Cover page

SEDIMENTLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CLAY PARTICLES AT

OFUHWEMGBE AND ENVIRONS, EDO STATE, SOUTHERN NIGERIA

BY

Levi Ibhadojemu AKHUETIE

PSC1607058

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN

BENIN CITY

JANUARY 2023
 Title page

SEDIMENTLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CLAY PARTICLES AT

OFUHWEMGBE AND ENVIRONS, EDO STATE, SOUTHERN NIGERIA

BY

Levi Ibhadojemu AKHUETIE

PSC1607058

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN

BENIN CITY

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
BENIN CITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF
THE AWARD OF BACHELOR SCIENCES DEGREE (B.SC HOUNS) IN
GEOLOGY

JANUARY 2023

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this field work was carried out by Levi Ibhadojemu
AKHUETIE with matriculation number PSC1607058 of the department of
Geology, University of Benin, Benin city.

______________________ ______________________
Dr. D.I. Omoruyi Date
(Project Supervisor)

______________________ ______________________
Prof. O.I. Imasuen, Date

(Head of Department)

iii
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to Almighty God for His loving kindness and favor upon me

throughout my program.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My heartfelt thanks go to Almighty God for His numerous mercies, guidance, and protection
throughout the course of my project work. Words cannot express how grateful I am to my
supervisor, Dr. D.I. Omoruyi. I'd also like to express my gratitude to the Head of Department,
Prof. O.I. Imasuen, for his assistance and training during this program.

Dr. S.A. Salami, Dr. (Mrs.) O. Alonge, and all other lecturers at the Department of Geology,
University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria, I thank you.

I'd also like to thank my wonderful parents, Mr. and Mrs. S.D. Akhuetie for their support
throughout my journey.

To my friends, I want to express my gratitude for your unwavering support throughout this
program.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover page i
Title page ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgement v
Table of Content vi
List of Plates viii
List of Figures ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE 1
INTRODUCTION 1
General Statement 1
1.1 Aim and Objectives 1
1.2 Location of Study Area 2
1.3 Accessibility 3
1.4 Uses of Clay 3
1.4.1 Medicine 3

1.4.2 Construction 3

1.5 Formation of Clay 4

1.6 Clay Deposits in Nigeria 4
CHAPTER TWO 5
LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 The Niger Delta Basin 5
2.2 The Tectonic Evolution of the Niger Delta Basin 5
2.3 Regional Geological Setting of Study Area 7
2.4 Geographcal Location of the Study Area 9
2.5 The Stratigraphic History of the Niger Delta Basin Nigeria 10
2.5.1 The Niger Delta Basin 10
2.5.2 The Niger Delta Basin Stratigraphy 12
2.5.3 Akata Formation 12
2.5.4 Agbada Formation 13

vi
2.5.5 Benin Formation 13
2.6 Previous Work On Clays 14

vii
CHAPTER THREE 15
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 15
3.1 Materials 15
3.2 Methodology 16
3.2.1 Hydrometer Method 16
3.2.2 Fundamental Principles of Hydrometer Method 16
3.2.3 How Does Hydrometer Method Works 17
CHAPTER FOUR 30
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 30
4.0 Presentation of Results 30
CHAPTER FIVE 36
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDIES 36
5.0 Conclusion 36
5.1 Recomendations 36
REFERENCE 37

viii
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Sample Location Of Ofuhmwengbe Showing Clay Deposit - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: Map of study area showing the sampled locations 2

FIGURE 2: Generalized Geological map of Nigeria showing the Basement Complex. 10
Figure 3.1 Diagram showing the glass tube and hydrometer. 17
Figure 3.2 Diagram showing ballast and the hollow glass tube which has graduation for
measurements. 18
Figure 3.3 Diagram showing the sieve material. 18
Figure 3.4 Diagram showing the bicker and clay sample inside. 19
Figure 3.5 Diagram showing the bicker with several clay sample sizes inside. 19
FIGURE 3.6 Diagram showing the bicker with clay samples showing their specific gravity. 19
Figure 3.7 Diagram showing the specific gravity of clay inside the bicker. 20
Figure 3.9 Diagram showing the glass tube with graduation for measurement and the ballast. 21
Figure 3.10 Diagram of the bicker with the ballast submerged inside to determine layer BB and
AA. 22
Figure 3.11 Diagram showing the formula to calculate the affective depth of the values gotten
from the hydrometer. 23
Figure 3.12 Diagram showing the graph which shows a straight line curve known as the
hydrometer calibration curve. 23
Figure 3.13 Diagram showing several bickers and a soil sample. 23
Figure 3.14 Diagram of glass tube with graduation of measurements which is dipped inside the
water. 25
Figure 3.15 Diagram showing thermometer calibrating the temperature at 27°C 25
Figure 3.16 Diagram showing the ballast which is immersed inside the water. 25
Figure 3.18 Diagram showing the bicker and the ballast immersed with the clay samples inside to
27
Figure 3.19 Diagram showing the bicker and the hydrometer immersed inside the water with the
clay samples inside. 27
Figure 3.20 Diagram showing the estimated weight of the solids 28
Figure 3.21 Diagram showing a Simplified the equation. 28
Figure 3.22 Diagram showing weight of solids per volume of layers 28
Figure 3.23 Diagram showing the graph. 29

x
 ABSTRACT

The utilization of clay minerals has recently increased. As a result, the driving force behind this
research project is to determine the sedimentological properties of Ofuhmwengbe clay deposits
in edo state, Southern Nigeria. In this study, ten (5) fresh clay samples from Ofuhmwengbe were
collected and subjected to particle size analysis to determine mineralogy and grain size using the
hydrometer method. Soil texture is determined by the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the
soil, which influences soil properties such as nutrient retention and leaching, as well as water
holding capacity and drainage. Based on their settling rates in an aqueous solution, the
hydrometer method of particle size analysis calculates the physical proportions of these soil
particles.

