Mineralogical Characteristics of Khmer

Stone Sculpture in the Bayon Style

Janet G. Douglas and Sorena S. Sorensen

ABSTRACT Our previous study by petrographic methods has shown that five Khmer sculptures of Bayon style of the
Angkor period, dating from the twelfth through the thirteenth centuries, are composed of a particular type of sandstone
that consists of grains derived from a mixture of volcanic and shallow intermediate igneous rocks. In the current study,
both scanning electron microscopy with x-ray microanalysis and electron microprobe analysis have been applied
to the study of grains in order to characterize more fully sandstones of these and other Bayon sculptures. All of the
analyzed sandstones of the Bayon sculptures are remarkably similar; they are terrigenous clastic sandstones of low
carbonate content—lithic arkoses and litharenites—of medium to very coarse grain size. Nine of thirteen sculptures
studied contain not only distinctive matrix feldspar laths but albitized feldspar and amphibole clasts; taken together,
these three characteristics suggest the sandstone may be from the same lithologic unit, outcroppings, or even quarry.
The results provide a basis for evaluating the location of the geological source of the raw material of these sculptures
and help to place Khmer sculptures of unknown provenance in their proper historical contexts.

Introduction composed of a distinctive type of sandstone in which the

Previous petrographic characterization of well-provenanced
Bayon style sculpture of the Angkor period from the National
Museum of Phnom Penh consisted of objects that represent
the three major periods of Khmer culture: (1) the pre-Angkor
period, from the beginning of the Christian era to the end of
the eighth century; (2) the Angkor period, from the ninth cen-
tury to the thirteenth century; and (3) the post-Angkor period,
from the fifteenth century onward, starting in 1431 (Douglas
2004). This work showed that five of a total of seven Bayon
sculptures dating to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are
grains are derived from an igneous parent rock source.
The current study enlarges the original sample group by
the addition of several other Bayon sculptures that in aggre-
gate may represent more completely this “igneous source”
sandstone, in order to determine the extent of its use during
the Bayon period. The stone samples were obtained under
the auspices of the ongoing conservation project headed by
Bertrand Porte, École française d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO),
at the National Museum of Phnom Penh that began in 1997
(Porte 2001, 2002). The Bayon sculptures, along with infor-
mation about their provenance, are listed in table 1. The

Table 1. Provenance and sample information of the Bayon sculptures.

Sample Location
Sculpture Description Provenance Site, Province
and Remarks
Bayon sculpture from the Angkor region
Buddha head*, K935 Angkor Thom, Siem Reap degraded stone
fragments
Seated Jayavarman VII*, K1703 Krol Romeas, Angkor, Siem Reap gouged stone
Tha Riek head*, K3089 Angkor Wat, Siem Reap neck
Kneeling Prajnāpāramitā, K1724 Preah Khan, Siem Reap tenon
Lokeśvara head, K139 Ta Prohm, Siem Reap neck
Lokeśvara*, K1695 Gate of the Dead, Angkor Thom, Siem Reap fragment
Lokeśvara head, K990 Tep Pranam, Angkor Thom, Siem Reap neck
Lokeśvara head, K702 unknown neck
Bayon sculpture from elsewhere in the Khmer empire
Seated Jayavarman VII*, K2851 Preah Khan, Kompong Svay, Kompong Thom gouged stone
Female deity, Lakshmi (?), K1725 Prasat Banteay Torp, Banteay Chmar, Bantheay Meachey tenon
Bas-relief 1*, K2859 Banteay Chmar, Banteay Meachey fragment
Bas-relief 2*, K2859 Banteay Chmar, Banteay Meachey surface
Sivaïte triad, K327 Prei Krabas, Takéo ankle
* Petrographic analysis published in Douglas 2004.

