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Conic Sections
Conic Sections
Definition
Conic sections can be defined as the locus of point that moves so that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point called the focus to its distance from a fixed line called
the directrix is constant. The constant ratio is called the eccentricity of the conic.
Conic sections are obtained by passing a cutting plane to a right circular cone. If the
cutting plane is parallel to the base of the cone (or perpendicular to the axis of the cone),
a circle is defined. If the cutting plane is parallel to lateral side (or generator) of the
cone, parabola is defined. For a cutting plane that is oblique to the cone (not parallel nor
perpendicular to any element), ellipse is defined. For a cutting plane parallel to the axis
of the cone not passing through the vertex, the section formed is hyperbola. These were
characterized by the Greek mathematician Apollonius (262 B.C. – 200 B.C.).
Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0.Ax2+Bxy+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0.
The quantity B2 - 4AC is called discriminant and its value will determine the shape of the
conic.
• If C = A and B = 0, the conic is a circle.
• If B2 - 4AC = 0, the conic is a parabola.
• If B2 - 4AC < 0, the conic is an ellipse.
• If B2 - 4AC > 0, the conic is a hyperbola.
The product xy would have a conic with axis oblique to the coordinate axes. If B = 0, the
axis of the conic is parallel to one of the coordinate axes. As of now, our concern are for
conics with axis parallel to one of the coordinate axes, thus B = 0. The equation then
becomes
Ax2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0.
Eccentricity of Conic
Eccentricity is a measure of how much a conic deviate from being circular, making the
eccentricity of the circle obviously equal to zero. It is the ratio of focal distance to
directrix distance of the conic section.
The Circle
Definition of circle
The locus of point that moves such that its distance from a fixed point called the center
is constant. The constant distance is called the radius, r of the circle.
General Equation (C = A)
From the general equation of conic sections, C = A. Hence, the equation of the circle is
Ax2+Ay2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2+Ay2+Dx+Ey+F=0
or
x2+y2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2+y2+Dx+Ey+F=0
Standard Equations
Circle with center at any point (h, k)
Apply Pythagorean Theorem to the figure shown below.
(x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2
Parabola is the locus of point that moves such that it is always equidistant from a fixed
point and a fixed line. The fixed point is called focus and the fixed line is called directrix.
From the general equation of all conic sections, either AA or CC is zero to form a
parabolic section.
For A=0A=0, the equation will reduce to Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0 or
y2+Dx+Ey+F=0y2+Dx+Ey+F=0
It is a parabola with axis horizontal, e.g., open to the right or open to the left.
For C=0C=0, the equation will reduce to Ax2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2+Dx+Ey+F=0 or
x2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2+Dx+Ey+F=0
It is a parabola with axis vertical, e.g., open upward or open downward.
x2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2+Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0
The above equation is the standard equation of the ellipse with center at the origin and
major axis on the x-axis as shown in the figure above. Below are the four standard
equations of the ellipse. The first equation is the one we derived above.
Ellipse with center at the origin
Ellipse with center at the origin and major axis on the x-axis.
x2a2+y2b2=1x2a2+y2b2=1
Ellipse with center at the origin and major axis on the y-axis.
x2b2+y2a2=1x2b2+y2a2=1
Ellipse with center at (h, k) and major axis parallel to the y-axis.
(x−h)2b2+(y−k)2a2=1
Elements of Ellipse
Elements of the ellipse are shown in the figure below.
Thus,
e=ad=aa2/ce=ad=aa2/c
e=ca<1.0e=ca<1.0
6. Location of directrix d, with respect to the center of ellipse.
From the derivation of eccentricity,
d=ae or d=a2c
The Hyperbola
Definition
Hyperbola can be defined as the locus of point that moves such that the difference of its
distances from two fixed points called the foci is constant. The constant difference is the
length of the transverse axis, 2a.
General Equation
From the general equation of any conic (A and C have opposite sign, and can be A > C, A
= C, or A
Ax2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0Ax2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0 or
x2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0x2−Cy2+Dx+Ey+F=0
Standard Equations
The equation we just derived above is the standard equation of hyperbola with center at
the origin and transverse axis on the x-axis (see figure above). Below are the four
standard equations of hyperbola. The first equation is the one we derived just derived.
x2a2−y2b2=1x2a2−y2b2=1
Hyperbola with center at the origin and transverse axis on the y-axis.
y2a2−x2b2=1y2a2−x2b2=1
(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1(x−h)2a2−(y−k)2b2=1
Hyperbola with center at (h, k) and transverse axis parallel to the y-axis.
(y−k)2a2−(x−h)2b2=1(y−k)2a2−(x−h)2b2=1
Elements of Hyperbola
1. Center (h, k). At the origin, (h, k) is (0, 0).
2. Transverse axis = 2a and conjugate axis = 2b
c=a2+b2−−−−−−√c=a2+b2
4. Latus rectum, LR
LR=2b2aLR=2b2a
5. Eccentricity, e
The eccentricity of hyperbola is always greater than one.
e=ca>1.0e=ca>1.0
6. Location of directrix d relative to the center of hyperbola.
d=aed=ae or d=a2cd=a2c
7. Equation of asymptotes.
y−k=±m(x−h)y−k=±m(x−h)
where
m is (+) for upward asymptote and m is (-) for downward.
m = b/a if the transverse axis is horizontal and
m = a/b if the transverse axis is vertical
The Polar Coordinate System
In Polar Coordinate System, the references are a fixed point and a fixed line. The fixed
point is called the pole and the fixed line is called the polar axis. The location of a
point is expressed according to its distance from the pole and its angle from the polar
axis. The distance is denoted by r and the angle by θ.
For easy plotting, identify the angle first by rotating appropriately from the polar axis.
Counterclockwise for positive angle and clockwise for negative angle. Next is plot the
distance. The point is on the terminal side of the angle if r is positive. If r is negative, the
point is located on the other side of the pole along the line where the angle terminates.
From the figure above, point A is indicated by the angle blue, B is red, C is neon green,
and D is in black color. Observe that the corresponding angle of each point is in the
same color as the point.
Coordinates of point C:
(4, 150°)
(4, -210°)
(-4, 330°)
(-4, -30°)
Coordinates of point D:
(6, 210°)
(6, -150°)
(-6, 30°)
(-6, -330°)
d=r12+r22−2r1r2cos(θ2−θ1)−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−√d=r12+r22−2r1r2cos(θ2−
θ1)
Polar to Rectangular
x=rcosθx=rcosθ
y=rsinθy=rsinθ
Rectangular to Polar
r=x2+y2−−−−−−√r=x2+y2
θ=arctanyx