ground surface. The final vertical net
normal stress at that depth is
σ"f = ϒt . z = 1961 x 0.425 = 833.4 kg/m2
The amount of heave is

" !!
ρ1 = CH .H log [ ] = 0.0825 x 0.85 x log [ "##.% ] = 0.0911 meter = 9.11 centimeter
"
The calculations for each succeeding layer are similar and solution of each layer was
computed by a spreadsheet. The results for the computations are shown in Table (4.15) and
the heave profile throughout depth of heave potential is shown is shown in Figure (4.42).
30
For Lampang soil
ϒd = 1567 kg/m3 m = 0.7
ϒt = 1906 kg/m3 εs% = 10%
W = 21.6 % σ”cs = 705 kPa = 71890 kg/m2
[ε s% ]i
CH =
σ '' 
100× log cv'' 
 σi 
CH =
[0.1]
118
log 
 10 
CH = 0.0933
The heave index of Lampang clay is 0.0933.
percent).
ϒt . zp = σ”cv
Zp = 12033 / 1906
31
σ"f = ϒt . z = 1906 x 0.315 = 600.4 kg/m2

" &##
ρ1 = CH .H log [ ] = 0.0933 x 0.63 x log [ ] = 0.0765 meter = 7.65 centimeter
" !&&.%
the heave profile throughout depth of heave potential is shown is shown in Figure (4.43).
For Bentonite+sand soil
ϒd = 1467 kg/m3 m = 0.7
ϒt = 1753 kg/m3 εs% = 15.1 %
W = 19.45 % σ”cs = 1420 kPa = 144800 kg/m2
[ε s% ]i
CH =
σ cv'' 
100× log '' 
 σi 
CH =
[0.151]
 210
log
 20 
CH = 0.148
The heave index of bentonite+sand is 0.148.
percent).
ϒt . zp = σ”cv
Zp = 21414 / 1753
32
σ"f = ϒt . z = 1753 x 0.611 = 1071 kg/m2

" % %
ρ1 = CH .H log [ ] = 0.148 x 1.222 x log [ ] = 0.235 meter = 23.5 centimeter
" &'
the heave profile throughout depth of heave potential is shown in Figure (4.44).
33
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
The swelling behaviors of three soil samples are investigated by consolidation-swell

oedometer test and constant volume test. The disturb soil samples were collected from
Mandalay, and Lampang, both regions have the reputation of excessive volume change
problems due to expansive soil. In order to compare with these two soil sample, the artificial
soil was created by using 50 percent of bentonite and sand. The main purpose of the
experimental tests in this study is in order to evaluate the relationship between swelling
pressures determined by consolidation-swell test and constant volume test. Furthermore, the
computation of predicted free field heave for all used soil is determined. The results obtained
in consolidation-swell and constant volume test showed the different value of swelling
pressures. Chief conclusions and observation of this study are summarized below:
• The linear trend line provides a reasonable R2 value for the soils tested in this study.
Therefore, it is recommended that the relationship between σ”cs and σ”cv can be
determined using the m method proposed by Nelson and Chao (2014).
• According to the experimental test result, the parameter “m” value decreases as the
degree of saturation increases. It is obviously stated that the m value is inversely
proportional to the degree of saturation.
• The experimental results indicated that the heave index CH increases, as the m value
increases, which results in an increasing free-field heave. The heave index is directly
proportional to the parameter m value.
• The calculation results showed that the computed free field heave increased, the
value of heave index increased.
• It is reasonable to assume that the result of free-field heave calculation for present
study are in good agreement with existing classification of the risk of movement
based on Plasticity index.
• Using plasticity index to classify the risk of movement seems reasonable. However,
other factors such as initial water content, density, clay mineralogy, etc. should be
considered in the classification.
• From experimental results, the consolidation-swell test produced the highest value
of swelling pressure for all tested soils. The swelling pressure obtained in the
consolidation-swell test is significantly higher than that measured from the constant
volume.
34
• In consolidation-swell test, the soil of same dry density tested at different water
contents shows the percent swell and swelling pressure are inversely proportional to
the water content of the soil. The highest swelling pressure and percent swell
observed in the lowest water content of the soil.
• In constant volume test, it is difficult to control the specimen at the constant height
and care loading is needed.
• In consolidation-swell test, the swelling pressure, σ”cs is decreased with an increasing