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sculptures are grouped into those found in the Angkor
region, which was the base for King Jayavarman VII’s rule,
and those found elsewhere in the Khmer kingdom.
In recent times, modern forgeries of Bayon sculpture
have found their way to the art market, museums, and pri-
vate collections. Some of these are rough imitations; others
are of such high quality that it becomes difficult to distin-
guish modern pieces from authentic pieces. In some cases,
the technical characteristics of the sculpture have success-
fully been used to establish provenance and age (Meyers
2004). These methods include the study of stone surfaces
using stereomicroscopy in conjunction with chemical meth-
ods to identify weathering features and the composition of
surface accretions. Stone characterization employing petro-
graphic methods can also be helpful in this regard, but this
method must be based on the study of well-provenanced
sculptures. In the case of Bayon sculpture, linking distinc-
tive mineralogical criteria to the types of sandstone used by
the royal workshops would aid in a search for the geologi-
cal sources of distinctive stone types used in the Angkor
period and in the study of sculptures that lack provenance
information.
Historical Background
King Jayavarman VII (1181–1218) assumed sover-
eignty after defeating the Chams and driving them out of
Cambodia in 1199 (Jessup 2004). The Bayon style of figu-
rative and decorative art is named for the principal tem-
ple of Jayavarman VII’s reign, the Bayon at Angkor Wat.
Under the rule of Jayavarman VII, Buddhism was estab-
lished as the state religion. Accordingly, the influence of
Buddhism is reflected in much of the stone sculpture of
this period. For example, Bayon sculpture emphasizes the
human basis of the gods—the Buddha and his bodhisatt-
vas—and the king himself is typically portrayed as a human
ruler who is devoted to the well-being of his people. Bayon
style sculptures of Jayavarman VII show him in meditating
positions and with the short hair and cranial protuberance
likely intended to evoke the Buddha.
In addition to the Bayon itself, other temples of the
Bayon period include Angkor Thom (Great Royal Walled
City), Ta Prohm (a Brahma temple built in honor of
Prajnāpāramitā), Preah Khan (Sacred Sword Temple), and
Banteay Chmar (Citadel of Cats), which is located at the
foot of the Dangkrek range near the Thai border. The close
of the Bayon period coincided with the end of the Angkor
period, at which time Jayavarman VII was succeeded by
his son, Indravarman II. The Angkor region was aban-
doned by the Khmers in the year 1431 for reasons still
debated by scholars.
Sculpture of the Bayon period reflects the change in the
state religion from Hinduism to Buddhism, and a prolifera-
tion of Buddhist images are found throughout the empire.
These tend to occur in relatively large numbers and be
large in size (Bunker and Latchford 2004). Examples of
this “Buddhist proliferation” are the 274 sculptures recently
unearthed at Banteay Kdei, most of which are identical
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images of Buddha Protected by the Naga (Ishizawa and
Marui 2002). These Bayon sculptures may have been buried
by Shivites after the death of Jayavarman VII. Another exam-
ple of “Buddha proliferation” is the Jayabuddhamahānātha
image. Inscriptions by Jayavarman VII at Preah Khan,
which date to 1191, proclaim that twenty-three images of
the Jayabuddhamahānātha be produced and sent to various
locations in the Khmer kingdom (Woodward 1994–95). Yet
other mass-produced images in the Bayon style depict the
Buddha, Lokeśvara, Prajnāpāramitā, and King Jayavarman
VII.
Analytical Techniques
Petrographic analysis of the Bayon statue samples was car-
ried out using a Nikon Eclipse E600 polarized light micro-
scope equipped with an Olympus DP70 digital camera.
Grain identification was done using standard petrographic
procedures outlined in texts such as Deer et al. (1992),
Tucker (1991), Adams et al. (1984), and Folk (1974).
X-ray maps and elemental analysis were done using a FEI
XL30 scanning electron microscope at 20 kV in the back-
scatter mode with an energy-dispersive x-ray analyzer
(SEM-EDX), housed in the Department of Conservation
and Scientific Research, Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian
Institution.
Samples were analyzed by electron probe microanaly-
sis (EPMA) in spot mode on the JEOL JXA-8900R micro-
probe in the Smithsonian’s Department of Mineral Sciences,
National Museum of Natural History. Target sites for anal-
ysis were selected based on live scanning and backscat-
tered electron imaging (in scan mode) on this instrument.
Analyses were obtained at a 15 kV acceleration voltage, a
sample current of ~0.025 μA, a counting time for each ele-
ment of 20 seconds, and corrected for ZAF (matrix effects
due to atomic number [Z], x-ray absorption [A], and x-ray
fluorescence [F]). Standards were a combination of silicate
and oxide standards calibrated by wet chemical analysis
(Jarosewich et al. 1980).
Petrographic Features of the Bayon Sandstones:
Three Clastic Grain Types
The results of the petrographic analysis of the sandstone
samples from these sculptures are summarized in table 2. All
the sandstones are remarkably similar; they are terrigenous
clastic sandstones with low carbonate content. The rocks
are medium to very coarse grained,1 with textural maturity
that ranges from submature to immature.2 Each rock con-
sists of approximately one-third of three large clastic grain
types: quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments. They are there-
fore classified as lithic arkose or feldspathic litharenite in
the scheme of Folk (1974). The fine-grained matrix is rich
in iron oxides and hydroxides as well as clay. On fresh sur-
faces, the stone is a dark greenish gray color (Munsell 5GY
4/1 to 5GY 6/1); weathered surfaces (if present) are various
 MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KHMER STONE SCULPTURE

Table 2. Petrographic analysis of Bayon style sculptures composed of sandstone.

