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ermatovenero o
not:es
DERMRTOWENEROEOQYNOTES
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CONTENT
This book was written in order to provide basic in formation for the students of the
Faculty of Medicine. I have been teaching dermatology for 16 years and throughout this
time I have done my best to offer visual information (examining patients or digital images)
to the students, aiming for a better understanding of the theoretical notions. Dermatology
is a visual specialty and there is no substitute for the clinical photography to illustrate
cutaneous disease. Thus, within this book clinical photographs were selected from my
p ersonal c o l l ection t o i ll u s trate t h e m o s t Pequently e n countered d e r matological
conditions.
The recognition o f t h e e l e inentary l e sions i n t h e c l i n i ca l p i c t ur e of t h e
dermatological disorders of fers the f i rst p at h t o t h e c o r r ect d i agnosis. Paraclinical
investigations add supplementary in formation that will aid in di fferential diagnosis. This
book contains th e m ai n c u t aneous diseases with t h ei r p a t hogeny, description and
illustration of the clinical aspect, paraclinical characteristics and updated treatment.
I hope that this book will both educate and stimulate interest in this truly fascinating
medical specialty.
derived from the ectoderm and h) the dermis — the major support layer, with mesodermai
ri in.
o~
The nda es - h air, nails, sebaceous glands and sweat glands — are
composed of cells derived from b o derm a n dm esoderm.
In addition, there is the subcutaneous fat that may be involved in some cutaneous
diseases, such as erythema nodosum.
THE EPIDERMIS
The epidermis is multilayered and renews itself by the division of the basal layer.
'
The princi al 1 cell e i s t h e keratinocyte.It is formed in the basal cell layer and
ascends to the surface of the skin in ap r o x imat 1 3 0 da s (epidermal transit time). The
kerati nthesize keratin.
The basal layer is composed of one row of keratinocytes of columnar shape. They
undergo cell division, after which one daughter keratinocyte remains in the basal layer
and the other moves upwards through the epidermis, to differentiate and finally die. The
basal cells are anchored throu h hemidesmosomes to the basement membrane.
Interspersed amongst the basal cells there are the melanocytes,dendritic cells
d erived f r o m t h e n e u ra l c r est. T hese cells c o ntai n to las m i c organelles called
osomes that produce the melanin pigment from t y r osine. The melan
transferred from the dendrites the keratinocytes in the prickle cell
layer, being responsible for the skin color (fototype). In white eo le the me os o mes are
grouped to e ther i n "melanosome complexes" t h at r adu a l l de ene r a te a s t h e
keratinocytes move towards the surface the epidermis. In black e o l e t h e s kin contains
mb te s in bu t t e m e lanosomes are lar er, remain
karate and do not degenerate.
Melanin synthesis is increased by UV radiation, resulting in the sun tan. This is a
natural protective mechanism for the keratinocytes. When the sun exposure exaggerates, the
keratinocyte nuclei are damaged, thus cellular atypia can appear and progress in time (years)
to skin cancer. In dark-skin people, skin cancer can also be observed, but much more rare.
The prickle cell layer contains keratinocytes connected together by intercellular
bridges called desmosomes, with a spiky appearance in optic microscopy. The cytoplasm
of basal and prickle keratinocytes contains tonofilaments formed from the keratin. These
tonofilaments are grouped in bundles and are continuous with the desmosomes to connect
the keratinocytes and give strength to the epidermis.
Scattered between keratinocytes in the prickle cell layer there are dendritic cells
called Langerhans cells or antigen presenting cells (APC), which are modified macrophages
11
originating in the bone marrow. They are responsible for the first line of immunological
defense in the skin. APC take up and process environmental antigen and then migrate to the
lymphoid tissue where the antigen is presented to the immunocompetent T lymphocytes.
The granular layer, above the prickle cell layer, is com o sed of f l a ttened c
containin keratohyalin granules (darkly staining particles) and lamellar a n ules (Odland
bodies). The lamellar granules are vesicles (liposomes) that dascharge their lipidic and
enz matte content into the intercellular ~saces,~rovidin "mortar" between the cellular
"bricks "
The stratum corneum is composed of flattened, corn letel k e r a tinized dead cells
l acking nuclei and cytoplasmic organelles and filled with keratin filaments embedde m
an amorfous protein matrix. The superficial cells are gradually abraded, every d ay .
Stratum corneum forms a barrier w hich is i m permeable to substances from inside or
outside the body. The thickness of the stratum corneum varies on different regions of the
body, for example it is the thickest on palms and soles.
THE DERMIS
The dermis lies beneath the epidermis and forms the bulk of the skin. It is formed of
c onnective tissue with u p w ard p r ojections (dermal papillae) that interdigitate with t h e
downward epidermal projections (rete ridges). The dermal connective tissue is composed of:
• cells:
o f i b r oblasts — produce collagen and the connective tissue matrix,
o m a s t c e lls — contain g r anules w i t h m e d i ators i m p o rtant i n t y p e I
immunological reactions (such as histamine, prostaglandins, leucotrienes)
and in the interaction with eosinophils and neutrophils (eosinophil and
neutrophil chemotactic factors)
o m a c rophages — general scavengers that originate in the bone marrow
a network of protein fibers of collagen, elastin and reticulin that give strength and
elasticity to the dermis
ground substance of mucopolysaccharides.