xi
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL STATEMENT

Clay is a fine-grained natural soil material that contains clay minerals such as anhydrous
aluminum phyllosillcates (for example, kaolin Al 2S12O5 (OH)4). When wet, clay develops
plasticity due to a molecular film of water surrounding the Clay particles, but when dry or found,
it becomes hard, brittle, and non-plastic. The majority of pure Clay minerals are white or light in
color, but natural Clays can have a variety of colors due to impurities, such as a reddish or
brownish color from a small amount of Iron Oxide. Clay is one of the oldest ceramics materials
known to man. Clay's useful properties were discovered by prehistoric humans, who used it to
make pottery. Clay tablets were the first known writing medium, and some of the earliest pottery
shards have been dated to around 14,000BC. Clay is used in a variety of modern industrial
processes, including paper manufacturing, cement production, and chemical filtering. One-half to
two-thirds of the world's population lives or works in buildings made of clay, which is frequently
baked into brick as an essential part of its load bearing structure. Clay is a very common
substance, and shale, which is mostly composed of clay, is the most common sedimentary rock.
Although many naturally occurring deposits contain both silts and clays, clays differ from other
fine-grained soils in size and mineralogy. Silts are fine-grained soils that do not contain Clay
minerals are intended to have larger particle sizes than traditional sand, silt, and less than 40%
clay. Soils rich in swelling clays (exposure clay), which are clay minerals that readily expand in
volume when exposed to water, pose a significant challenge in civil engineering.

1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

This research work is aimed at understanding and studying the clay gotten from the study area
by:

1
 1. To determining the sedimentological properties of the clay in Ofuhmwengbe and

environs, Ovia Northeast Nigeria.

The objectives of the study include:

1. To determine the major element composition of the clay using particle size analysis

(hydrometer method).

1.2 LOCATION OF STUDY AREA

The studied area is in ofuhmwengbe, Ovia Northeast Local Government Area of Edo State. The
area is said to be among the Niger Delta Basin Complex of Nigeria. ofuhmwengbe lies in the
southeastern part of Edo State between latitude 6° 29' 0" - 5° 28' 0"

FIGURE 1: Map of study area showing the sampled locations

2
1.3 ACCESSIBILITY

A network of major and local roads, as well as trails, connect the area. Farmland and both new
and old roads served as access points for the exercise.

1.4 USES OF CLAY

Clays can be used in pottery making, as building materials. Clay can also be used as ceramic
materials. Clay such as kaolinites can be used as paper coating and filler. It gives the paper a
gloss and increases opacity.

Clays can be used in the agricultural sector, they can be used for the processing of ceramics,
paper, plastic rubber and food. The environmental protection or remediation sector. They can be
used in the engineering sector and can also be used in the pharmaceutal industries.

1.4.1 Medicine

Traditional uses of clay as medicine goes back to prehistoric times. An example is Armenian
bole, which is used to soothe an upset stomach. Some animals such as parrots and pigs ingest
clay for similar reasons. Kaolin Clay and attapulgite have been used as anti-diarrheal medicine.

1.4.2 Construction

Clay as the defining ingredient of 100m is one of the oldest building materials on earth, among
other ancients, naturally occurring geologic materials such as stone and organic materials, like
wood. Between one half and two thirds of the world’s population, in both traditional societies as
well as developed countries, still liver or work in buildings, made with clay, often baked into
brick, as an essential part of its load bearing structure. Also a primary ingredient in many natural
building techniques, clay is used to create adobe, Cob, cordwood, and structures and building
elements such as wattle and daub clay plaster, clay render case, clay floors and clay points and
ceramic building materials. Clay was used as a morter in brick chimneys and stone walls where
protected from water.

Clay relatively impermeable to water, is also used natural seals are needed, such as in the cores
of dams, or as a barrier in landfills against toxic seepage (lining the land fill, preferably in
3
combination with geotextiles) studies in the early 21st Century have investigated clay’s
absorption capacities in various applications such as the removal of heavy meals from waste
water and are purification.

1.5 FORMATION OF CLAY

Clay minerals most commonly form by prolonged chemical weathering of silicate bearing rocks.
They can also form locally from hydrothermal activity. Chemical weathering low concentration
of carbonic acid, dissolved in rain water is released by plant roots. the acid breaks bonds between
aluminum and oxygen, releasing other metal ions & silica (as a gel of orthosilicic acid).