Quartz Feldspar Quartz / Feldspar / Rock Name
Rock Fragments Rock Fragments
C V M P A Ratio (after Folk 1974)
Bayon sculpture from the Angkor region
Buddha head*, K935 20 60 20 25 75 mq, others 30 / 30 / 40 feldspathic litharenite
Seated Jayavarman VII, K1703 70 10 20 25 75 gn, phy, mq, volc 30 / 40 / 30 lithic arkose
Tha Riek head*, K3089 30 65 0 25 75 gn, ph, volc, mq, carb 25 / 40 / 35 lithic arkose
Kneeling Prajnāpāramitā, K1724 50 30 20 65 35 volc, mq, gn 25 / 40 / 35 lithic arkose
Lokeśvara head, K139 35 60 5 75 25 volc, gn, mq 30 / 40 / 30 lithic arkose
Lokeśvara*, K1695 75 10 15 40 60 sh, volc, gn 30 / 40 / 30 lithic arkose
Lokeśvara head, K990 70 20 10 20 80 volc, gn 40 / 40 / 20 lithic arkose
Lokeśvara head, K702 70 20 10 75 25 volc, gn, mq 25 / 40/ 35 lithic arkose
Bayon sculpture from elsewhere in the Khmer empire
Seated Jayavarman VII, K2851 60 20 20 50 50 gn, ph, volc, mq, carb 25 / 35 / 40 feldspathic litharenite
Female deity, Lakshmi (?), K1725 60 20 20 50 50 volc, mq, gn 25 / 40 / 35 lithic arkose
Bas-relief 1, K2859 40 50 10 25 75 mq, sh, phy, volc, gn, 40 / 25 / 35 feldspathic litharenite
carb
Bas-relief 2, K2859 60 35 5 40 60 sh, volc, gn 40 / 30 / 30 lithic arkose or feldspathic
litharenite
Sivaïte triad, K327 50 45 5 30 70 volc, carb, mq 30 / 45 / 25 lithic arkose
Quartz: C = common quartz; V = vein quartz; M = metamorphic quartz (including schistose metamorphic, stretched metamorphic, and
recrystallized metamorphic).
Feldspar: P = plagioclase; A = alkali feldspars.
Rock fragments: sh = shale; mq = microcrystalline quartz; volc = volcanic; gn = gneiss/granitic; carb = carbonate (typically limestone); phy
= phyllite.
* Sandstone is extremely weathered.

shades of reddish brown. Three major clastic grain types of
the Bayon sandstones are described below.
Quartz
the source of the rocks, and the possible correlation of the
Bayon sandstone sculptures, is less robust than it appears at
first glance. As quartz is extremely stable—indeed capable of
surviving several cycles of sedimentation—the original geo-
logical source of the quartz detritus is thus difficult to trace.