12
The outer layer of the dermis, called papillary dermis, contains finer collagen fibers
than deeper reticular dermis.
The dermis is richly supplied with blood vessels, lyrnphatics, nerves and sensory
receptors. There are two vascular networks in the dermis: a superficial one at the interface
between papillary and r eticular dermis and a l o we r an d m o r e v i g orous one located
between dermis and subcutis. The tw o v a scular networks are connected by v e rtical
vessels. In normal conditions, the blood supply operates at 10-20% of capacity, but in some
skin diseases it is greatly increased, causing body redness (erythema) or even high-output
cardiac failure. The epidermis has no blood vessels; all the nutritive substances diffuse to
the intercellular spaces of the keratinocytes through the basement membrane.
SKIN FUNCTIONS
• Prevents loss of body fluids
• Protects against entry of environmental toxic chemicals and microorganisms
• Protects against damage from UV radiation
• R egulates t h e bo d y temperature b y vas o c onstriction/vasodilatation and
perspiration
• Synthesis of vitamin D (cholecalciferol)
• Important in social interaction
Chapter 2
15
TYPES OF ELEMENTARY LESIONS
Dermatological diseases are characterized by the presence of elementary lesions.
The original lesions are known as the primary lesions (e.g. macules, papules, nodules,
tumors, wheals, vesicles, bullae etc ), which are v ery i m p o rtant i n t h e d e r matologic
physical examination. They may b e m o d i fied by r e gression, trauma or o t her factors,
producing secondary lesions (e.g. scales, crusts, excoriations, erosions, ulcers, scars ).
16
• pu r p u r ic papules, vesicles and necrosis:leukocytoclastic vasculitis of
small vessel(Fig.8.29), erythema multiforma, rheumatic vasculitis (LES,
rheumatoid arthritis)
• retiform p u r p ura — serpentine, branching o r s t elate aspect of
purpura due to hemorrhage around small dermal vessels prior to
complete obstruction of th e vessel : a ) n o n-inflammatory type:
heparin necrosis, monoclonal cryoglobulinemia, cholesterol emboli,
spider bite reaction; b) inflammatory type: mixed cryoglobulinemia,
rheumatic vasculitis (LES, rheumatoid arthritis), polyarteritis nodosa,
septic vasculitis
2. Solid lesions
Wheals (hives = urtica) are transient, plateau-like, sharply demarcated elevations of various
size and shape associated with severe itching. The dermal edema is responsible for the aspect of
the wheal and also for the sudden appearance and rapid resolution (pathognomonic, in a few
hours). Their color may be red, due to vasodilatation or whitish, due to the compression of the
capillaries by the dermal edema (Fig.8.1). Wheals are characteristic for urticaria.
Papule: a circumscribed solid elevation of the skin, less than 0.5 cm in diameter
o e p idermal papules result from thickening of the epidermis (e.g. plane wart - Fig.6.5)
o d e r mal p a pules are due t o cellular proliferation in t h e d e rmis (inflammatory
infiltrations in syphilitic papules- Fig.7.5-7. 12)
o d e rmoepidermal papules result from the thickening of both epidermis and dermis
(lichen planus-Fig.11.18)
Plaque —elevated, circumscribed lesions that are larger than elevated (Fig.11.1). The
elevation is due to thickening of the epidermis (psoriasis, neurodermitis, nummular eczema)or
dermis (keloid, morfeea).Secondary changes may add, like scales, crusts.
A tuber - an elevation resembling a papule, but deeper and very liable to ulceration
and scarring (tuberculosisand tertiary syphilis)
Nodule or node - a circumscribed visible or only palpable lump, larger than 0.5 cm and
with greater mass beneath the skin surface, within dermis or subcutaneous
• acute nodes (erythema nodosum-Fig.8.32)
• subacute nodes (gumma of syphilis or tuberculosis-Fig.4.20) —they evolve in four
stages: 1) firm node, 2) abcedation, 3) ulceration with fistulisation 4) scarring
• chronic (cysts, lipoma, skin metastases)
Lichenifi'cation - flat thickening of the skin characterized by accentuated skin-fold
markings; secondary to scratching (in chronic eczema, Fig.8.9)
Vegetations - soft pathlogical excrescences of the skin with i r r egular, papilomatous
surface; may be primary (condiloma acuminate,also called venereal vegetations-Fig.6.10,
6.11) or may appear secondary, in other skin diseases(pemphigus vegetans).
Verucosity —hard papilomatous, pathological excrescens covered by keratosis (common
wart —Fig.6.1,6.2)
Tumors are solid masses of tissue in the skin. A tumor may be benign (well delimited
with no distal spreading- Fig.14.2) or malignant (rapid growth, recurrence after excision,
metastatic spreading at long distance from the original tumor and alteration of the general
health-Fig.16.10).
