BANSAL COACHING CENTRE (B.C.

C)
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+91-9888666363, +91-9463706351
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PRESENTATION OF DATA
INTRODUCTIONTRODUCTION
The presentation of data means exhibition of data in such a clear and attractive manner that these
can be easily understood and analyzed.

FORMS OF PRESENTATION OF DATA

Following are the forms of presentation of data.

1) Textual/Descriptive Presentation
2) Tabular Presentation
3) Diagrammatic Presentation
4) Graphical Presentation

TEXTUAL/DESCRIPTIVE PRESENTATION OF DATA

In this, data is presented in the form of text. This is suitable when quantity of data is not too large. A
serious drawback is that one has to go through the entire text before quantitative facts about a
phenomenon become evident.

TABULAR PRESENTATION
It is the process of presenting data in the form of a table. It is a systematic organization of data in
columns and rows.

PARTS OR COMPONENTS OF TABLE

Table Number
First of all, a table must be numbered. Different tables must have different numbers e.g. 1, 2, 3, etc.
These numbers must be in the same order as the tables. Numbers facilitate location of the tables.

1) Title – A table must have a title. Title must be written in bold letters. It should attract the
attention of the readers. The title must be simple, clear and short.
2) Head Note – If the title of the table does not give complete information, it is supplemented
with a head note. Head note completes the information in the title of the table.
3) Caption Or Column Headings – Caption is the title given to the columns of a table. A caption
indicates information contained in the columns of the table.
4) Stubs Or Row Headings – Stubs are titles of the rows of a table. These titles indicate
information contained in the rows of the table.
5) Body of the Table – Body of a table means sum total of the items in the table. Thus, body is
the most important part of a table. It indicates values of the various items in the table. Each
item in the body is called ‘cell’.
6) Foot Note – Footnotes are given for clarification of the reader. These are generally given
when information in the table needs to be supplemented.
7) Source – When tables are based on secondary data, source of the data is to be given. Source
of the data is specified below the footnote.

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FEATURES OF A GOOD TABLE

1) Compatible with the objective – Title of a table must be provided at the top center of the
table and it must be compatible with objective of the study.
2) Helpful in comparison – It should be kept in mind that items which are to be compared with
each other are placed in columns or rows close to each other. This facilitates comparison.
3) Ideal Size – Table must be of an ideal size. To determine an ideal size of a table, a rough draft
or sketch must be drawn. Rough draft will give an idea as to how many rows and columns
should be drawn for presentation of the data.
4) Stubs – If rows are very long, stubs may be given at the right hand of the table also.
5) Headings – Headings should generally be written in the singular form. For example, in the
columns indicating goods, the word ‘good’ should be used.
6) Percentage and ratio – Percentage figures should be provided in the table, if possible. This
makes the data more informative.
7) Sources of Data – Source of data must be noted at the foot of the table. It is generally noted
next to the footnote.
8) Simplicity – A table must be simple, attractive and economical in space.

KINDS OF TABLE
1) According to Purpose – According to purpose, there are two kinds of tables.
a) General Purpose Table – It is that table which is of general use. It does not serve any
specific purpose or specific problem under consideration. Such tables are just ‘data bank’
for the use of researchers for their various studies. These are also called Reference
Tables.
b) Special Purpose Table – It is that table which is prepared with some specific purpose in
mind. Generally these are small tables limited to the problem under consideration. In
these tables, data are presented in the form of result of the analysis. That is why these
tables are also called Summary Tables.

2) According to originality – On the basis of originality, tables are of two types:

a) Original Table – An original table is that in which data are presented in the same form
and manner in which they are collected.
b) Derived Table – Derived Table is that in which data are not presented in the form or
manner in which these are collected. Instead the data are first converted into ratios or
percentage and then presented.