Quartz constitutes approximately 25–40% of the proportion

of clastic grains in these sandstones. This relatively low
proportion reflects their textural immaturity; worldwide, the
average sandstone consists of 65% quartz, with many sand-
stones close to 100% quartz (Tucker 1991). The major varie-
ties of quartz grains in samples were, in order of decreasing
relative abundance: (1) common; (2) vein; and (3) metamor-
phic varieties (including schistose metamorphic, stretched
metamorphic, and recrystallized grains). Common quartz
grains are typically monocrystalline and show nonundula-
tory extinction in a petrographic microscope, a finding that
suggests they are derived from the phenocrysts of silicic to
intermediate composition volcanic rocks. Vein quartz grains
are monocrystalline or coarsely polycrystalline and contain
fluid-filled inclusions, features suggesting that the grains
originate from veins deposited in a hydrothermal environ-
ment. Metamorphic particles of quartz are typically poly-
crystalline grains that contain other minerals such as micas.
Metamorphic quartz grains are typically elongated.
Common and vein quartz are the most prevalent grain
types in the sandstones of the sculptures, with a smaller pro-
portion of metamorphic varieties. Their relative abundance
suggests that the sandstones were derived from source rocks
that primarily consisted of acidic to intermediate igneous
rocks but also included metamorphic rocks. However attrac-
tive this conclusion, the use of quartz grain types to indicate
Feldspar
The sandstones from which the Bayon sculptures were
rendered are feldspar rich. The feldspar mineral family
constitutes approximately 25–45% of the clast popula-
tion, compared with more typical worldwide averages of
10–15% (Tucker 1991). Because feldspars are extremely
susceptible to chemical degradation by weathering to clay
minerals or transformation to other mineral assemblages at
low pressure and temperature conditions, the large propor-
tion of feldspar clasts in these sandstones indicates textural
immaturity. This finding in turn suggests that the feldspar
detrital grains were deposited close to a weathered parent
source rich in feldspar. Both alkali feldspars and plagioclase
are present in varying amounts, and the presence of both
mineral families, along with the relatively high proportions
of plagioclase clasts, suggests a young, acidic to intermedi-
ate composition plutonic or volcanic source for the sand-
stones. Although the feldspar grains are relatively fresh,
many clasts have a dusty appearance produced by numer-
ous inclusions of extremely fine-grained clay minerals. The
production of some clay minerals during postdepositional
incipient weathering would be expected in a tropical, humid
environment such as that found in Cambodia, although the
time required for this mineral reaction is not known.

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Rock Fragments
In a sandstone, clasts of rock fragments are grains of a
pre-existing rock. Rock fragments in sandstones can be of
sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous origin. The Bayon
sandstones contain a relatively high proportion of igne-
ous volcanic rock fragments (up to 80–90% of rock frag-
ments). Most are sand-sized aggregates of smaller crystals,
which typically include varying proportions of feldspar,
quartz, opaque minerals, and vitreous material. Some of
these volcanic rock fragments exhibit a layered structure,
but this structure is not unexpected in lavas or pyroclastic
rocks (Cas and Wright 1987). These sandstones contain a
relatively high proportion of fine materials in their matrixes,
probably because friable volcanic debris easily breaks down
to finer particles of glass, crystals, and rock fragments dur-
ing diagenesis and subsequent weathering. Glassy material is
also readily devitrified, altered, or replaced by clays, chlorite,
and sericite. Many fine matrix grains are difficult to iden-
tify or even to clearly distinguish from neighboring grains,
owing to a combination of fine grain sizes and inhomogene-
ous textures.
Other rock fragments include phyllite and shale, which
are typically composed of fine-grained quartz, mica, and
clay minerals; carbonate rocks, which consist of calcite and
other carbonate minerals that were derived from limestone
and marble; and gneissic rock fragments, which are typi-
cally aggregates of various textural varieties of quartz and
feldspar. A microcrystalline quartz rock known as chert is
also found in many of the sandstone samples. According to
the Folk (1974) classification system, the aggregate nature
of chert requires that it be grouped with rock fragments
rather than as a variety of quartz.
Petrographic Features of the Bayon Sandstones:
Additional Grain Types
All the sandstones of the sculptures in this study are com-
prised of the three major clastic grain types and are similar
in color and grain size, as mentioned above. The Bayon
sandstones, however, can be further divided into two groups
based on the presence or absence and composition of: (1)
feldspar laths, (2) albitized feldspar, and (3) amphibole
grains (fig 1).
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Characteristic grain types from nine of the thirteen Bayon sculptures. a. Albitized feldspar. b. Feldspar laths. c. Amphibole. All
micrographs are taken under crossed polarized light; each image width = 500 μm. All micrographs are from the seated Jayavarman VII,
K1703.
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The first group does not contain these grains, and includes
four samples. An example is the Shivaïte triad K327 in fig-
ure 2a, which consists of a coarse-grained lithic arkose. The
second group includes nine samples that contain these addi-
tional grain types. The grain types that form the basis for
distinguishing these two groups are discussed below.
Feldspar Laths
Feldspar laths are finely divided acicular grains ranging
from about 20 μm to 200 μm long. (Most grains are closer
to the former value in their length.) The laths are typically
present as single and twinned crystals within the matrix
but more rarely are found to be aggregate rock fragments.
Their contents of sodium, calcium, aluminum, and silicon,
as detected by SEM-EDX, in addition to their birefringence
and twinning features seen in the petrographic microscope
indicate they are composed of plagioclase. The presence
of the plagioclase laths indicates that their host sandstone
formed in part from a component of nearby, relatively
young, and unaltered volcanic rocks.
Albitized Feldspar
Many feldspar grains display a mottled texture, in which a
single grain shows two or more zones of extinction under
crossed polarized light in a petrographic microscope. Such
grains were initially thought to be due to exsolution3 based
on petrographic analysis. However, observations that com-
bine imaging via scanning electron microscopy with x-ray
mapping of local elemental abundances (SEM-EDX) show
this not to be the case. For example, the feldspar grain in
figure 3 displays mottled extinction under crossed polar-
ized light yet shows systematic variations in sodium and
calcium contents in x-ray maps obtained by SEM-EDX. At
least three such feldspar grains were analyzed from each
sample that contains mottled feldspar grains by SEM-EDX,
all with similar results. This texture is evidence of the albi-
tization of feldspar.
Albitization is a geochemical process that transforms
a calcium, sodium, and potassium-bearing feldspar in the
anorthite-orthoclase-albite (An-Or-Ab) solid solution into
the Na-end member feldspar albite. Some of the physical
and chemical factors that influence the albitization process
(c)
 MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KHMER STONE SCULPTURE