17
3. Lesions containing fluid
Vesicle (small blister): elevated, circumscribed collection of clear fluid, with diameter
less than 0.5 cm; on histopathologic examination we can distinguish between:
o i n t erstitial v esicles - fl u i d a c cumulates between th e k e r atinocytes; they a r e
preceded by spongiosis (epidermal edema with the stretching of desmosomes) in
eczema (Fig.8.8)
o p a r enchimatous vesicles - fluid accumulates instead of destructed keratinocytes,
for example in herpes simplex (Fig.6.17), herpes zoster,as herpetic viruses are
cytopathogenic
Bulla: elevated, circumscribed collection of clear fluid with d iameter over 0.5 cm; on
histopathologic examination we can distinguish between:
o s uperficial (subcorneal) bulla (impetigo, bullous erysipela-Fig.4.5, pemphigus foliaceus)
o d eep bulla or subepidermal (bullous pemphigoid-Fig.10.7),Duhring disease
o i n t r aepidermal bulla - in the prickle cell layer, due to the autoimmune destruction
of desmosomes, called acantholysis (Fig.10.5), in pemphigus vulgaris- Fig.10.3
Pustule: elevated, circumscribed accumulation of pus (usually necrotic inflammatory
cells, with/without bacteria)
o p r i mary pustules - not preceded by any lesion
sterile pustules (pustular psoriasis-Fig.11.10)
microbial pustules (folliculitis-Fig.4.11,furuncle)
o s e condary p u stules develop f ro m v e sicles or b u l lae (superinfection of s o m e
dermatoses like herpes simplex, pemphigus)
4. B reaks of continuity of the skin
Erosion (exulceration): a loss of epidermis; it heals without a scar; impetigo, pemphigus
Ulcer.a loss of epidermis and dermis; it heals with scar (ecthyma, leg ulcer-Fig.2.5)
Excoriation: exogeneous injury of the epidermis: posttraumatic, due to scratching in
itching dermatoses like scabies, pediculosis, eczema
Fissure: a linear cleft through the epidermis or into the dermis (in skin folds like the
submammary area, between the fingers, on the tips and flexural creases of the thumbs,
fingers and toes)
Rhagades: are periorificial tears caused by stretching of s kin ( at the angles of the
mouth, at the lips, about the anus)
5. C u taneous debris
Scale: visible and palpable masses of keratin (flakes) due to rapid epidermal cell
formation or abnormal keratinization.
The scales can be fine, delicate as in tinea versicolor (Fig.3.16); coarse in eczema, ichtiosis;
stratified, micaceous, with silvery aspect given by the air trapped between the layers in
occal
psoriasis (Fig.11.4); large sheets desquamation in toxic epidermal necroiysis, staphyloc
scalded skin syndrome and scarletfever. T he l o cation of t h e s c a le o ver t h e l e s ion i s
characteristic: at the periphery of the lesion (leading scale in tinea, collarette in candida
intertrigo), over the whole lesion (eczema, actinic keratosis),leaving a peripheric rim of
nonscaly lesion (psoriasis),peripheral collarette and thin central scaling (pytiriasis rosea).
The maturation of normal epidermis is called orthokeratosis and results in flat, non-
nucleated keratinocytes in the horny layer. When the differentiation of the epidermis is
18
abnormal and/or accelerated, the outer layer will be parakeratotic, with nucleated cells.
parakeratosis is most commonly exemplified in psoriasis and in eczema.Byskeratosis is the
precocious keratinization o f individual cells w i t hi n t h e p r i c kle cell l a yer w i t h t h e
formation of round eosinophilic cells (corps ronds), with a pale halo in the prickle cell
layer and as flat, intense basophilic grains in the granular and corneal layers. Dyskeratosis
can be benign in Da r ier's disease (dyskeratosisfollicularis) or malignant in squamous cell
carcinoma.
Crust: dried exudates like serum, pus or b lood, usually mixed wi th e pithelial and
sometimes bacterial debris. Yellow crusts result from dried serum or dried pus (impetigo
contag'osa-Fig. 4.1, infected herpes) and hematic crusts result when the dermal vessels are
injured (ecthyma-Fig. 4.2, traumatic ulcers).
1Vecrotic scab (necrosis or sphacelus) results from a circumscribed death of tissue. It
may be black and dry due to arterial obstruction (ischemic necrosis-Fig.2.6) or yellow and
moist, due to necrotising bacteria (bourbillon of the furuncle-Fig.4.14).
6. Scars, atrophy
Scars are secondary type, permanent fibrous skin lesions that result from the process
of skin repair by replacement with connective tissue. Their size and shape are determined
by the form of the previous destruction. The collagen fibers are abundant and rigid, the
skin appendages and elastic fibers are absent.
Scars may be smooth (tertiary syphilis) or i r r egular (secondanj skin tuberculosis),
pliable or firm, atrophic or hypertrophic.
Scars may be preceded by ulceration (traumatic or venous ulcer) or by inflammatory
infiltrate, the latter being called interstitial scar (lupus vulgaris, chronic venous insufficiennj).
The interstitial scar that appears in chronic venous insufficiency is called Milian's white
atrophy and is due to the slow necrosis and replacement of the dermis with fibrous scar
tissue (Fig.2.8). It is localized in the lower part of the leg of varicous patients.
When the scar grows beyond the limits of the original injury, often sending out
clawlike prolongations, it is called keloid (Fig.14.12).
Sclerosis i s t h e t h i c k ening o f t h e s kin o n b e h al f o f c o l l agen f i b ers, l ik e i n
lipodermatosclerosis, morpheea, systemic sclerosis (Fig.2.3).