The clay minerals formed depend on the composition of the source rock and the climate. Acid
weathering of feldspar-rich rock, such as granite, in warm climates tends to produce Kaolin.
Weathering of the same kind of rock under alkaline conditions produce ulite. Smectite forms by
weathering of igneous rock under alkaline conditions while gibbsite forms by intense weathering
of other clay materials.

There are two types of clay deposits, primary and secondary. Primary clays form a residual
deposits soil and remain at the site formation. Secondary clays are clays that have been
transported from three original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary
deposits. Sedimentary clay deposits are typically associated with very low energy depositional
environments such as large lakes and marine basins.

1.6 CLAY DEPOSITS IN NIGERIA

Nigeria is endowed with clay rich states. Clay are gotten from majority of the states in Nigeria
and are deposited in most states in larger quantities. Clay deposits can be found in the following
state: Abuja, Awka ibom, Anambra, Bauchi, Benue, Borno, Crossriver, Delta, Edo, Lagos,
Nasarawa, Ogun, Ondo, Oyo , Sokoto etc.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 THE NIGER DELTA BASIN

The Niger Delta is a vital sedimentary basin in Nigeria known for its major delta systems

and the world's most productive petroleum provinces. This places Nigeria as the most prolific oil

producer in Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the third largest crude oil producer in Africa and the

tenth largest in the world. According to Adenugba and Dipo (2013), the Nigerian economy is

primarily dependent on its oil sector, which accounts for approximately 95% of Nigeria's foreign

exchange earnings and approximately 80% of its financial income. Since the commercial

discovery of oil in the Oloibiri-1 well in 1956, rigorous hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation

in the basin has been ongoing since the early 1960s. Reijers and Nwajide (1996).Because of the

Basin's petroliferous nature, geologic research has been ongoing for many years for both

academic and commercial purposes. Adebayo, (2011). (2011). The abundances of major oxides

and trace elements in sedimentary rocks have greatly improved our understanding of

paleooxygen and paleoclimatic conditions, provenance, tectonic setting, sandstone classification,

and sediment maturity. Obasi et al., 2019; Nath et al., 1997; Jones and Manning, 1999 (1994).

2.2 THE TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE NIGER DELTA BASIN

The evolution of the Niger Delta Basin is linked to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean caused by

the separation of the South American plate from the African continent during the Mesozoic Era

(Burke et al., 1972; Murat, 1972; Nwachukwu, 1972). The Niger Delta Basin clastic segment

was formed along aulacogen that previously advanced during the Tithonian-Kimmeridgian (late

5
Jurassic) to Early Cretaceous plate breakdown. The tectonic framework of Africa's continental

margin is defined by Cretaceous fracture zones conveyed as trenches and ridges in the deep

Atlantic The fracture zone ridges separated the margin into individual Basins, which formed the

boundary faults of the Cretaceous Benue Trough, which cut deep into the West African Shield.

From the time of its opening to the present, the Benue Trough has been subjected to a series of

depositional phases, local folding, uplifts, and downwarping. Subsequently,Deltaic

sedimentation developed in the southern part of the Benue Trough, which contributed to the

formation of the current Niger Delta Basin. Short and obstinate (1967). According to Reijers et

al. (1997), the Niger Delta is the youngest of the Benue Trough's sub-basins. Avbovbo and

Ayoola, on the other hand, defined the Niger Delta Basin as the Cenozoic gross offlap clastic

succession built out on top of the Anambra Basin. The Anambra Basin lies beneath the Niger

Delta Basin, and an unconformity separates the two. The interaction between the degrees of

sediment supply and subsidence has been used to measure stratigraphic build up. Deep wells in

the basin record three lithostratigraphic successions consisting of substantial and repeated layers

of marine shale (Akata Formation) that grade upward into interbedded sandstone and shale facies

(Agbada Formation), which form the Delta's characteristic paralic facies The sequence's

uppermost portion (Benin Formation) is a significant terrestrial sandstone segment. The

lithologies of the Cenozoic Niger Delta Basin are generally classified as continental, transitional,

and marine based on sand-shale ratios. Clay members are erosional surfaces that take the form of

entrenchments and are filled with clay deposits found only in the subsurface

6
2.3 REGIONAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING OF STUDY AREA

The Niger Delta has an area of about 75,000km2 and is made up of a regressive sequence

with a maximum thickness of about 12km in the center (Short and Stauble, 1967). It is the most

prominent basin in West Africa and Africa's largest delta (Reijers et al., 1997). It is one of the

world's most prolific petroleum producing tertiary deltas, accounting for about 5% of the world's

oil and gas reserves and 2.5% of the earth's current basin. Pre and synsedimentary tectonics

govern delta evolution, as described by Evamy et al. (1978), Edjawe (1981), Knox and Omatsola

(1981), Knox and Omatsola (1987), and Statcher (1987). (1995).