inundation pressure σ”i. The result showed that in good agreement with previous
theories and research.
• The swelling pressure obtained in the constant volume test stated that the swelling
pressure of soil is decreased with the increased of initial water content.
• The compression curve expressed that soil compacted at dry side shows the highest
swelling behavior.
5.2 Recommendation
Based on the outcome results and observation encountered during the consolidation-swell
test and constant volume test were performted in this study, the following are recommended
to improve the applicability of the results for future study:
• Investigation of the dry density effect on the swelling behavior, the parameter m
value and the heave index CH.
• Investigation of the effect of large range value of water content and apply pressure
on the relationship between the swelling pressure of consolidation-swell test and
constant volume.
• The mineralogical methods of identification should be investigated. The

information would increase the understanding of the importance of clay minerals
in the macroscopic effects of swelling.
35
REFERENCES
Adnan A. Basma, Azm S. Al-Homoud, Abdallah Husein (Malkawi). (1995). Labortory

assessment of swelling pressure of expansive soils, Department of Civil
Engineering,Applied Clay Science 9(1995) 355-368
B.R. Phanikumar, Ravideep Singla (2016) Swell-consolidation characteristics of fibre-

reinforced expansive soils
D. G. Fredlund, H. Rahardjo. (1993). Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils.
Eman M.S. Mansour. (2011), Swell Pressure and Retaining Wall Design in expansive soils.
Fu Hua Chen. (1988). Foundations on Expansive Soils.
Fekerte Arega Yitagesu, Freek van der Meer, Harald van der Werff, Hadush Seged. (2014).
Evaluation of Soil Expansion Index from Routinely Determined Geotechnical
Parameters.
Hakan Sahin. (2011). Characterization of expansive soil for retaining wall. M.Sc thesis.
Texas A&M University.
Hana H. Adem, Sai K. Vanapalli. (2014). Review of methods for predicting heave/shrink of
expansive soils over time. Conference: Proceedings of GeoRegina 2014, 67th
Canadian Geotechnical Conference, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
John D. Nelson, Ph.D., P.E., F.ASC, Diane K.Reichler, Jason M.
John D. Nelson, Ph.D., P.E., F.ASCE; Erik G. Thompson, Ph.D., P.E., Robert W. Schaut,
P.E., M.ASCE; Kuo-Chieh Chao, PhD., P.E., M.ASCE; Daniel D. Overton, P.E.,
F.ASCE; and Jesse S. Dunham-Friel, Aff.M.ASCE : Design Procedure and
Considerations for Piers in Expansive Soils.
John D. Nelson, Kuo Chieh Chao, Daniel D. Overton and Erik J. Nelson, (2015), Foundation
Engineering for Expansive Soils
John D. Nelson, Kuo-Chieh Chao and Daniel D. Overton, Colorado State University, Tetra
Tech, Inc. Design of Pier Foundations on Expansive Soils.
John D. Nelson, Kuo-Chieh Chao and Daniel D. Overton, Colorado State University, Tetra
Tech, Inc. Definition of Expansion Potential for Expansive soil.
John D. Nelson, Kuo Chieh Chao. (2014), Relationship between swelling pressures
determined by constant volume and consolidation-swell oedometer tests, Unsaturated
Soils: Research & Applications.
Karina Niedzwiedzka, Kazimierz Garbulewski, Marzena Lendo-Siwicka (2016) Department

of Geotechnical Engineering, Warsaw University of Life Sciences- SGGW: Prediction
of fee field heave using Cw and CH indices.
Kamil Kayabali, Ankara University (2011), Measurement of Swelling Pressure; Direct