3) According to construction – According to construction, tables are of two kinds:

a) Simple or One-way table – A simple table is that which shows only one characteristic of
the data.
b) Complex Table – A complex table is one which shows more than one characteristic of the
data. On the basis of the characteristics shown, these tables may be classified as:
i) Double or Two-way Table – A two-way table is that which shows two
characteristics of the data.
ii) Treble Table – A treble table is that which shows three characteristics of the data.
iii) Manifold Table – A manifold table is the one which shows more than three
characteristics of the data.

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 BANSAL COACHING CENTRE (B.C.C)
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+91-9888666363, +91-9463706351
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CLASSIFICATION OF TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA

1) Qualitative Classification – When classification is done according to attributes such as social
status, nationality, etc. It is called qualitative classification.
2) Quantitative Classification – In this, the data are classified on the basis of characteristics
which are quantitative in nature. e.g., age, height, income, etc.
3) Temporal classification – In this, time becomes the classifying variable and data are
categorized according to time. Time may be in hours, weeks, years, etc.
4) Spatial classification – When classification is done on the basis of place, it is called spatial
classification. The place may be village, town, state, country, etc.

MERITS OF TABULAR PRESENTATION

1) Simple and Brief Presentation – Tabular presentation is perhaps the most simple form of
data presentation. Data therefore are easily understood. Also, a large volume of statistical
data is presented in a very brief form.
2) Facilitates Comparison – The tabular facilitates comparison of data by presenting the data in
different classes.
3) Easy Analysis – It is very easy to analyze the data from tables. It is by organizing the data in
the form of table that one finds out their central tendency, dispersion and correlation.
4) Highlights characteristics of data – Tabulation highlights characteristics of data. Accordingly,
it becomes easy to remember the statistical facts.
5) Economical – Tabular presentation is a very economical mode of data presentation. It saves
time as well as space.

DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION
It is broadly classified as of three types:
1) Geometric form
2) Frequency Diagrams
3) Arithmetic Line-graphs or Time series graphs

GEOMETRIC FORM
It includes bar diagrams and pie diagrams.
1) Bar Diagrams – Bar Diagrams are those diagrams in which data are presented in the forms of
bars or rectangles.

Features of Bar Diagrams

a) The length or height of the bars differs according to different values of the variable, that
is, length may be more or less but breadth remains the same.
b) Bars may be either vertical or horizontal. However, usually these are used in their vertical
form.
c) Bars are equi-distant from each other.
d) All bars are based on some common base line.
e) Unless data assume some specific ordering, these should be presented to form bars of
the ascending or descending order.
f) To make the bars attractive, these may be shaded with different colours.

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 BANSAL COACHING CENTRE (B.C.C)
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+91-9888666363, +91-9463706351
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TYPES OF BAR DIAGRAM

There are four types of Bar Diagrams.
a) Simple Bar Diagrams – These are those diagrams which are
based on a single set of numerical data.

b) Multiple Bar Diagram – These are those diagrams which show

two or more sets of data simultaneously.

c) Sub-divided Bar Diagram or Differential Bar Diagrams – These

are those diagrams which simultaneously present, total values
as well as part values of a set of data. Different parts of the
bars are shaded with colours.

d) Percentage Bar Diagram – These are those

diagrams which show, simultaneously, different
parts of the values of a set of data in terms of
percentages. The percentage bar diagrams are
used generally when the values are of high
magnitude.

2) Pie Diagrams – It is a circle divided into various segments showing the per cent values of a
series. The pie diagrams are drawn only when percentage distribution of the value is to be
diagrammatically presented. This diagram does not show absolute values.