Sedimentary The Niger Basin is one of the most productive petroleum systems in the

world, spanning longitudes 40E and 8.80E and latitudes 30N and 60N. Basin located along the

aulacogen, which was formed by tectonism (Burke, 1972). The remaining arms that moved with

the southwestern and southeastern coasts of Nigeria and Cameroon form the West African

passive continental margin, whereas the third failed arm formed the Benue Trough and deltas

begin to form around the African Atlantic coast due to other depocenters. Syndrift sediments

collected with Albian age attributed to the oldest Cretaceous to Tertiary.Several transgressive

and regressive phases recorded the buckiest successions of syn-rift marine and marginal marine

clastics and carbonates, which phase out with basin inversion in the Santonian (Late Cretaceous)

(Doust and Omatsola, 1989). Continental separation occurs, and the sea crosses the Benue

Trough as a result of subsidence renewal. The wedge continued to prograde during the

Cretaceous period into a depocenter located on top of the collapsed continental margin at the

triple junction arena. The drainage systems that moved with two failed rift arms, the Benue and

Bida Basins, had the most sedimentation. The last and longest period of the Mesozoic Era saw

the end of sediment progradation (Owoyemi, 2004).In the tertiary, sedimentation was primarily

7
from the north and east through Niger, Benue, and Cross Rivers. Beginning in the Miocene, the

Cross and Benue rivers yielded large amounts of volcanic detritus from the Cameroon volcanic

zone. As a result of the evolution of these drainage regions, the Basin is progressing uniformly

into the Gulf of Guinea with no breaks in basement subsidence. Because of increased sediment

concentrations since the Oligocene, the rate of regression increased in the Eocene (Owoyemi,

2004).

Deep-seated, overpressured, ductile marine shale movement caused by normal fault

causes severe wedge deformation (Doust and Omatsola, 1989). There were several

syndepositional faults that formed during delta progradation and influenced sediment dispersal.

Because of the instability along the continental margin, fault formation was accompanied by

slope. Fault flattening of faults around the Basin's succession via a master detachment plane

beside the summit of the highly pressured marine shale. Reflection of fault density and style in

remote areas due to complex structures that include ordinary structures such as flank and crestal

folds visible with separate faults.Hanging-wall rollover anticlines form as a result of the

geometry of the listric-fault and differential loading of deltaic sediments beyond bendable shale.

Several complex structures are cut by swarms of faults with varying amounts of thrown up, and

they consist of a collapsed-crest feature with a domal shape and firmly opposing fault dips at

depth.

The Basin is depicted by the geology of southern Nigeria, southwest of Cameroon—the

Benin Flank is the north boundary on the eastern trending hinge line south of the West Africa

basement massif. Cretaceous outcrops on the Abakiliki High define the north eastern boundary,

and the Calabar Flank in a hinge line borders adjacent Precambrian. The Basin is divided into

three formations that represent the depositional prograding.

8
 facies largely identified by the idea of sand – shale ratio. The regional geological map of

the study area is shown in Figure 2.

FIGURE 2: Generalized Geological map of Nigeria showing the Basement Complex.

2.4 GEOGRAPHCAL LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA

The area under investigation is Ofunwengbe in Benin City, which is covered by a 20-foot-thick

lateritic overburden at the surface. Fine to coarse grain sandstone lies beneath the lateritic

overburden, which is underlain by clay sand to clay. The depth to the water table is more than

200 feet, and the elevation is more than 100 meters above sea level. The Ikpoba River, Benin

City's main river, drains the area.

9
Plate 1.1 sample location at ofuhmwengbe showing clay deposit.

2.5 THE STRATIGRAPHIC HISTORY OF THE NIGER DELTA BASIN NIGERIA

2.5.1 The Niger Delta Basin

The Niger Delta Sedimentary Basin, one of the world's most prolific hydrocarbon systems, is

located between longitudes 40E and 8.80E and latitudes 30N and 60N. The Niger-Delta clastic

wedge formed along a failed arm of a triple junction system (aulacogen) that formed as a result

of tectonism Burke (1972). The two arms that followed the southwestern and southeastern coasts

of Nigeria and Cameroon formed the West African passive continental margin, while the third

failed arm formed the Benue Trough and deltas began to form along the African Atlantic Coast

as a result of other depocenters. Syndrift sediments collected with Albian age attributed to the

oldest Cretaceous to Tertiary. A series of transgressive and regressive phases recorded the

10
thickest successions of syn-rift marine and marginal marine clastics and carbonates, which

phased out with basin inversion in the Santonian (Late Cretaceous) (Doust and Omatsola, 1989).

As a result of renewed subsidence, the continents separated and the sea crossed the Benue

Trough. During the Middle Cretaceous, the wedge prograded into a depocenter located above the

collapsed continental margin at the triple junction. The drainage systems that followed two failed

rift arms, the Benue and Bida Basins, provided the majority of the sediment supply.

Transgression disrupts sediment progradation around the Late Cretaceous episode. During the

Tertiary, sediment was primarily supplied from the north and east via the Niger, Benue, and

Cross Rivers. Beginning in the Miocene, the Cross and Benue Rivers carried significant amounts

of volcanic detritus from the Cameroon volcanic zone. In response to the evolution of these

drainage areas with continuous basement subsidence, the Niger Delta clastic wedge prograded

steadily into the Gulf of Guinea. Because of increased sediment concentrations since the

Oligocene, the rate of regression increased in the Eocene.