Atrophy of the skin is a thinning of the dermis and epidermis with loss of appendages.
In atrophic skin the dermal vessels are visible, like in old people (Fig.2.7).
19
CONFIGURATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF LESIONS
20
Fig.2.2. Aquired acromic macules (Vitiligo)
Fig.2.1. Hyperpigmented aquired
macules (Melasma)
91
Chapter 3
FUNGAL INFECTIONS
Fungi (Tabel 1) may cause superficial (frequent) and deep infections (very rare) of
the skin. The superficial dermatomycoses are important in medical practice.
Dermato h y t es Yeasts
S ecies Trico h t o n , E i d e rm o h y t on, Microsporum Candid a
Mycelium - w ith b r a n c he d fi l a m e n t s Pseudomycelium - c hains o f
Microscopic
( hyphae); som e w i t h c r o s s-walls, f o r m i n g r ound/oval cells t h a t d i v i d e b y
characteristics
septate hyphae. budding
Tissue inhabited Skin, hair, nails Skin, mucosa, nails
Tabel 1. Differential characters of fungi causing superficial infections.
23
whole area of the neck, thorax, abdomen and arms. In cases of extensive disease or
frequent recurrences, oral antimicotic therapy is indicated.
Depigmentation resolves within 1-2 months after treatment has been initiated. As
endogenous factors of the patients are thought to be of g reat importance, recurrence is
common, and prophylactic therapy may help reduce the high rate of recurrence. One-monthly
dosing of ketoconazole (400 mg), fluconazole (300 mg), itraconazole (400 mg) may be used.
Dermatophyte infections
The dermatophytes are responsible for so-called "ringworm" infections or tinea (Latin: a I
gnawing worm). Dermatophytes can be acquired from different sources: people (anthropophilic
infections), animals (zoophilic infections) or soil (geophilic infections). Contact with contaminated
fomites (e.g. hairbrushes, combs, towels etc) can spread infection. Fungi spores can survive
several months in the environment (especially recreational and sport f acilities), resulting in
recurrent outbreaks. Infection is usually acquired by contact with keratin debris carrying fungal
hyphae. Dermatophytes grow only in the keratin of the skin, hair and nails(Tabel1). Animal and
geopMic fungi usually cause severe inflammatory reaction in humans.
Dermatophytes can be seen on direct examination by taking skin scrapings, nail
c lippings or plucked hair from th e affected area and mounting them on a s l ide w i t h
coverslip i n 2 0 % p o t assium h y d r o xide, which i s g e n tl y w a r m e d a n d e x a m ined
microscopically. Dermatophytes appear as branched septate filaments (mycelium). To
identify the particular species it is necessary to culture the sample for up to 3 weeks on a
suitable medium such as Sabouraud's.
Tinea manuum refers to the palmar involvement. It is often unilateral, may begin
gal
on the 4th finger, under the ring and presents as mild scaling erythema or hyperkeratosis
nd
(Fig.3.6). Tinea manum is frequently associated with tinea pedis ("two feet and one hand
syndrome" ). An important clue to diagnosis is tinea unguium of the involved hand.
ail
The differential di agnosis may i n cl ude p soriasis, irritant o r a l l ergic contact
ith
dermatitis.
ed
To Tinea faciei involves asymmetrically the glabrous skin of t he face, usually the
1a c heek. The typical aspect is annular p atch w i t h c i r cinate or a r cuate margin t hat i s
erythematous, scaling, pustular and extends peripherally (Fig.3,7).It is frequently acquired
from pets in home, but also from individuals with other forms of tinea.
Tinea faciei may r esemble systemic or c h ronic l u pus erythematosus, rosacea,
It allergic or irritant contact dermatitis or seborrheic dermatitis.
ist
ed Tinea incognito is a fungal infection with altered appearance due to inappropriate
ier treatment with topical steroid preparations that suppress the inflammatory response to the
fungus while favouring its multiplication and spreadin . The typical scaly erythematous
)st margin may disappear, leaving an ill-defined area with ustules (Fig.3.8).
Microsporosis capitis (caused by Microsporum sp) appears as 1-2 round, scaly patches
ith of alopecia with hair that is broken at the same level, 2-3 rnm above the surface of the
scalp. The alopecic areas have dull gray appearance due to the disposition of spores on
the exterior of the hair shaft, with destruction of the cuticle (ectotrix invasion).
11c
he Tnchophytosis capitis ("black dot tinea capitis", caused by Trichophyton sp) appears as
Lly several small round alopecic areas, with scales and hairs broken at different lengths,
25
some at their base, causing black dots. The hair shaft is involved, with normal cuticle
(endotrix invasion).
• Favus is caused by Tr i cophyton Schoenleini and lasts even after puberty. Scarring
alopecia with some persistent greyish hairs and y ellow c u p-shaped crusts called
scutulas are characterstic features. The hair i n t h e occipital and t emporal regions
remains healthy. Hyphae and air spaces are observed within the hair shaft.
• Kerion Celsi (Kerion meaning in Greek honeycomb) is a deep, highly inflammatory
scalp infection. One or several painful, round raised, purulent and inflamed lesions
appear on the scalp. Hair fall out rather than break off or can be painlessly pulled
out. B a c t erial su p e r i n fection w ith sta p h y l o cocci is f r e q u ent . Re g i o n al
lymphadenpathy is associated. Kerion may heal with scarring and permanent hair
loss within several weeks. Immunity is developed against re-infection.