have been addressed by a kinetic model for recrystallization
(Perez and Boles 2005). Typically, a Na-Ca-K feldspar (also
known as a ternary feldspar) crystallizes at high tempera-
tures (> 300°C) in igneous or metamorphic rocks. In con-
trast, the calcium- and potassium-free feldspar albite forms
at temperatures <300°C by means of a dissolution/precipita-
tion mechanism. Regardless of the exact mechanism of the
reaction, albitization involves overall consumption of Na+,
Si-4, and H+, and release of Ca+2. The apparent requirement
for pseudomorphic replacement that governs the albitization
process implies a coupled dissolution of detrital plagioclase
and precipitation of albite—at equal rates. The albitizing
reaction or reactions is a subject of some debate, but one
likely example (Boles 1982) is:

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Typical sandstone grains found in all Bayon

sculptures. a. Sivaïte triad, K327, composed of a coarse-
grained lithic arkose. b. Micrograph under crossed
polarized light showing quartz (Q), feldspar (F), and rock
fragments (RF).

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Figure 3. Albitized feldspar grain from the Tha Riek head, K3089. a. Micrograph under crossed polarized light showing
mottled grain extinction. b. Backscattered electron (BSE) image. c. Ca x-ray map. d. Na x-ray map. The grain is a Ca-
Na plagioclase feldspar that has been “albitized” or enriched in Na feldspar (albite) along cracks and other grain
imperfections.

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NaAlSi308.CaAl2Si208 + H4Si04 +Na+ =

plagioclase (in fluid)

2NaAlSi308 +Al+3 +Ca+2 + 4 OH–

albite (in fluid)

By means of this reaction, silica is provided by the pore fluid

as Si(OH)4. This component can be generated by means
of clay-producing reactions elsewhere in the rock volume.
Albitization rates are controlled by time, surface area, and
initial composition, but they are strongly dependent on tem-
perature and the heating rate, which influence both dissolu-
tion and precipitation.
In the case of the feldspars in the Bayon samples, cracks
and other imperfections are albitized, suggesting that fluid
access is critical for the reaction to occur. The textural simi-
larities of albitization among the samples and the evidence Figure 4. Calcium-rich amphibole compositions and names. Several
for progress of a distinctive diagenetic to low-grade meta- elemental substitutions are possible depending on the compositional
morphic reaction together strongly suggest that the sand- environment of formation. [ ] represents five possible cationic
stones that contain partially albitized feldspar had a common substitutions. Adapted from Leake et al. 1997.
fluid and thermal history. The simplest way to account for
this feature is to conclude that all of the samples that con-
tain partially albitized feldspar grains are from a similar or
the same geological source.