Deep-seated, overpressured, ductile marine shale movement caused by normal fault causes

severe wedge deformation (Doust and Omatsola, 1989). There were several syndepositional

faults that formed during delta progradation and influenced sediment dispersal. Because of the

instability along the continental margin, fault formation was accompanied by slope. Flattening of

faults with depth onto a master detachment plane beside the top of the highly pressured marine

shale at the base of the Niger Delta succession. Reflection of fault density and style in remote

areas due to complex structures that include simple structures such as flank and crestal folds

visible with separate faults. Hanging-wall rollover anticlines form as a result of the geometry of

the listric-fault and differential loading of deltaic sediments above ductile shale. A collapsed-

11
crest feature with a domal shape and strongly opposing fault dips at depth are among the

complex structures cut by swarms of faults with varying amounts of thrown.

The geology of southern Nigeria southwest of Cameroon depicts the Niger Delta; the

Benin Flank is the north boundary on an east-northeast trending hinge line south of the West

Africa Basement Massif. Cretaceous outcrops on the Abakiliki High define the north eastern

boundary, and the Calabar Flank in a hinge line borders adjacent Precambrian. The Basin is

divided into three Formations, which represent prograding depositional facies distinguished

primarily by the sand-shale ratio.

2.5.2 The Niger Delta Basin Stratigraphy

Three formations in the basin range in age from Early Tertiary to Recent, reflecting a total

upward movement from marine prodelta shales through paralic sequence to continental sands

and gravel.

The basin's stratigraphy has been classified as follows:

2.5.3 Akata Formation

This formation is made up of marine prodelta shale that began to form at the bottom of the

succession during the Eocene. The upper portion of this formation is the basin's primary source

rock. This formation is supported by the basement rock. Imo shale is the formation's lateral

equivalent. It is found in the central part of the clastic wedge and is estimated to be 21,000 feet

thick, with dark gray shales and silts and rare streaks of sand of probable turbidite flow origin

(Doust and Omatsola 1989). Marine planktonic foraminifera make up nearly half of the

microfauna assemblages found on shallow marine shelf deposition (Doust and Omatsola, 1989).

The age of the formation ranges from Paleocene to Recent (Doust and Omatsola, 1989).

12
13
2.5.4 Agbada Formation

The Agbada Formation is a paralic sequence that lies beneath the Akata Formation. The

basin's lithologies are composed of alternating deltaic sandstone, silt, and shale arranged within

ten to hundred foot successions defined by progressive upward changes in grain size and bed

thickness, and whose strata are commonly described as having formed in fluvial-deltaic

environments. It is Eocene to Pleistocene in age, with the sandstone serving as the basin's

reservoir rock and a transitional environment sediment. It is underlain by the Akata Formation,

with the Ogwashi-Asaba Formation in the Anambra Basin serving as its lateral equivalent (Doust

and Omatsola, 1989).

2.5.5 Benin Formation

Continental sands and gravels are found in the Benin Formation (Short and Stauble,

1967; Avbovbo, 1978). It consists of the upper basin from the Benin-Onitsha axis in the north

to above the current coastline (Short and Stauble, 1967). The formation's upper portion is the

most recent subaerially exposed delta top surface, and its bottom is made up of the youngest

marine shale and extends to a depth of 4600 feet (Short and Stauble, 1967). Shallow portion of

the formation was characterized by non-marine sand deposited in alluvial or upper coastal plain

environments during delta progradation (Doust and Omatsola, 1989). The formation's age is

estimated to be Oligocene to Recent, though accurate dating is difficult due to a lack of

preserved fauna (Short and Stauble, 1967). The formation thins basinward and comes to an end

near the shelf edge.

The three formations are strongly diachronous, spanning many geologic time periods

(Murat, 1972).

14
2.6 PREVIOUS WORK ON CLAYS

Odigi (2007) worked on Clay-Mneral studies of the subsurface Niger Delta and concluded that
the Tertiary subsurface sediments in the Niger Delta shows that smectite, kaolinite, mixed-layer
illite/smectite and illite are the principal clay minerals with subordinate quantities of chlorite.

Odede et al., (2014) worked on clay mineral distribution and exploration implication for the trace
elements geochemistry of sediments in ANL-1 and E-12 wells, offshore Niger Delta, Nigeria
using geochemical data (trace elements) to study clay mineral distribution and their implication
for hydrocarbon exploration and concluded that

Peretiemo-Clarke et al., (2015) worked on the mineralogy and geochemistry of clay sequences
from parts of the Cenozoic Niger Delta Basin, southern Nigeria; implications for chemical
weathering and palaeoclimate and concluded that the analysed samples revealed significant clay
minerals (kaolinite, illite and vermiculite) and at least in one case, illite/smectite mixed-clay
layers.

Eigbike et al., (2016) worked on the geochemical, physico-chemical and mineralogical

characterization of clayey soils used traditionally as therapeutic and cosmestic ingredients in Edo
State Nigeria and concluded that the samples with the highest concenteration of iron oxide shows
the highest Ultra-Violet protection ability.

Oyebanjo et al., (2020) worked on the physio-chemical and chemical characterization of

Cretaceous – Paleogene / Neogene and Niger Delta Basins from Nigeria; possible industrial
applications and concluded that kaolinite was the only kaolin mineral present with the anhedral –
subhedral-euhedral crystals and that based on chemical specification. The raw kaolins are not
suitable for most industrial applications except for the industrial Lariri kaolins in the paper and
ceramics industries. This kaolins will require beneficiation for large-scale applications.