• Tinea barbae (micotic sycosis) is a dermatophytic infection of the hair-covered portion
of the face in adult men, provoked by zoophilic dermatophytes, sometimes as
professional disease, from i n f ected cattles. Tinea barbae shows agminated deep
folliculitis with sw ollen pseudotumoral purulent lesions on th e f ace (Fig.3.9) and
lymphadenopathy. This is i n c o n trast to staphylococcal sycosis, characterized by
disseminated folliculitis (Fig.3.10). In tinea barbae the infected hair is easily pulled off.
The removing of the infected hairs and a rim of healthy hairs surrounding the
inflammatory skin lesion is essential for a faster resolution in both inflammatory forms of
pilomycosis and is useful to prevent the extension of the infection.
The hair and skin scrapings should be sent for culture to confirm the diagnosis and
to identify the animal or human reservoir of infection.
26
cle iod (Betadine = polyvidon iodide)
topical azoles: econazole, ketoconazole (Nizoral), dotrimazole, miconazole, oxiconazole,
bifonazol (Biazol), fenticonazol (Lomexin). The mechanism of action is fungistatic, by
ng inhibition of the synthesis of ergosterol, which is an important component of the fungal
ed
cell wall. Membrane damage results in p ermeability problems, in i n hibition of
ins
replication and maturation of the mold into the invasive and pathogenic form
allylamines: naftifine (Exoderil), terbinafine (~ il, Terbisil) are fungicidal agents; they
iry inhibit squalene epoxidase, which converts squalene to ergosterole, causing intracellular
ns accumulation of toxic leveL~ of squalene that lead to rapid fungal cell death
ed c iclopiroxolamine (Batrafen, Ciprox) a s l o t i ons, creams, p o w ders o r s p r ays
>al interfere with amino acid transport across the fungal cell membrane.
Mistreatment of tinea cruris with topical steroids usually results in exacerbation of
the disease, although patients note initial relief of symptoms.
Systemic therapy may be indicated for extensive or resistant fungal infections of
on
the skin, infections of the hair and nails. Use of oral agents requires attention to liver
as
enzyme levels that have to be m onitored before and throughout treatment if t h erapy
ep
extends more than 2 months. Systemic antifungal agents include:
A.d
griseofuivine — is an antifungal antibiotic that arrests the fungal cell mitosis
by
systemic azoles:
f.
o k etoconazole (Nizoral) one 200 mg tablet daily for 2-3 weeks in tinea pedis,
he
corporis, m anuum; i t i s n o t us e d f o r t i n e a u n g u iu m b e cause of
of
h epatotoxicity t h a t u s u ally r e sults d u r in g t h e n e cessary p e rio d o f
treatment (6 months for finger nail and18 months fo toenail mycosis);
md
o i t raconazole (Orungal, Sporanox) and fluconazol (Dif lucan) have less
hepatotoxic action under pulse therapy regimens:
• 300 mg fluconazole once weekly for 2-4 weeks in skin mycosis, for
.th 6 months in fingernail mycosis and up t o 18 months in toenail
mycosis;
)st • itraconazole 2x200 mg daily for 1 week/month, 2 and 4 pulses for
zd fingernail and toenail mycosis, respectively;
he terbinafine (250 mg/tb) may be used for 2 weeks for skin infections, 1-3 months for
l.ly tinea capitis, 2 and 4 months for fingernail and toenail mycosis, respectively.
he Mucocutaneous candidosis
Yeasts are unicellular round or oval fungi that typically reproduce by budding
mrs (pinching off of the mother cell). Candida albicansis the commonest member of the Candhda
genus (>150 species) and the principal infectious agent of human candidosis (Tabel1).
rs. It is a no r mal commensal of the h uman gastrointestinal tract (mouth through
anus), and vagina (13% of women) in balance with the bacterial fiora. Candida species are
Ve not part of the normal flora of the skin; however, they may colonize fingers or body folds
.nt transiently. The commensal form of candida is unicellular yeast. When pathogenic, it
multiplies resulting in budding and mycelial (pseudohyphae) forms. Pseudohyphae are
chains of pinched cells that do not separate.
Candida albicans becomes pathogenic in c e r tain f a v ourable situations: broad-
spectrum a n t i biotics, t o p i cal a n d sy s t emic steroid t h e r apy, i m m u n o defficiency,
27
hyperhidrosis, diabetes mellitus, iron deficiency anaemia, deflciencies including vitamins
B1, B2, B6, C, and folic acid, or local factors like warm and moist environment, increased
contact with invasive monitoring devices in an intensive care unit, decreased salivary flow,
use of denture.