Method versus Indirect Methods.
36
Nyan Myint Kyaw, U., (2002), a study on expansive soil behavior and swell parameter for
some expansive soils of Myanmar, Ph.D, dissertation, department of civil
engineering,y.t.u,2002.
May Hnin Ou, (2015) Swelling Behavior of Compacted Residual Soil in the Chonburi Area,
Eastern Thailand, M.eng thesis.
Mohammed Y. Fattah, Aysar H.S. AL-Lami (2016) Behavior and characteristics of

compated expansive unsaturated bentonite-sand mixture.
Thamer H Al-Yaqoub Jafarali Parol Dobroslav Znidarcic, (2016). Experimental

investigation of volume change behavior of swelling soil, Applied Clay Science 137
(2017) 22-29.
Various aspects of expansive soils relevant to geoengineering practice, Simple Correlations

between Soil Plasticity anatid Expansion Potential
Wikipedia. (2017, September 25). Mandalay. Retrieved from Wikipedia, The Free
Encyclopedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandalay
37
TABLES
38
Table 2.1 Common units conversion of Soil Suction (Nelson et al., 2015)
39
Table 2.2 Devices applied for the measurement of Suction (Fredlund, et al. 1993)
Table 2.3 The relationship between plasticity index and expansion cotential of clays (Peck,
Hanson, and Thornburn 1974)
40
Table 2.4 The relationship between activity (Ac) and class of clay (Skempton, 1953)
Activity (Ac) Class of potential
<0.75 Inactive
0.75-1.25 Normal
>1.25 Active
Table 2.5 The Typical Activity index of clay minerals activity (Skempton, 1953)
41
Table 2.6 The relationship between PVC rating and category (After Lambe, 1960)
PVC rating Category
<2 Non-critical
2-4 Marginal
4-6 Critical
>6 Very Critical
Table 2.7 Expansion potential based on the expansion index (Nelson et al. 2015)
42
Table 2.8 The correlation of Linear Extensibility (LE) to Clay content (Nelson et al.2015)
Table 2.9 Classification indices for Expansive clay (CMC 2004)
43
Table 2.10 Classification based on shrinkage Limit (Altmeyer, 1995)
Linear Shrinkage Probable Degree of

Shrinkage Limit Swell Expansion
% % %
<5 >12 <0.5 Noncritical
5 to 8 10 to 12 0.5 to 1.5 Marginal
>8 < 10 < 1.5 Critical
Table 2.11 Classification based on the plasticity index and shrinkage limit (Holtz and Gibbs,
1956)
Data from Index tests Expansion Index

Colloid Plasticity Shrinkage (% Total Volume Risk
(% minus Index Limit Change) Level
0.001 mm)
< 15 < 18 > 15 < 10 Low
13 to 23 15 to 28 10 to 16 10 to 20 Medium
20 to 31 24 to 41 7 to 12 20 to 30 High
> 28 > 35 < 11 > 30 Very High
44
Table 2.12 Classification based on the plasticity index and the shrinkage limit (Ramen, 1956)
PI (%) SL (%) Degree of

Expansion
< 12 < 15 Low

12 to 23 15 to 30 Medium
23 to 32 30 to 40 High
> 32 > 40 Very High
Table 2.13 Classification based on soil suction, plasitcity index and potential swell (Snethen
et al., 1977)
Liquid Limit Plasticity Natural Potential Classification

Soil
(%) Index (%) Sution Swell of Potential
(TSF) Swell
< 50 < 25 < 1.5 < 0.5 Low
50 - 60 25 - 35 1.5 - 4.0 0.5 - 1.5 Marginal
> 60 > 35 > 4.0 > 1.5 High
45
Table 2.14 Classification based on clay content, SPT and swelling pressure (Chen, 1988)
Laboratory
and Field
Data Probable
% Standard Expansion Swelling Risk Level
Passing Liquid Penetration (% Total Volume Pressure
No.200 Limit (%) (blows/ft) change) (ksf)
< 30 < 30 < 30 <1 1 Low
30 to 60 30 to 40 10 to 20 1 to 5 3 to 5 Medium
60 to 95 40 to 60 20 to 30 3 to 10 5 to 20 High
> 35 > 60 > 30 > 10 > 20 Very High
Table 2.15 Classification based on plasticity index (Chen, 1988)
Plastic Index (%) Swell Potential

0 - 15 Low
10 - 35 Medium
20 - 55 High
35 and above Very High
46
Table 2.16 Classification based o expansion index (ASTM, 2008)
Expansion Index, EI Potential Expansion

0 to 20 Very Low
21 to 50 Low
51 to 90 Medium
91 to 130 High
> 130 Very High
47
Table 3.1 The results of dry density and water content
Soil type Maximum dry density Water content