15
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 MATERIALS

Five (5) soil samples were collected from Ofuhwemgbe location.particle size analysis was

carried out on the samples. Field study and laboratory work constitute the research methodology.

The study was carried out utilizing rock exposures along roads and stream channels. A base map

was used to mark the corresponding points where rocks occur in the field and were sampled.

16
3.2 METHODOLOGY

Five (05) clay samples were obtained at different locations by random sampling method, and
taken to the laboratory and were subjected to Particle Size Analysis using (Hydrometer Method)
at uniben sedimentology and thin section laboratory Edo state, Nigeria.

3.2.1 Hydrometer Method

The hydrometer method of estimating particle size analysis (sand, silt, and clay content) is

based on complexing Ca++, Al3+, Fe3+, and other cations that bind clay and silt particles

into aggregates by dispersing soil aggregates in a sodium hexametaphosphate solution. This

solution contains organic matter suspended in it. After the sand settles out, and again after

the silt settles, the density of the soil suspension is determined using a hydrometer calibrated

to read in grams of solids per liter. Corrections are made for the dispersing solution's density

and temperature.

3.2.2 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF HYDROMETER METHOD

The physical sedimentation principles underlying the hydrometer analysis are presented in a
number of texts, including Das (2002), and are briefly reviewed here. Stokes' law governs the
terminal velocity at which spherical particles settle through a column of fluid in the hydrometer
analysis (Craig, 1992). Stokes' law is based on particles that are rigid, spherical, and smooth;
have similar density; are separated from one another; do not interact during sedimentation; and
are large enough that Brownian motion does not govern settlement. The term "strictly
applicable" refers to the fact that the movements of the body must be strictly adhered to (Wen et
al., 2002).

17
3.2.3 HOW DOES HYDROMETER METHOD WORKS

A hydrometer is a device that measures the relative density of liquids using the concept of

buoyancy. The density of a substance relative to the density of a reference substance is referred

to as its relative density. That is, it is the ratio of the substance's density to the density of the

reference substance. The hydrometer in our experiment is calibrated to give the relative density

values of any liquid in relation to the density of water. When relative density is expressed

relative to water, the term specific gravity is used. In our case, we can say that our hydrometer

measures the liquid's specific gravity.

Figure 3.1 Diagram showing the glass tube and hydrometer.

A hydrometer is made up of a sealed hollow glass tube with a narrow stem and measurement

graduations. The tube's readings increase downwards and decrease upwards. It also has a wider

bottom portion for buoyancy, which contains ballast, such as lead or mercury, for stability. This

instrument is used to determine the particle size of fine-grained soils. Particle size analysis is a

technique for separating soil samples into different fractions based on particle size.

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Figure 3.2 Diagram showing ballast and the hollow glass tube which has graduation for
measurements.

This instrument is used to determine the particle size of fine-grained soils. Particle size analysis
is a technique for separating soil samples into different fractions based on particle size.

The Sieve analysis method, which employs sieves of varying sizes, is used to analyze soils with
particle sizes greater than 75 micron. Soils having particles of size smaller than 75 micron cannot
be sieved because smaller particles carry charges on their surface and have the tendency to stick
to the sieve surfaces and with each other including other particles.

Figure 3.3 Diagram showing the sieve material.

As described in the sedimentation theory, we prepare a 1000 ml clay sample for this experiment.
Particles of various sizes are uniformly distributed throughout the soil suspension at the start of
sedimentation because it is a homogeneous soil suspension. As a result, the weight per unit
volume of the suspension is the same at all depths. As a result, the specific gravity of the
suspension is uniform across all depths.

19
Figure 3.4 Diagram showing the bicker and clay sample inside.

Let's show fewer particles in this case.

Particles are now settling down as time passes. According to the other equation, large particles
settle faster than small particles. As a result, at different depths and times, we will find different
concentrations of different particles. As a result, the specific gravity of the suspension varies
with depth.

Figure 3.5 Diagram showing the bicker with several clay sample sizes inside.

FIGURE 3.6 Diagram showing the bicker with clay samples showing their specific
gravity.

20
The lower layers of the suspension have higher specific gravity than that of upper layers.

Figure 3.7 Diagram showing the specific gravity of clay inside the bicker.

With time few particles settle to the bottom leaving the suspension with lesser amount of clay
particles, which makes the suspension lighter or less dense. As a result, its density and specific
gravity fall. As a result, in the equilibrium condition of the hydrometer, the suspension now
provides less buoyant force to the hydrometer. That is, with the hydrometer's weight constant
and the buoyant force decreasing, the hydrometer begins to settle. And thus its readings change.

So, how do we determine the depth at which the hydrometer is reading?

To do so, we must calibrate the hydrometer. That is, we must establish a relationship between the
effective depth He (the depth at which the hydrometer measures the specific gravity of the
suspension) and the hydrometer readings we observe.

Figure 3.8 Diagram showing the bicker and the hydrometer stem.

21
Readings on the hydrometer stem give the specific gravity of the liquid in the bulb's center.
However, we record hydrometer readings by subtracting 1 from them, multiplying by 1000, and
representing the result as Rh.