1. Mucosal candidosis
Oral candidosis ( thrush) is c o m m on i n ne w - b o rn i n f a nts, b ecause of t h e
insufficient secretion of the salivary glands, immaturity of host defence and incomplete
establishment of the normal orointestinal flora. It may be acquired in neonates from the
infected maternal mucosa during passage of the infant through the birth canal. In adults,
candida stomatitis appears in i m m une deficiency, xerostomia, use of b r oad-spectrum
antibiotics and inhaled corticosteroids. It may also affect up to 65% of patients who wear
dentures, especially full sets. Oral infections presents as:
- white plaques that adhere to the erythematous, inflamed buccal mucosa (chronic
hyperplastic form)
- white exudates resembling cottage cheese (psudomembranous form)
- patch of erythema (chronic atrophic form)
— glossitis — painful atrophy of the dorsal tongue
Angular cheilitis (perleche) appears at the angles of the mouth where saliva
macerates the skin, especially in edentulous, denture waerers and elderly patients. It
presents with sore fissures with creamy white discharge (Fig.3.72).
Candida vulvitis and vaginitis presents with a c reamy vaginal discharge and
itchy erythema of the vulva. Predisposing factors are: pregnancy, oral contraceptives and
diabetes mellitus. Candidal colonization of vaginal mucosa is estrogen dependent and
subsequently d ecreases sharply a f ter m e n opause, but 'despread use of hormone
replacement for reduction of osteoporosis and heart disease y c a u se an increasing trend
in candidal vulvovaginitis among older women.
Candida balanitis appears as small white patches or eroded areas with creamy
satellite pustules or erosions with a collaret of ruptured skin on the foreskin and glans
(Fig.3.13). It may appear after oral antibiotics. If recurrent, diabetes mellitus is associated or
a sexual partner has Candida vaginitis.
2. Cutaneus candidosis
Candid a involves i n tertriginous a reas, l ik e a x i l lae, sub-mammary, b eneath
pannus, inguinal creases or intergluteal fold. Candida intertrigois clinically suggested by
intense erythematous, erosive patches accompanied by satellite pustules. The pustules are
easily ruptured, leaving collarets of scale, with characteristic scalloped edge.
The 3'd interdigital web space is involved when hands are frequently exposed to
water. Interdigital candidosisappear as white, soft macerated skin (Fig.3.74).
Napkin candidosis is exaplined by the particular susceptibility of moist macerated
skin to invasion by C.albicans from infected stools. It presents as erythematous perianal or
perigenital plaque with polycyclic edge, collarets of scale and satellite pustules (Fig.3.75).
28
3. Candida onixis and perionixis ('chronic paronichia)
ns
Chronic paronichia is a chroni" inflammatory process affecbng initially the proximal
d
~ f o l d and then the nail matrix(Fig.3.16).Bacteria may associate. The proximal nail fold
appears erythematous, swollen and tender, with occasional discharge and loss of the cuticle
(perionixis). The nail plate becomes dystrophic, discoloured (grey, yellow) and thick (onixis).
~o nic paronichia occurs predominantly in people who frequently submerge their hands in
he ~ater (housewife, bar staff, florists, and fishmongers). Diabetes is also a predisposing factor.
.te
4. Chronic muco-cutanous candidosis
he
Chroruc muco-cutaneous candidosis refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
ts,
c haracterized b y r e c u rrent o r p e r sistent superficial i n f ections o f t h e s k i n , mucous
ar
mem
branes, and nails with Candida organisms, usually Candida albicans,associated with a
d efect in cell-mediated im m unity. This begins in e a rly c h i l dhood an d r e sists to t h e
conventionally topic treatments. The clinical picture consists of oral chronic candidosis
(thrush), candida intertrigo, candida granuloma (inflammatory nodules of the scalp),
candida diaper dermatitis or perionixis.
Treatment of the candida infections
Topical treatment is recommended to change the pH to a lkaline (washing with
sodium bicarbonicum 1%) because Candida prefers the acid environment. It is useful to
va
avoid contact between skin surfaces, isolating the skin folds with dry dressings and use of
It
antiperspir ants.
Topical treatment uses creams, ointments, lotions, powders in different regimens
xd and duration, depending on the clinical form of candidosis:
1d polien antibiotics: amphotericine B, nystatin (Stamicin), natamycin (Pimafucin)
ld azols: clotrimazole, econazole, miconazole, ketoconazole (Nizoral), bi n a zol (Biazol),
ze fenticonazol (Lomexin)
xd Systemic treatment:
poliene antibiotics - nystatin (Stamicin) administered orally acts only locally in the
g astro-intestinal t r act, i t i s n o t a b s orbed sy stemically; am photericin B i s u s e d
ly
intravenously in severe cases
ns
azols are recommended in cases resistant to topical therapy: ketoconazole (Nizoral)
or
200 mg/tb; fluconazole (Diflucan) 100 mg, or 150 mg/ cps; itraconazole (Orungal,
Sporanox), 100 mg/cps; voriconazole
Xy fluorocitozin is metabolized in organism to fluorouracil, a cytostatic agent that acts
inhibiting the synthesis of the fungus DNA, without acting on the macroorganism.
th
)y DEEP FUNGAI. INFECTIONS
re
The majority of deep fungal infections are tropical diseases (histoplasmosis,
to criptococcosis, coccidiosis), while others like sporotrichosis, micetoma and actinomycosis
are rarely seen in Romania.
29
ulcerate. After a few weeks the infection spreads along the regional lymphatic vessels and
satellite firm nodules appear, then ulcerate and open to the skin surface forming tortuous
fistulas. Sporotrix organisms can sometimes cause systemic involvement (lungs and
joints). Treatment: potassium iodide 2-4 g daily; itraconazol (Orungal) 100 mg daily, 3-4
months; amphotericin B 1-3 g daily in i.v. infusions.
