2nd Semester

2019 - 2020

Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

University of Duhok
College of Engineering
Civil Department

Soil Mechanics-II 3rd Year Students

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Structures are built on soils. They transfer loads to the subsoil through the
foundations. The effect of the loads is felt by the soil normally up to a depth of
about two to three times the width of the foundation. The soil within this
depth gets compressed due to the imposed stresses. The compression of the soil
mass leads to the decrease in the volume of the mass which results in the
settlement of the structure.

The compression of the soil mass due to the imposed stresses may be almost
immediate or time dependent according to the permeability characteristics of the
soil.

Cohesion less soils which are highly permeable are compressed in a

relatively short period of time as compared to cohesive soils which are less
permeable. The compressibility characteristics of a soil mass might be due to any
or a combination of the following factors:
1- Compression of the solid matter. (Deformation of Soil Particle)
2. Compression of water and air within the voids. (Relocation of Soil Particle)
3. Escape of water and air from the voids.

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 2

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

The compressibility of a soil mass is mostly dependent on the rigidity of the

soil skeleton.
The rigidity, in turn, is dependent on the structural arrangement of particles
and, in fine grained soils, on the degree to which adjacent particles are bonded
together.

 Soils which possess a honeycombed structure possess high porosity and as

such are more compressible.

 A soil composed predominantly of flat grains is more compressible than

one containing mostly spherical grains.

 A soil in an undisturbed state is less compressible than the same soil in a

remolded state.

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 3

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

In general, the soil settlement caused by loads may be divided into three
categories:-

1. Immediate (or Elastic settlement),which is caused by the elastic deformation of

dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without any changes in the moisture
content. Immediate settlement calculations are generally based on equations
derived from the theory of elasticity. Si

2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change in

saturated cohesive soil because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void
spaces.(time dependent). Sc

3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is observed in saturated cohesive

soils and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an additional
from of compression that occurs at constant effective stress. ( linearly with the
logarithm of time.) Ss
St=Si+Sc+Ss

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 4

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Consolidation
When a saturated clay-water system is subjected to an external pressure, the
pressure applied is initially taken by the water in the pores resulting thereby in an
excess pore water pressure. If drainage is permitted, the resulting hydraulic
gradients initiate a flow of water out of the clay mass and the mass begins to
compress. A portion of the applied stress is transferred to the soil skeleton, which in
turn causes a reduction in the excess pore pressure. This process, involving a
gradual compression occurring simultaneously with a flow of water out of the mass
and with a gradual transfer of the applied pressure from the pore water to the
mineral skeleton is called consolidation.
 The process opposite to consolidation is called swelling, which involves an
increase in the water content due to an increase in the volume of the voids.

Consolidation may be due to one or more of the following factors:

1. External static loads from structures.
2. Self-weight of the soil such as recently placed fills.
3. Lowering of the ground water table.
4. Desiccation.
Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 5
 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Spring Analogy: Terzaghi and Frohlich (1936)
The time dependent deformation of saturated clayey soil can best be understood by
considering a simple model that consists of a cylinder with a spring at its center. Let
the inside area of the cross section of the cylinder be equal to A. (see next slides)

Spring-cylinder model

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 6

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
The cylinder is filled with water and has a frictionless watertight piston and
valve as shown in Fig. a. At this time, if we place a load P on the piston (Fig. b)
and keep the valve closed. The entire load will be taken by the water in the cylinder
because water is incompressible. The spring will not go through any deformation.
The excess hydrostatic pressure at this time can be given as P measured by
u 
gauge. In general, we can write P  P  P A
s w
Ps=load carried by the spring and Pw= load carried by the water.

when the valve is closed

after the placement of
the load P (fig.b),

Ps=0.0 and then Pw=P

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 7

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Now, if the valve is opened, the water will

flow outward (fig.c).This flow will be
accompanied by a reduction of the excess
hydrostatic pressure and an increase in the
compression of the spring. So, Ps>0.0 and
Pw<P (that is, u  P )
A

After some time, the excess hydrostatic

pressure will become zero and the system will
reach a state of equilibrium, (as shown in
fig.d).Now we can write ), Ps=P and Pw=0.0
and P  Ps  Pw

The process of consolidation as explained with

reference to a mechanical model may now be
applied to a saturated clay layer in the field.

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 8

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Consider the case where a layer of saturated clay of thickness H that is confined
between two layers of sand is being subjected to an instantaneous increase of total
stress of Δσ.