(Hydrometer Reading - 1) x 1000 = Rh

For example, if we see 1.025 on the scale, we will note the hydrometer reading as 25.

Rh = (1.025 - 1) x 1000

Rh = 25

Let us now measure the volume of the hydrometer before determining the effective depth. It

will be required for further calculations. Remember that we ignore the volume of the hydrometer

neck and only consider the volume of the bulb here. That is, we assume that the hydrometer

volume equals the bulb volume.

Figure 3.9 Diagram showing the glass tube with graduation for measurement and the
ballast.

We take a graduated cylindrical vessel and partially fill it with water to determine volume. Now
we immerse the hydrometer in it and watch the water level rise. The volume rise in the vessel is
denoted as VH, and this corresponds to the volume of the hydrometer.

The effective depth is now determined. He

22
Imagine a jar filled with some liquid. Assume that the hydrometer will measure the specific
gravity of this liquid at layer AA within the liquid. He is the effective depth of this layer from the
free surface. Mark the free surface as BB as well. When we insert the hydrometer into the liquid,
these layers rise to AA' and BB', respectively. The hydrometer is still taking readings at layer
AA, but that layer has risen to layer AA'. To determine this rise, note that the hydrometer is only
half submerged up to this layer, so only half of the volume of the hydrometer is responsible for
the rise of this AA layer. Assuming the jar's cross-sectional area is capital A, the rise of the layer
AA will be half the volume of the hydrometer divided by the jar's cross-sectional area.

Figure 3.10 Diagram of the bicker with the ballast submerged inside to determine layer BB
and AA.

To determine the rise of the top layer BB, notice that the hydrometer's bulb is fully submerged
below this layer, and thus the entire volume of the hydrometer will be responsible for the rise of
this layer. As a result, the rise will be equal to the volume of the hydrometer divided by the
cross-sectional area of the jar. We can now calculate effective depth as the height of the
hydrometer's submerged neck H plus half the height of the hydrometer bulb h/2 minus the rise in
layers BB and AA. And after simplification it can be written as this.

------------------------eqn 1

-----------------------------eqn 2

23
Figure 3.11 Diagram showing the formula to calculate the affective depth of the values
gotten from the hydrometer.

Now we calculate the effective depth values for each reading mark Rh on the hydrometer. Put
these points on a graph and connect the dots to make a curve. This curve, which is actually a
straight line, is known as the hydrometer calibration curve.

Figure 3.12 Diagram showing the graph which shows a straight line curve known as the
hydrometer calibration curve.

With this curve, we can now calculate the effective depth for any hydrometer reading. Because
the goal of this experiment is to have a particle size distribution, we must calculate the
percentage finer than different particle sizes.

So let us begin the experiment. We make precisely 1000 mL of soil suspension.

Figure 3.13 Diagram showing several bickers and a soil sample.

Keep in mind that the dispersing agent was also used in the preparation of this suspension. A
rubber bung is used to close the jar's mouth and turn it upside down and back several times to
ensure that the soil suspension is homogeneous. After the jar has been thoroughly mixed, a

24
stopwatch is started. Then we insert the hydrometer in the suspension to note down our first
reading which is taken after 30 seconds. After 1 minute, 2 minutes, and 4 minutes, additional
readings are taken. Following these measurements, the hydrometer is removed from the jar and
floated in another cylinder containing distilled water.We take more readings after 8 minutes, 15
minutes, 30 minutes and 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours from the beginning of the sedimentation. For all
of these readings, the hydrometer is inserted about 20 seconds before the reading is to be taken,
taking care not to disturb the suspension. And it is removed as soon as the reading is completed
with as little disruption as possible. It is then floated back into the distilled water. As we can see,
the reading we obtained is not the correct specific gravity of soil suspension because this
suspension also contains dispersing agent particles. The term "meniscus" refers to the act of
discussing something with someone else. Another issue is that the hydrometer is calibrated at a
specific temperature, which may differ from the temperature at which we are experimenting. As
a result, to correct these misreadings, we apply a few corrections to the readings we take.

The first is Meniscus Correction, which occurs when a liquid's top surface is curved near another
surface due to the effect of surface tension. This is known as a meniscus. The actual reading we
should be taking is at this surface in our case. However, due to the meniscus effect and the
opacity of the soil suspension, we obtained a false reading. Because readings on a hydrometer
decrease upwards, this false reading is actually less than the true one. In our case, we will always
take the lower reading than the actual, resulting in a positive meniscus correction. Meniscus
correction is denoted by the capital letter Cm. This meniscus correction can be determined by
taking readings at the top and bottom of the meniscus in the distilled water cylinder, as we can
see both the meniscus in the distilled water.

25
Figure 3.14 Diagram of glass tube with graduation of measurements which is dipped
inside the water.

Second one is Temperature Correction:

Figure 3.15 Diagram showing thermometer calibrating the temperature at 27°C

Figure 3.16 Diagram showing the ballast which is immersed inside the water.

Because hydrometers are generally calibrated at 27°C, we must apply the temperature correction
to the reading we take if the temperature of the suspension differs from 27°C.

Dispersing Agent Correction: When we add dispersing agent to the soil suspension, its particles
increase the density of the suspension, causing the hydrometer to settle less and provide a higher

26
reading. As a result, dispersing agent correction is always negative and is represented by a
capital C d.