(kN/m3) (%)
Mandalay clay 16.31 19.75
Lampang clay 15.37 21.6
Artificial clay 15.51 19.45
Table 3.2 Applied stress increment for consolidation-swell test
48
Table 4.1 Casagrande’s unified soil classification system (from ASTM D-2487)
49
Table 4.2 Basic physical properties of all used soil
50
Table 4.3 The comparison of degree of expansion potential for Mandalay clay according to
existing expansive soil classification
Soil type Plasticity Differential Degree of Reference

index value Expansion
value
Mandalay clay 42.2 >35 Very high Swell (Chen, 1988)
Potential
Mandalay clay 42.2 >35 Very high Risk (Holtz and

Level Gibbs, 1956)
Mandalay clay 42.2 >35 High Swell (Snethen et.al. ,

Potential 1977)
Mandalay clay 42.2 >32 Very high (Ramen, 1967)

Degree of
Expansion
51
Table 4.4 The comparison of degree of expansion potential for Lampang clay according to
existing expansive soil classification

value
Lampang clay 50.2 >35 Very high Swell (Chen, 1988)
Potential
Lampang clay 50.2 >35 Very high Risk (Holtz and

Level Gibbs, 1956)
Lampang clay 50.2 >35 High Swell (Snethen et.al. ,

Potential 1977)
Lampang clay 50.2 >32 Very high (Ramen, 1967)

Degree of
Expansion
52
Table 4.5 The comparison of degree of expansion potential for bentonite+sand mixture
according to existing expansive soil classification

value
Bentonite+Sand 256.3 >35 Very high Swell (Chen, 1988)
mixture Potential
Bentonite+Sand 256.3 >35 Very high Risk (Holtz and

mixture Level Gibbs, 1956)
Bentonite+Sand 256.3 >35 High Swell (Snethen et.al. ,

mixture Potential 1977)
Bentonite+Sand 256.3 >32 Very high (Ramen, 1967)

mixture Degree of
Expansion
53
Table 4.6 The results of swelling pressure determined from constant volume test with
different water content for three test material.
Soil type Water content Constant volume

wc swelling pressure,
(%) σ”CV
(kPa)
Mandalay clay 17.75 96
Lampang clay 21.6 118
Bentonite+sand mixture 19.45 210
54
Table 4.7 Consolidation-swell test results of Mandalay clay with 17.75% water content (-
2% optimum water content)
Soil type Water content Consolidation-swell Percent swell Inundation stress

wn swelling pressure, εS% σ”i
(%) σ”CS (%) (kPa)
(kPa)
Mandalay clay 17.75 850 10 10
Mandalay clay 17.75 360 5 20
Mandalay clay 17.75 185 1.8 30
55
Table 4.8 Consolidation-swell test results of Mandalay clay with 19.75% water content
(optimum water content)
Soil type Water content Consolidation- Percent swell Inundation stress

wn swell swelling εS% σ”i
(%) pressure, σ”CS (%) (kPa)
(kPa)
56
Table 4.9 Consolidation-swell test results of Mandalay clay with 21.75% water content (+2%

(kPa)
Mandalay clay 21.75 110 1.25 30
57
Table 4.10 Consolidation-swell test results of Lampang clay with 21.6% water content

(kPa)
Lampang clay 21.6 705 10 10
Lampang clay 21.6 505 5 20
Lampang clay 21.6 265 3.5 30
58
Table 4.11 Consolidation-swell test results of bentonite+sand mixture with 19.45% water

(kPa)
Bentonite+sand 19.45 1540 18.3 10
Bentonite+sand 19.45 1420 17.1 20
Bentonite+sand 19.45 1220 14.3 30
59
Table 4.12 Summary of regression value base on trend line equation results for all used soil
Soil Regression (R2) Equation Trend line
0.9343 y= -0.7018 x + 4.0067 Linear

0.8588 y= -1.083 ln(x)+3.3414 Logarithmic
Bentonite+sand 0.9278 y= 4.3137 e-0.258x Exponential
1.0000 y= -0.5215x2+1.0785x+2.6302 Polynomial
0.8499 y= 3.3783 x-0.397 Power
0.9676 y= -0.7455 x + 3.6019 Linear