Amphibole

In the petrographic microscope, amphibole grains and grain

fragments are strongly pleochroic in colors of dark olive
green, green, straw yellow, and brown. This feature indicates
that the grains are hornblende varieties, calcic (calcium-
rich) amphiboles of complex chemistry (Leake et al. 1997).
Accordingly, a minimum of ten amphibole grains in each of
nine thin sections were analyzed with electron probe micro-
analysis (EMPA), and all were found to belong to the calcic
amphibole group. Two of the more common types of cation
substitutions seen in calcic amphiboles are shown in figure
4. These are the edenite ([ ]A + SiIV → NaA + AlIV), where
[ ] refers to possible cation replacement, and the tscherma-
kite (MgVI + SiIV → AlVI + AlIV) substitutions, respectively.
One operation of the edenite substitution (generally as the
result of a more complex set of mineral or mineral and melt
reactions) transforms the simplest calcic amphibole, namely,
actinolite ([ ]Ca2(Mg, Fe2+)5Si8O22(OH)2) into edenite
(Na,Ca)2 (Mg,Fe2+)5Si7AlO22(OH)2), where [ ] refers to pos-
sible cation substitutions by Na and Al.
As its formula indicates, the latter amphibole has a
slightly more complex array of cations than does the former.
Figure 4 illustrates that the amphiboles known as pargasite
and magnesiohastingsite can be understood as actinolite
plus an edenite plus a tschermakite substitution. Similarly,
a single tschermakite substitution added to actinolite yields
magesiohornblende, whereas two such operations produce
the sum of two tschermakite substitutions and yields the
end-member tschermakite (see fig. 4)
Amphibole compositions are sensitive to the overall
chemical environment that pertained during their forma-
tion, that is, pressure, temperature, the bulk composition of
the overall system, and the compositions and assemblage
of minerals that crystallized in equilibrium with amphi-
Figure 5. Amphibole microprobe data from eight sandstone samples.
bole. For this reason, even if a source rock that contains
amphibole is disaggregated and its minerals separated from
one another, amphibole compositions have the potential to
establish whether the population of individual grains origi-
nated from a similar source, perhaps even if source rocks
originated from the same quarry.
As shown in figure 5, all of the amphiboles in the Bayon
sculptures that contain feldspar laths and albitized feldspars
have calcic compositions. Of these, seven sculptures contain
two populations of calcic amphiboles, one that plots within
both the edenite-magnesiohastingsite (or pargasite) solid
solution series, and the other within magnesiohornblende-
tschermakite solid solution series. Only one sandstone, that
which makes up the Tha Riek head, K3089, appears to contain
only amphiboles from the magnesiohornblende-tschermak-
ite solid solution series. Given the similarities in composi-
tion, the amphibole data suggest that the same igneous source
provided the amphibole detritus for these sandstones.
An example of this second group of Bayon sculptures is
the Kneeling Prajnāpāramitā, K1724 (fig. 6), which consists
of a sandstone that contains albitized feldspar grains, feldspar
laths, and Ca-rich amphiboles. This sculpture is one of the
classic examples of sculpture produced during Jayavarman
VII’s reign.

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(a) (b)

Figure 6. a. Kneeling Prajnāpāramitā, K1724, is composed of

sandstone containing characteristic grain types found in nine of the
thirteen Bayon sculptures. b. Micrograph under crossed polarized light
showing feldspar laths (FL), albitized feldspar (AF), and amphibole
(Am).

Discussion arkose and litharenite and contains significant amounts of

fine-grained feldspar laths, albitized feldspar grains, and
Table 3 summarizes the mineralogical characteristics of the amphiboles. These sculptures are not only constructed from
two general groups of the examples of sandstone of the a distinctive type of sandstone but, stylistically, it appears
Bayon period studied for this work. The geological criteria likely that all are products of the royal workshops during
for nine of the sculptures are similar enough that their sand- the reign of Jayavarman VII. Some scholars place the source
stone may have come from the same quarry, perhaps even a of stone used for both architecture and sculpture during the
single sandstone layer. This stone can be classified as lithic Bayon period in the Kulen Mountains, approximately 50 km

Table 3. Salient mineralogical characteristics of the Bayon sculptures.