We can determine dispersing agent correction by taking a hydrometer reading in distilled water
and then adding the same amount of dispersing agent that we will use in our actual soil
suspension while keeping the liquid volume constant. The dispersing agent correction is
represented by the difference between the readings. Hence the corrected hydrometer reading
capital R after applying all the corrections can be given as this.

R = Rh + Cm ± Ct - Cd---------------Eqn 3

In general, as a liquid's temperature rises, its density decreases, causing the liquid to provide less
buoyant force to the hydrometer. As a result, the hydrometer settles more, giving us a lower
reading. Remember that hydrometer readings decrease as they rise. As a result, temperature
correction will be positive in this case. If the test temperature is lower than 27 degrees Celsius,
the liquid will be denser. Because buoyant force increases, the hydrometer will go less deep than
it should. As a result, the reading will be higher than the actual, and the temperature correction
will be negative. As a result, temperature correction, denoted by capital Ct, can be both positive
and negative. The manufacturer provides this temperature correction chart.

Figure 3.17 Diagram showing the ballast inside the water mixed with the dispersing agent.

27
Figure 3.18 Diagram showing the bicker and the ballast immersed with the clay samples
inside to

However, as time passes, particles begin to settle down. Smaller particles settle faster than larger
particles.

Assume that after time t, when we dip a hydrometer into the suspension, it gives a specific
gravity reading on this layer, and that during this time t, this particle of size D has traveled up to
this depth. And we know from experience that this depth is effective depth He.

We are calculating all solids weights per ml of suspension because we don't know the actual
volume of the layer where the hydrometer will be taking readings.

Now for 1A

Figure 3.19 Diagram showing the bicker and the hydrometer immersed inside the water
with the clay samples inside.

After t seconds, the particles will be in this position, and the hydrometer will read at this layer.
Assume the volume of this layer is V layer.

28
W solids in layer divided by V layer is the weight of soil particles per ml in this layer.

Figure 3.20 Diagram showing the estimated weight of the solids

Using the hydrometer reading, we estimate the weight of solids present at this layer.

Let's imagine this hydrometer reading at that layer after application of all the corrections
becomes R. And this is how we represent hydrometer readings.

Simplify the equation a little.

---------Eqn 4

Figure 3.21 Diagram showing a Simplified the equation.

solve it for weight of solids per volume of layer.

---------Eqn 5

----------------Equ 6

Figure 3.22 Diagram showing weight of solids per volume of layers

All measurements will be taken in grams and centimeters, so the unit weight of water gamma w
will be 1 gram per centimeter cube.

29
Figure 3.23 Diagram showing the graph of particle size(mm) over particle finer (N).

We take hydrometer readings at various times throughout the day and get different values of
specific gravity of suspension. As a result, different percentage values are finer. We plot a graph
between the percentage finer than D and the particle diameter D using all of these values.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.0 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

Particle size was employed for the characterization and identification of the soil samples with

particular emphasis on clay fractions on which the behaviour of the soils depends to a large

extent. Particle size analysis was used to determine the type of clays from which the percentage

compositions of the clay types were calculated,. Clay samples such as, particle size analysis,

where also determined. Below are the presentations of these results.

31
32
Based on the grain size analysis, the soil sample LOCATION 1 is clayey more sandy (reddish brown
colour) with 3% sand, 82% silt and clay 15% respectively.

33
Based on the grain size analysis, the soil sample LOCATION 2 is less clayey more silty (reddish brown

colour) with 3% sand, 74% silt and clay 23% respectively.

34
Based on the grain size analysis, the soil sample LOCATION 3 is less clayey lesser sandy and more silty

(reddish brown colour) with 2% sand, 82% silt and clay 16%

35
Based on the grain size analysis, the soil sample LOCATION 4 is less clayey, lesser sandy and more silty
(reddish brown colour) with 1% sand, 82% silt and clay 17% respectively.

4.1 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

The results of the particle size analysis (Hydrometer method) examination of clay samples are

discussed below.

The analysis of particle size size reveals that the samples are predominantly clay, while particle

size reveals fine to medium, which is typical of silt and clay.The clay ranges from 16—23%

depending on the location of the sample, while sand and silt range from 1—3%, and 82—74%,

respectively.

36
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 CONCLUSION

The particle size and of Okhoro clay deposits shows that they are predominantly more of silt.
While sand and silt are fine to medium.

Particle size analysis show that the clays are with percentage of fine fractions.

Comparison of the clay sample characteristics with industrial specification shows that the clay
samples can be used as commercial ball clays and can be used for other purpose if beneficiation
and processing are carried out.

Based on my experiment, the hydrometer analysis is used to determine the grain size distribution
for the fraction of soil that is smaller than 0.063mm of diameter from sieve analysis.

The hydrometer analysis of soil calculates the size of soil particles from the speed at which they
settle out from suspension from a liquid.

5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS

The cluster value of the deposits should be ascertain to know the quantity so that registered

miners can explore for industrial and commercial benefits.

Also the clay deposits in the study areas should undergo processing and beneficiation to

make them useful for other industrial purposes.

37
38
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40
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41