0.9602 y= -1.108 ln(x)+2.8943 Logarithmic
Lampang clay 0.9724 y= 3.9076 e-0.307x Exponential
0.9689 y= 0.0827x2-1.0039x+3.7904 Polynomial
0.9553 y= -2.917 x-0.454 Power
0.9443 y= -0.9563 x + 3.811 Linear

Mandalay clay 0.9785 y= -1.41 ln(x)+2.9052 Logarithmic
(-2% optimum 0.9643 y= 4.272 e-0.398x Exponential
water content) 0.9910 y= 0.6904x2-3.0118x+5.2735 Polynomial
0.8857 y= 2.9266 x-0.583 Power
0.9877 y= -0.7884 x + 3.4717 Linear

(optimum 0.9939 y= 3.8042 e-0.343x Exponential
water content) 0.9939 y= 0.2244x2-1.4589x+3.9449 Polynomial
0.9888 y= -2.736 x-0.491 Power
0.9867 y= -0.684 x + 3.029 Linear

(+2% optimum 0.9759 y= 3.2938 e-0.335x Exponential
water content) 1.0000 y= -0.3044x2+0.1753x+2.4553 Polynomial
0.9389 y= 2.371 x-0.666 Power
60
Table 4.13 The results of “m” value determined from linear trend line
Soil Water content M value R2

(%)
Bentonite+sand 19.45 0.70 0.9343
Lampang clay 21.6 0.75 0.9676
Mandalay clay
(-2% optimum water 17.75 0.95 0.9443
content)
Mandalay clay
(optimum water 19.75 0.80 0.9877
content)
Mandalay clay
(+2% optimum water 21.75 0.70 0.9867
content)
61
Table 4.14 The calculation results of heave index value for all used soil
Soil type Constant Inundation Heave Average M

volume stress index CH value
Swelling σ”i CH value
pressure (kPa)
σ”cs
(kPa)
10 0.1384
Bentonite+sand 210 20 0.1675 0.158 0.70
30 0.1692
10 0.0933
Lampang clay 118 20 0.0648 0.072 0.75
30 0.0588
Mandalay clay 10 0.1018