."-S
Uncut'- • ..
gjpjuqu~lq, .-'< ' •
v
r.
Sulphur granule
The treatment of choice includes large doses of antibiotics and prolonged therapy
coupled wit h d r a inage of th e abscesses or radical excision of th e s i nus t r acts. High
penicillin concentrations are necessary to penetrate areas of fibrosis and suppuration and
possibly the granules themselves. Intravenous penicillin G (10-20 million U/d for 2-6 wk)
followed by oral penicillin (2-4 g/d for an additional 3-12 mo) is the typical therapy for the
most deep-seated infections.
30
js
.d
4
>e
ls
.e Pig.3.1. Pityriazis versicolor Fig.3.2. Tinea pedis, interdigital form
d (brown and acromic macules)
S,
.k
ie
h
d
')
e
Fig.3.7. Tinea faciei Fig.3.8. Tinea incognito
Fig.3.10. Mixt sycosis
Fig.3.9. Inflammatory tinea of (tricophytic and staphylococic)
the upper lip (sycosis)
Fig.3.11 White superficial (left) and distal Fig.3.12. e (candidal angular cheilitis)
lateral onicomycosis
The skin is sterile immediately before birth and is colonized by bacteria from the
first day of life.
Resident flora is represented by harmless bacteria which permanently colonize the
to prevent infections by providing ecological competition for pathogenic organisms; there
Ne different species varying among locations of the body and individuals:
gram positive - staphylococci; corynebacteria;
anaerob bacteria — Propionibacter in the deeper part of the hair follicles, on the face
and upper trunk;
yeasts —Malassezia on seborrheic areas
Imbalances between the resident flora of the skin, vagina or intestine and other
bacteria or fungi can appear after antibiotics use or weakening of the immune system
(AIDS, cancer, corticosteroids or chemotherapy). An example is vaginal yeast infection
after antibiotic treatment.
Temporary resident flora: b acteria and fu ngi w h i r ~ s i st on t h e s k in f or a
limited period of time, multiply and cause infections (staphylococci, streptococci).
Transient flora: bacteria, fu ngi a n d v i r u s es f r om e x o genous s ources, that
contaminate the normal skin only at t i mes. In special conditions (immune deficiency,
irritated or injured skin) non-pathogenic organisms may change their behaviour, multiply
on the skin and cause infections.
Cutaneous infections are favoured by:
factors depending on the microorganism — increased virulence
factors depending on t h e h u man b od y — increased tisular glucose (diabetus
mellitus), p r eexisting d e r m atoses (eczema, s ki n p a r asitosis), m i cr otrauma,
denutrition, immunologic deficiencies (AIDS, immunosuppressive therapy)
PYODERMAS
33
Non-f olicular pyodermas patI
Impetigo is a highly contagious gram-positive bacterial infection of the superficial
epidermis.Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus beta-haemolyticgroup A (GABHS or end
Strept.pyogenes) e both implicated in the etiology of impetigo.
There are 2 forms of th e d i sease: bullous impetigo and n onbullous impetigo. ]yrr
L esions may occur anywhere on the body, but mainly on the face of children. The typical per
lesion is a rapidly enlarging bulla (superficial, subcorneal but transient and not observed
in non-bullous form) that is fragile and ruptures leaving peripheral scaly collaret and sub
yellow (meliceric) crust over th e erosion. Infection spreads to contiguous areas and are
satellite lesions appear due to autoinfection (Fig.4.1, 4.2). The lesions heal without atrophy
and scar. Rarely, poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (pedal edema, hypertension) can 4
complicate impetigo.
While impetigo can manifest as a primary pyoderma of intact skin, it may occur as
a secondary infection of tr aumatized skin or p r e-existing dermatosis (varicella, atopic
dermatitis, m y cosis, scabies a nd l ouse i n fection), w h ic h h a s b ee n r e f erred t o as
impetiginous dermatitis.
usll
Ecthima is a streptococcal infection that extends into the dermis, being referred to
as a deeper form of i m p etigo. Streptococcimay initiate the lesion, usually on t he l egs
(primary ecthima) or may infect pre-existing wounds (secondary ecthima), in the presence
of factors like crowded living conditions, poor hygiene, immnneseppression. The initial
vesicle-pustule soon ruptures and the secretion dries to form a brown, adherent crust over
the ulcer (Fig.4.3). The dermis being damaged, ecthima heals with a round scar that is b]i,
frequently hypopigmented and peripherally hyperpigmented (Fig.4.4).
Streptococcal intertrigo appears most frequently in children and more frequent in alt~
infants, due to irritation and friction in the deep folds of the neck, axillae, antecubital and
popliteal fosae. Well demarcated fiery red erythema in an intertriginous area with foul
ap
smell and no satellite lesions differentiates clinically streptococcal from candida intertrigo.
W]'
Bacterial culture may confirm diagnosis.
gar
Erysipelas is an acute infection of the superficial dermal lymphatics of the skin.
The majority of cases are caused by Streptococcus pyogenes or Staphylococcus aureus on
the skin and its appendages that gain entry to the dermis and multiply.