Bayon sculpture from elsewhere in
Bayon sculpture from the Angkor region the Khmer empire
Seated Jayavarman VII,

Seated Jayavarman VII,

Prajnāpāramitā, K1724
Tha Riek head, K3089

Lokeśvara head, K139

Lokeśvara head, K990

Lokeśvara head, K702

Lakshmi (?), K1725

Buddha head, K935

Bas-relief 1, K2859

Bas-relief 2, K2859

Sivaïte triad, K327

Lokeśvara, K1695

Female Deity,
Kneeling
K1703

K2851

Sculpture Description,
Inventory Number
Quartz
Common or vein X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Polycrystalline / microcrystalline X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Metamorphic varieties X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Feldspar
Plagioclase X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Alkali feldspar X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Plagioclase lathes in matrix X X X X X X - X X X - - minor
Albitized plagioclase X X X X X X - X X X - - minor
Volcanic rock fragments
Vitreous grains with opaque X X X X X X X X X X minor minor X
mineral inclusions
Vitreous grains with acicular inclusions X X X X X X X X X X - - X
Calcium-rich amphibole X X X X X - - X X X - - -

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north of Siem Reap (Delvert 1963; Jessup and Zephir 1997; been stylistically compared to three Khmer sculptures from
R. Fletcher, personal communication, 2003); however, such Thailand (unpublished registrar’s folder sheet, Arthur M.
assertions need to be further investigated via petrographic Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution). This sculpture is
analysis of the potential quarry stone from that area. Such thought to be one of the twenty-three Jayabuddhamahānāthas
interactive collaboration between geologically grounded sent to various towns in the kingdom of Jayavarman VII in
archaeometry and stylistic analysis has a unique potential 1191 (Woodward 1994–95). Many of these towns lay far
to yield information about when the use of this stone began from the Angkor region; some can be recognized as loca-
and ended. tions in present-day Thailand. Petrographic analysis of this
The four Bayon style sculptures that do not show all sandstone shows it to be a lithic arkose (Douglas 1994–95),
three petrographic indicators are composed of stone that and comparison of the thin section to others in this study
is not distinctive enough to suggest it comes from a sin-
gle source, and given the lack of geographic proximity of
these occurrences, there is no reason to assume they could (a)
be related to one another. The stylistic and geological prov-
enance of each of these sculptures (described below) sheds
light as to why the sandstone types deviate from the provi-
sionally assigned “royal workshop sandstone.”
The date and origin of the Lokeśvara, K990, is not
exactly known (Jessup and Zephir 1997). It was found in
1950 inside the pedestal for the monumental post-Angkorian
Buddha at Tep Pranam in Angkor Thom and had been stored
there along with other fragments of Buddhist sculpture,
the earliest dating to the twelfth century. Like other sacred
deposits buried within foundations at Angkor, this collec-
tion of statues was probably intended to give energy to the
large Buddha placed on the pedestal. The Lokeśvara has
been at the National Museum of Phnom Penh since it was
found in 1950 and is thought to be a Buddha head that has
been recut sometime after the reign of Jayavarman VII. The
Lokeśvara is typical of the Bayon style, but given the nature
of the deposit at Tep Pranam, it may have been of local pro-
duction elsewhere and brought to the site at Angkor well
after its original use.
The bas-relief samples 1 and 2 (K2859) come from
two blocks from a stone wall with a bas-relief carving of
Lokeśvara (or bodhisattva) with ten arms from Banteay
Chmar in the province of Banteay Meachey near the Thai
border. Although the image is sculptural, the stone itself is
architectural because the wall would have been constructed
from blocks on site and the image carved in situ. In this case,
architectural stone could have come from a quarry more
accessible to Banteay Chmar rather than from the royal
workshops for stone carving. (b)
Museum records at the National Museum of Phnom
Penh mention that the Sivaïte triad, K327 was found aban-
doned near the Kdei Ta Tean Pagoda, Press Krabas, Takéo
(B. Porte, personal communication, 2004). Although the
sculpture is of Bayon style it is thought to have been pro-
duced locally in Takéo.

Sculpture of Unknown Age and Provenance

Sculpture of unknown age and provenance has not been a

major focus of this study, although the Arthur M. Sackler
Gallery’s Avalokiteśvara, S1987.910, shown in figure 7
Figure 7. a. Avalokiteśvara of unknown provenance, Arthur M. Sackler
might be put into this category. It came into the Arthur M.
Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, S1987.910. b. Micrograph under
Sackler Gallery with no provenance information in 1987 crossed polarized light showing feldspar laths (FL), albitized feldspar
from the Arthur M. Sackler Foundation; however, it has (AF), and amphibole (Am).