Construction of a pie diagram involves the following steps:

a) Various observations of the data are represented by the sectors of the circle.
b) The total angle formed at the centre is 360°.
c) The whole circle represents the sum of the values of all the components.
d) The angle at the centre corresponding to the particular observation component is
given by

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
× 360
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

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 BANSAL COACHING CENTRE (B.C.C)
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+91-9888666363, +91-9463706351
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REPRESENT THE ADJOINING INFORMATION ON A PIE CHART

Activity No. of Hours

School 6
Sleep 8
Playing 2
Study 4
T. V. 1
Others 3

THE CENTRAL ANGLES FOR VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS CAN BE CALCULATED AS:

Activity No. of Hours Measure of central angle
School 6 6
× 360 = 90°
24

Sleep 8 8
× 360° = 120°
24

Playing 2 2
× 360° = 30°
24

Study 4 4
× 360° = 60°
24

T. V. 1 1
× 360° = 15°
24

Others 3 3
× 360° = 45°
24

Now, we shall represent these angles within the circle as different sectors. Then we now make the
pie chart:

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 BANSAL COACHING CENTRE (B.C.C)
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+91-9888666363, +91-9463706351
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FREQUENCY DIAGRAMS
It includes histograms, polygon and ogive.
1) Histograms – A histogram is a graphical presentation of a frequency distribution of a
continuous series. They are further divided into two types:
a) Histogram of Equal Class Intervals: These are those which are based on the data with
equal class intervals.

b) Histogram of Unequal Class Intervals: These are those which are based on the data with
unequal class intervals. Before presenting the data in the form of graphs, frequencies of
unequal class intervals are adjusted. First we note a class of the smallest intervals. Other
classes are noted in the increasing order of their class intervals. If the size of one class
interval is twice the smallest size in the series, frequency of that class is divided by two.
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = × 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠

Class Interval (CI) Frequency Width of CI Adjustment factor

0-10 20 10 20
10-20 32 10 32
20-30 8 10 8
30-40 2 10 2
40-70 60 30 60
× 10 = 20
30
70-80 35 10 35
80-100 10 20 10
× 10 = 5
20

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2) Frequency Polygon – It is a diagrammatic presentation of data which is constructed by

joining the mid points of the tops of all rectangles in a histogram. Frequency polygon can
also be constructed without the help of histogram. Under this method, mid-points of various
class intervals are taken and the corresponding frequencies to each mid-point are plotted.

Frequency Curve – It is just a variant of Polygon. A frequency curve is a curve which is

plotted by joining the mid-points of all tops of a histogram by free hand smoothed curves
and not by straight lines. Area of a frequency curve is equal to the area of a histogram or
frequency polygon of a given data set.

DIFFERENT SHAPES OF FREQUENCY CURVES

Frequency Curves are of different shapes. These shapes indicate the nature of frequency
distribution of different data-sets. Some of the important shapes are as under:
a. Normal Curve or Symmetrical Curve – Frequencies tend to increase gradually, followed
by the tendency to stabilize and finally the tendency to decline.
b. Positive Skewed Curve – This is one of the asymmetrical curves or skewed curves.
Asymmetry or Skewness is that feature of a statistical distribution which indicates that,
on both sides of the highest frequency mark, the frequency do not decrease at the
uniform rate meaning the rate of decrease on one side is less or more as compared to
the other side. Curves which are skewed to the right have their right side more spread
than the left one. That is, these are tailed to the right.
c. Negative Skewed Curve - Curves which are skewed to the left have their left side more
spread than the right one. That is, these are tailed to the left.
d. U-shaped Curve – They are formed if there are two high points in a series both having
equal or nearly equal frequency, at the lowest and highest values.
e. Bi-modal Curve – This curve is drawn when there are two classes with highest
frequencies.
f. J-shaped Curve – This curve is drawn when frequencies tend to increase with each class
interval. In other words, the curve moves from the low frequencies to the high
frequencies.
g. Reverse J-shaped Curve – This type of curve is drawn when there are highest frequencies
corresponding to lowest values in the distribution.

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h. Mixed Curve or Multi-modal Curve – These curves are formed when there is no specific
pattern of the frequencies corresponding to different values in the given distribution of
data.

3) Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve – It is the curve which is constructed by plotting

cumulative frequency data on the graph paper, in the form of a smooth curve. It may be
constructed in two ways:
a) Less-than Method – In this method, beginning from upper limit of the 1st class interval
we go on adding the frequencies corresponding to every next upper limit of the series.
Example – Less than 5, Less than 10, Less than 15.
b) More-than Method - In this method, we take cumulative total of the frequencies
beginning with lower limit of the 1st class interval. Example – More than 0, More than 10,
More than 15.