(-2% opt wn) 96 20 0.0734 0.077 0.95
30 0.0356

(opt wn) 90 20 0.0429 0.044 0.80
30 0.0482

(+2% opt wn) 61 20 0.0309 0.035 0.70
30 0.0406
62
Table 4.15 Free field heave calculation of Mandalay clay
63
Table 4.16 Free field heave calculation of Lampang clay
64
Table 4.17 Free field heave calculation of Bentonite+sand mixture
65
FIGURES
66
Figure 1.1 Global distribution of reported expansive soil sites (Nelson et al. 2015)
67
Figure 2.1 The Atomic structure of alumino-magnesium and silicon-tetrahedral octahedral
(a) silicon-tetrahedron; (b) silica sheet; (c) the symbolic structure for silica sheet; (d)
alumino-magnesium octahedron; (e) octahedral sheet; (f) the symbolic structure for
octahedral sheet (Nelson et al, 2015).
68
Figure 2.2 Schematic diagram of the structure: (a) Kaolinite; (b) Illite; (c) Montmorillonite
(Nelson et al. 2015)
Figure 2.3 Typical clay particle (a) Montmorillonite 1000 by 10 Angstrom thick (b)
Kaolinite 10,000 by 1000 Angstrom thick
69
Figure 2.4 A clay micelle expressing the concentration of cations close to the surface of a
clay particle (Nelson et al. 2015)
70
Figure 2.5 The plasticity characteristics of clay minerals plotted on Casagrande’s chart
(Holtz, et al.)
Figure 2.6 Structures of sediment (Lamb, 1969)
71
Figure 2.7 The water content and dry density affected on swelling potential (Chen, 1973)
72
Type of Suction Measure system Reference medium
Figure 2.8 Schematic illustration of soil suction (Fredlund, et al. 1993)
73
Figure 2.9 Seasonal moisture fluctuation in active zone (Chen, 1988)
74
Figure 2.10 (a) The Potential volume change (PVC) apparatus; (b) The swell index vs.
PVC
75
Figure 2.11 Map of Myanmar showing Mandalay, Middle Part of Myanmar (Wikipedia,
2017)
76
Figure 2.12 Sample point at Pathein Gyi Township, Mandalay
77
Figure 2.13 Map of Thailand showing Lampang, North Part of Thailand (Wikipedia, 2018)
78
Figure 2.14 Slope cut in the “yellow clay” nearby Mae Moh Golf Course
79
Figure 2.15 The heave index (CH) determination (Nelson et al. 2015)
Figure 2.16 Correction for compressibility of CS test and CV test (Nelson et al. 2015)
80
Figure 2.17 Heave of layer of expansive soil (J.D. Nelson, K.C.Chao, 2014)
Figure 2.18 Oedometer test results for different values of σi’’ (Nelson et al. 2015)
81
Figure 2.19 Convergence of σCS’’ and σi’’ to σCV’’(Nelson et al. 2015)
82
Figure 3.1 Some surface shrinkage cracks near the sampling point of Mandalay
83
Figure 3.2 The residual yellow clay near Mae Moh elctricity plant, Lampang
84
Figure 3.3 Sand and bentonite mixture
Figure 3.4 The compaction curve obtained from standard proctor compaction test
85
Figure 3.5 Ooedometer used for present study
86
Figure 3.6 The load cell of constant volume test
87
Figure 3.7 The results obtained from oedometer test (Nelson et al.2015)
88
Figure 4.1 Grain size distribution of tested soil
89
Figure 4.2 The results of test material on Casagrande’s plasticity chart
90
Figure 4.3 The constant volume machine.
91
Figure 4.4 Constant Volume test result for bentonite+sand mixture of water content
19.45%
92
Figure 4.5 Constant Volume test result for Lampang clay of water content 21.6%
93
Figure 4.6 Constant Volume test result for Mandalay clay of water content 17.75% (-2%
94
Figure 4.7 Constant Volume test result for Mandalay clay of water content 19.75%
95
Figure 4.8 Constant Volume test result for Mandalay clay of water content 21 .75% (+2%
96
Figure 4.9 Vertical stress versus percentage strain curve from Consolidation-swell test with
swelling measurement for bentonite+sand mixture at 10 kPa inundation pressure with 15.51
kN/m3 dry density and 19.45% water content (optimum water content)
97
Figure 4.10 Vertical stress versus percentage strain curve from Consolidation-swell test
with swelling measurement for bentonite+sand mixture at 20 kPa inundation pressure with
15.51 kN/m3 dry density and 19.45% water content (optimum water content)
98
with swelling measurement for bentonite+sand mixture at 30 kPa inundation pressure with
15.51 kN/m3 dry density and 19.45% water content (optimum water content)
99
with swelling measurement for Lampang clay at 10 kPa inundation pressure with 15.37
100
Figure 4.13 Vertical stress vs percentage strain curve from Consolidation-swell test with
swelling measurement for Lampang clay at 20 kPa inundation pressure with 15.37 kN/m3
dry density and 21.6% water content (optimum water content)
101
with swelling measurement for Lampang clay at 30 kPa inundation pressure with 15.37
102
with swelling measurement for Mandalay clay at 10 kPa inundation pressure with 16.31
kN/m3 dry density and 17.75% water content (-2% optimum water content)
103
104
105
106
107
108
kN/m3 dry density and 21.75% water content (+2% optimum water content)
109
110
111
Figure 4.24 The relationship between initial water content and percent swell
112
Figure 4.25 The relationship between initial water content and swelling pressure
113
Figure 4.26 The results of oedometer apparatus compressibility for Mandalay clay (-2%
114
Figure 4.27 The relationship between applied pressure and percent swell
115
Figure 4.28 The relationship between applied pressure and swelling pressure
116
Figure 4.29 Oedometer test results of Lampang clay for different σ”i values
117
Figure 4.30 Oedometer test results of Bentonite+sand mixture for different σ”i values
118
Figure 4.31 Oedometer test results of Mandalay clay for different σ”i values (-2% optimum
water content)
119
Figure 4.32 Oedometer test results Mandalay clay for different σ”i values (optimum water
content)
120
Figure 4.33 Oedometer test results Mandalay clay for different σ”i values (+2% optimum
water content)
121
Figure 4.34 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for bentonite+sand mixture
122
Figure 4.35 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Lampang clay
123
Figure 4.36 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Mandalay clay (-2% optimum water
content)
124
Figure 4.37 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Mandalay clay (optimum water content)
125
Figure 4.38 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for Mandalay clay (+2% optimum water
content)
126
Figure 4.39 Relationship between σ”cs and σ”i for all used soil
127
Figure 4.40 The relationship between m value and degree of saturation for Mandalay clay
At this point a standard consolidation test is conducted by
128
Figure 4.41 The result of heave index from oedometer test for Mandalay clay (-2%
129
Figure 4.42 The heave profile throughout depth of heave potential for Mandalay clay
130
Figure 4.43 The heave profile throughout depth of heave potential for Lampang clay
131
Figure 4.44 The heave profile throughout depth of heave potential for bentonite+sand
132
APPENDIX
Laboratory Test Results from Consolidation-Swell Test
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148