122
 MINERALOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF KHMER STONE SCULPTURE
shows that it is composed of similar stone. The identifica-
tion of this stone as the same type of stone used during
the Bayon period strengthens the hypothesis that it was a
Jayabuddhamahānātha sent by Jayavarman VII to different
parts of the empire during his reign.
Conclusions
Petrography, SEM-EDX, and EMPA can be effectively used
to classify Bayon sculptures composed of sandstone, and
two groups of sandstones were identified here. In this case
study, albitized feldspar, feldspar laths, and Ca-rich amphi-
bole all appear in sandstones of sculptures that for other rea-
sons are attributed to the royal workshops of Jayavarman
VII. In contrast, Bayon sculptures and architectural stone
from outlying geographic areas appear to have been worked
from local stone sources. Although further work is obvi-
ously desirable, the analysis of even a limited number of
stone samples from Bayon sculptures in this study sug-
gests that geological evidence supports a hypothesis that
a particular type of sandstone was predominantly used by
the royal workshops to carve sculpture during the reign of
Jayavarman VII. Other types of sandstone were likely used
for architectural purposes, at least in outlying areas from
Angkor, and for locally produced sculptures. Although the
“royal workshop sandstone” was clearly important and per-
haps even preferred for sculpture of the Bayon period, the
number of stone samples is still too small to enable con-
clusions to be reached about when the use of this stone
began and when it ended. Reasons for the choice of this
stone are still in question, because there is no indication
that it is superior to other sandstone used for architectural
purposes and for sculpture during other periods elsewhere
in the Khmer kingdom.
Acknowledgments
Bertrand Porte, stone conservator, École française
d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO), working at the National Museum
of Phnom Penh, kindly provided sandstone fragments gener-
ated during stone conservation treatments. We are grateful
to Khun Samen, director of the National Museum of Phnom
Penh, for giving permission to study these samples from
sculptures at the museum. Hiram Woodward, Walters Art
Museum, Baltimore, Maryland, and Emma Bunker, Denver
Art Museum, were generous with help on the art-historical
content. We would like to thank colleagues in the Department
of Conservation and Scientific Research of the Freer and
Sackler Galleries for their help and comments on this paper.
The authors acknowledge Lee Zelewicz, National Museum
of Natural History Summer Internship Program, and past sup-
port from the Smithsonian Institution’s Sprague Endowment
for their significant contributions to the project.
Notes
1. The length of the largest grains was measured in each of
the three categories (quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments),
and this measurement was used for estimation of grain size
for the sandstone. A more accurate method would use grain-
size distribution, but it would require a larger sample and
possibly multiple samples to get statistically meaningful
results. Following are the sand-size classes of the Udden-
Wentworth grain-size scale for sediments and sedimentary
rocks (Tucker 1991): 0.062–0.125 mm: very fine; 0.125–
0.25 mm: fine; 0.25–0.5 mm: medium; 0.5–1 mm: coarse;
1–2 mm: very coarse.
2. As sediments suffer increasing mechanical energy through
the abrasive and sorting action of waves or currents, they
pass sequentially through the following four stages.
1. Immature stage: sediment contains more than 5% clay
matrix, sand grains usually poorly sorted and angular.
2. Submature stage: sediment contains less than 5% clay,
but sand grains are still poorly sorted and are not well
rounded.
3. Mature stage: sediment contains little or no clay, and sand
grains are well sorted but still not rounded.
4. Supermature stage: sediment contains no clay, and sand
grains are well sorted and well rounded.
All of the Khmer sculptural samples contain more than 5%
clay matrix. Determination of sorting was based on the visual
estimation charts (Folk 1974). Immature and submature
sandstones are typically formed in low-energy depositional
environments such as floodplains, alluvial fans, lagoons, and
swamp environments, as opposed to high-energy environments
such as beaches and Aeolian and dune environments. Similarly,
immature and submature sandstones are formed through
deposition via high-energy turbidity current. In this case,
once the sediment is deposited it is simply buried by more
sediment and undergoes no further sorting or winnowing.
Immature sandstones contain more unstable feldspars,
rock fragments, and accessory minerals than more mature
sandstones. Maturity reflects the weathering processes in
the source area and degree and extent of reworking and
transportation. Immature sediments tend to be located close
to their source area, or they have been rapidly transported and
deposited with little reworking from the source area (Tucker
1991).
3. Exsolution in the plagioclase feldspars occurs as three types of
submicroscopic intergrowths: (1) peristerite, with a plagioclase
composition of An2 to An15; (2) Boggild Intergrowth, with a
plagioclase composition of An 47 to An58; and (3) Huttenlocker
Intergrowth, with a plagioclase composition of An60 to
An85.
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