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 BANSAL COACHING CENTRE (B.C.C)
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+91-9888666363, +91-9463706351
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GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION: ARITHMETIC LINE-GRAPHS: TIME SERIES

A graph showing arithmetic values of a variable (on a graph paper) is called ‘arithmetic line-graph.
Often such graphs are constructed to present time series data that is the data corresponding to
different weeks, months or the years. Therefore, arithmetic line-graphs are often known as ‘time
series’. In it, time (hour, day/date, week, month, year etc.) is plotted along x-axis and the value of
variable (time series data) along y-axis. It helps in understanding the trend, periodicity, etc. in a long
term time series data.

TYPES OF GRAPHS
There are two types of graphs:
1) One Variable Graphs – These are those graphs in which values of only one variable are
shown with respect to some time period.

2) Two or more Variable Graphs – These are those graphs in which values of two (or more than
two) variables are simultaneously shown with respect to some time period.

GENERAL RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING DIAGRAM AND GRAPHS

1) Proper Size – Diagrams or Graphs must suit the size of the paper. It should be neither too big
nor too small.
2) Proper Heading – Diagrams or Graphs must bear proper heading. A heading must be simple,
short and informative.
3) Proper Scale – Before making a diagram/graph its scale should be properly determined and
indicated.
4) Use of signs and colours only – Diagrams or Graphs must carry some signs on the nature and
classification of information. Colours may be used to indicate different aspects of a diagram.
These signs and colours must be clarified.
5) Less use of words – In diagrammatic or graphic presentation of data one should make
minimum possible use of the words and figures.

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 BANSAL COACHING CENTRE (B.C.C)
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+91-9888666363, +91-9463706351
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6) Simple – Simplicity is the principle feature of diagrams and graphs. These should not look to
be complex and offending.
7) From left to right or bottom to top – The construction of diagrams/graphs should flow either
from left to right or bottom to top.
8) Drawing the border – These must be bordered with bold lines to make them attractive.
9) Statement of Data – Data which constitute the basis of diagrams/graphs should be clearly
stated.
10) Attractive and Effective – These must be attractive and effective in communicating the
required information.

MERITS OF DIAGRAMMATIC / GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

1) Simple and Understandable information – Even the most complex statistical information is
made simple and understandable with the help of diagrams and graphs.
2) Lasting Impact – It leaves a lasting impact on the reader’s mind. Information is not easily
forgotten.
3) No need of training or specialized knowledge – One needs no training or specialized
knowledge in reading the diagrams and graphs.
4) Attractive and Effective means of presentation – They are very attractive and effective
means of presenting data. It is rightly said ‘a picture is worth of a thousand words.’
5) A quick comparative glance – It facilitates a comparative glance at the data. One can easily
note the broad differences between the two.
6) Informative and Entertaining – Besides being informative, it is an entertaining means of data
presentation. The beginners are just fascinated to draw pictures in the form of diagrams and
graphs.
7) Location of Average – Using graphic technique, we can easily locate the values of certain
averages such as mode and median.
8) Study of Correlation – Graphic presentation of data corresponding to different variables
helps identify correlation between the variables. For example. If time series on income and
expenditure are plotted on the same graph, one is very likely to observe a very high degree
of positive correlation between the two variables.

LIMITATIONS OF DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION OR GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

1) Limited use – Only a limited set of data can be presented in the form of diagram. In fact,
diagrams and graphs are generally used only when comparisons are involved or when time-
series data are to be presented.
2) Misuse – Diagrams may be misused for projection of the statistical facts, especially in case of
advertisements.
3) Only preliminary conclusions – It may not be always easy to arrive at final conclusions after
seeing the diagrams. Multiple information may offer only preliminary conclusions.

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