Relationship Between Swelling Pressures Determined by A ConsolidationSwell Test and A Constant-Volume Test

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Relationship Between Swelling Pressures Determined by A ConsolidationSwell Test and A Constant-Volume Test

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Relationship between Swelling Pressures Determined by a Consolidation-

Swell Test and a Constant-Volume Test

Zin Moe Htut

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Examination Committee: Dr. Kuo-Chieh Chao (Chairperson)

Scholarship Donor: AIT Fellowship

Asian Institute of Technology

Keywords; expansive soil, swelling pressure, percent swell, consolidation-swell, constant

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

4 Results and Discussion 23

5 Conclusion and Recommendations 34

TABLE TITLE PAGE

2.1 Common units conversion of Soil Suction (Nelson et al., 2015) 39

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

1.1 Worldwide distribution of the expansive soil sites (Nelson et al. 67

Volume change of expansive soil is a complicated process that is influenced by various

1.2 Objectives of study

• To understand the relationship between swelling pressures determined by constant

1.3 Scopes of Study

2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Expansive soil

Montmorillonite is a three-layer mineral that has a single sandwich of octahedral plates

2.2.2 Interaction between the component of Expansive Clay

2.2.3 Macroscale behavior of Expansive soil

The theoretical understanding of expansive clay is based on the contemplation of the

2.2.3.2 Soil structure and fabric

2.3 Soil Suction

RH = Relative humidity = Ūv/ Ūv0 x 100%

2.4 Environmental Condition

2.4.1 Moisture Fluctuation

2.4.2 Initial Moisture Condition

2.4 Stress Condition

2.4.1 History of stress

2.4.2 External Loading

2.5 Identification and Classification of Expansive soil

The identification of expansive soils is critically important in a geotechnical investigation

Method based on physical properties (After Nelson et al. 2015)

Activity (Ac) = (2.1)

Ac = Atterberg limits and clay content combined parameter”

2.6.2 Free Swell Test

FSI = Free Swell Index

2.6.3 Potential Volume Change (PVC)

2.6.4 Expansion Index (EI) Test

2.6.5 Coefficient of Linear Extensibility (COLE)

ΔL / ΔLD = linear strain relative to dry dimensions,

ϒdD = dry density of oven-dry sample,

2.6.6 Standard Absorption Moisture Content (SAMC)

We = weight of sample at equilibrium (77˙F and 60% relative humidity),

Ws = weight of oven dry sample

China’s Specifications for Design of Highway Subgrades (COMC 2004) introduces a

2.6.7 Classification methods base on Mineralogy and Chemical properties

Method based on Mineralogy

• Differential thermal analysis (DTA)

Method based on Chemical properties

• Total Potassium (TP)

2.6 Geographical Information of Sampling Location

2.7.2 Mae Moh, Lampang

2.8 Determination of Swelling Behavior by Oedometer Testing

Where, CH = Heave Index

εS% = Percent swell corresponding to the particular value of σi’’

σCV’’= Swelling pressure obtained from constant volume test.

σi’’ = Vertical stress at which the sample is inundated.

2.9 Free-field Heave Prediction

ρ = Total free-field heave,