El-Zahab and Zayed Smart Water (2019) 4:5 Page 17 of 23

Ground penetrating radar

The Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) technology utilizes electromagnetic waves (between
125 Mhz and 370 MHz) and transmits them into the ground to identify leak location via
imaging the sub-terrain including the pipe and the leak. The advantages of this technology
lie in its capability to detect leaks regardless of the material of the pipe, for any diameter
size above one inch and reaching to a depth of 5 m. Furthermore, this device can be easily
transported between sites, and it does not require a lot of experience or training on behalf
of the operator to operate it (Eyuboglu et al. 2003; Hamilton and Charalambous 2013).
On the other hand, this technology has multiple disadvantages namely requiring access to
the road above the pipeline – thus disturbing traffic –, experience and training are required
to accurately indicate the position of the leak and the dependency on the pipeline’s bedding
and surrounding conditions. Also, this technology is expensive where the machine price can
range between 15,000$ to 31,000$ (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2009).
Eyuboglu et al. (2003) developed a mathematical model that utilizes the amplitude of radar
reflection to visualize the state of the pipe and detect precisely where the leak occurred. Fig-
ure 13 illustrates how the GPR is moved above the soil to detect the condition of the pipeline
and the reflected imagery as a result of the movement. GPR systems require further support
by means of decision support systems and competent algorithms that allow for faster and
more accurate detection of leaks (Eyuboglu et al. 2003; Hamilton and Charalambous 2013).

Leak detecting robots

Multiple robotic devices were developed to perform in pipe inspection and determine
leak locations in sewers. These devices can be wireless devices or cord connected.

Fig. 13 GPR Leak detection of a simulated leak at multiple angles. (Eyuboglu et al. 2003). The image shows
two forms of experimental surveillance of an embedded pipeline with their respective spectrums. The
disruptions in the pattern show the location of the induced leak