This incremental total stress will be transmitted to the pore water and the soil
solids. This means that the total stress, Δσ, will be divided in some proportion
between effective stress and pore water pressure.      u
Δσ’= increase in the effective stress Δu= increase in the pore water pressure

The behaviour of effective stress will be similar to that of spring and the behaviour
of pore water pressure will be similar to that of excess hydrostatic pressure

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 9

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Because clay has a very low hydraulic conductivity and water is
incompressible as compared with the soil skeleton, at time t=0.0, the entire
incremental stress, Δσ, will be carried by water (Δσ= Δu) at all depths. (fig.b) None
will be carried by the soil skeleton-that is, incremental effective stress (Δσ’)=0.0

After the application of incremental stress, Δσ, to the clay layer, the water in
the void spaces will start to be squeezed out and will drain in both directions into
the sand layers.

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 10

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

By this process, the excess pore water pressure at any depth in the clay layer will
gradually decrease, and the stress carried by the soil solids (effective stress) will increase.
Thus, at time 0.0 <t < ∞, Δσ= Δσ’+ Δu , (Δσ’>0.0 and Δu< Δσ).
However, the magnitude of Δσ’ and Δu at various depths will change (fig.c),
depending on the minimum distance of the drainage path to either the top or bottom sand
layer.

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 11

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Theoretically, at time t = ∞, the entire excess pore water pressure would be
dissipated by drainage from all points of the clay layer; thus Δu=0.0. Now the total
stress increase, Δσ, will be carried by the soil structure (fig.d). Hence, Δσ = Δσ’

This gradual process of drainage under an additional load application and the
associated transfer of excess pore water pressure to effective stress cause the
time-dependent settlement in the clay soil layer.
Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 12
 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
One-dimensional Laboratory consolidation test !
The one-dimensional consolidation testing procedure was first suggested by
Terzaghi. This test performed in a consolidometer (Oedometer).the soil specimen is
placed inside a metal ring with two porous stone, one at the top of the specimen and
another at the bottom. The specimens are usually 64mm or 75mm (2.5 or 3 in.)in
diameter and 20 to 25mm (≈1 in) thick.

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 13

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

!
The load on the specimen is applied
through a lever arm, and compression is
measured by a micrometer dial gauge. The
cell is filled with water and the specimen
is kept under water during the test. Each
load is usually kept for 24hrs.

After that, the load is usually doubled,

which doubles the pressure on the
specimen, and the compression
measurement is continued. At the end of
the test, the dry weight of the test
specimen is determined.

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 14

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

!
Fixed ring consolidation

Floating ring consolidation

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 15

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against time for a given load
increment is shown in fig. From the plot, we can observe three distinct stages, which may be
described as follows:
 Stage I initial compression, which is
caused mostly by preloading.

 Stage II Primary consolidation, during

which excess pore water pressure is
gradually transferred into effective
stress because of the expulsion of pore
water.

 Stage III Secondary consolidation,

which occurs after complete dissipation
of the excess pore water pressure, when
some deformation of the specimen takes
place because of the plastic
readjustment of soil fabric.
Time – deformation plot during consolidation for a given load increment

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 16

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 17

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
Void ratio- pressure plots
After the time-deformation plots for various loading are obtained in the
laboratory, it is necessary to study the change in the void ratio of the specimen with
pressure. Following is a step-by step procedure for doing so:

1. Calculate the height of solids, Hs, in the soil specimen using the equation
ws
Hs 
AGs w

Change of height of specimen in one-dimensional consolidation test

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 18
 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain

2. Calculate the initial height of voids as H v  H  H s H=initial height of

specimen.
vv H v A H v
3. Calculate the initial void ratio,eo, of the specimen, eo   
vs H s A H s
4. For the first incremental loading,σ1 (total load/unit area),which causes a
deformation ΔH1. Calculate the change in void ratio H 1
e1 
then calculate e1, e1=eo- Δe1 Hs

[ΔH1=(initial dial reading –final dial reading for the loading)]

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils 19

 Civil Department Soil Mechanics-II
College of Engineering Dr. Mohammed S. Hussain
5. For the next loading σ2, which causes deformation ΔH2,the void ratio at the end
of consolidation can be calculated as H 2
e2  e1 
Hs
at this time, σ2= σ2’. Proceeding in a
similar manner, one can obtain the void
ratios at the end of the consolidation for
all load increments. the effective stress
and the corresponding void ratios (e) at
the end of consolidation are plotted on
semi-logarithmic graph paper. As shown
in fig.

Typical plot of e against log σ’

Chapter 10A: Compressibility of Soils End 20