The condition is most common localized on the lower legs, but any other part of
the body, like the face or ear may be involved. The portal of entry has always to be looked
for in the nelghbourlng area of the infected skin or mucosa. e g a f ssure. cut. laceration. 1Uf
insect bite, puncture wound, intravenous drug abuse, rhinovestibulitis, otitis externa - for
the erysipelas of the face or ear; tinea pedis, venous ulcers, pressure ulcers, lymphatic ap]
obstruction (after lymphadenectomy or irradiation) - for lower leg erysipelas; lymphatic
obstruction (after surgery for breast cancer) - for arm erysipelas.
After an incubation of 2-5 days, there is an abrupt onset of fever, chills and
malaise. A few h ours to a day l ater, erythematous, edematous plaque appears, with
raised and sharply d elimited m argins, associated with p ain an d t enderness (Fig.4.5,
Fig.4.6). Regional lymphadenopathy and sometimes lymphangitis are present. The
erythematous plaque with important, non-pitting edema progressively enlarges over a
few days and bullae (Fig.4.6), purpura (Fig.4.7) or necrosis (Fig.4.8) may also develop. In
34
atjents with underlying disorders (diabetes mellitus, lymphedema, peripheral vascular
ial d>ease) complications may occur, like abcedation (Fig.4.9), acute gloroerulonephritis,
or er1docarditis and recurrences.
Repeated obstructions of the major lymphatic channels of the skin lead to chronic
go. lyInphedema and later on, to elephantiasis, characterized by hypertrophic and fibrotic
ical permanent lymphedema (Fig.4. 10).
red Cellulitis d iffers from e r ysipelas in t he f a ct t h at i t i s d e e per, involving t h e
lIld
subcutaneous tissue and not the lymphatics. The margins of the red inflammatory plaque
lxld
are not sharply demarcated.
Ihy Differential diagnosis of erysipelas and cellulitis includes deep vein thrombosis,
an
stasis dermatitis, superflcial thromboflebitis and lipodermatosclerosis.
35
predisposing lower extremity skin lesions (e.g., tinea pedis, stasis ulcers) and long-term
prophylactic antibiotic therapy (e.g. benzathine penicillin 2.4 MU i.m. every 3 weeks for up
to 2 years) reduce the recurrences of erysipela. Renal or cardiac complications might not be
prevented by oral antibiotic treatment in streptococcal impetigo and erysipelas.
T he treatment of N F i s a n e m ergency and th e p atient is better moved in a n
intensive care unit. Immediate surgical debridment and antibiotic treatment are necessary.
Follicular pyodermas
Follicular infections are mainly determined by S.aureus,a normal inhabitant of the
a nterior nostrils i n 2 0-40% of th e a d u lts an d o n t h e h a nd s an d p e rineum i n s o m e
individuals. Nasal carriers are particularly prone to recurrent staphylococcal infections.
FolIiculitis is defined clinically by a follicular-based pustule and histologically by
the presence of in fl ammatory cells w i t hi n t h e w a l l a n d l u m e n o f t h e h ai r f o l l icle.
Perifotticulitis is defined by the p resence of inflammatory cells within the perifollicular
tissues and adjacent reticular dermis.
Predisposing factors for staphylococcal folliculitis include: occlusion of the hair
follicles by tight clothing, shaving, plucking or waxing hair, hot and humid weather, use of
topical corticosteroids, obesity, atopic dermatitis and diabetes mellitus.
Folliculitis has been classically divided into superficial deep forms; most of the
superficial forms can evolve into the deep form.
Furuncle (boil) develops when the entire follicle together with surrounding tissue
are infected by S.aureus haemolytic. It starts as a painful inflammatory nodule (Fig.4.13)
that becomes fluctuant and develops a central pustule centred by a velluls hair over a few
days. Staphilococcus has a necrotising toxin that induces the formation of the necrotic core
(necrotic pilo-sebaceus follicle, called bourbillon, Fig.4.14), which will be eventually
elimined, leaving a scar.
Several simultaneous boils in a patient or recurrent boils represent furunculosis.
These patients may have underlying favouring disorders (diabetes mellitus, cancer, AIDS,
etc.) or they are otherwise healthy, bnt they may he carriers of staphylococci ht the nostrils
or on the perineum, from where the organisms are transferred to various parts of the body I
on the digits.
9
The furuncle localized on the superior lip is. called "the malignant furuncle of the
face". Due to the laxity of the subcutaneous tissue at this level, the massive edema camouflages
the furuncle. The furuncle appears as lip edema with a small pustule. The name comes from
the possible complication that can appear after squeezing the lesion: septic thrombosis of the
hollow sinus, as the blood of the upper lip drain in the venous sinuses from the base of the
encephalon. This complication is i n dicated by e x treme headache, high fever (40'-42'),
36
hptophobia, conjunctival chemosis, diplopia and coma. Death may result in 90% of cases.
up t is why th e f u runcle located on the upper lip i s t reated strictly conservatory with
be anti
bioticsand wet antiseptic dressings, while autotrauma is forbidden.
A confluence of several furuncles (agminated furunculosis) results in carbuncle,
an frequently localized on areas with t hicker skin, like nape of the neck, back, thigh in
patients suffering from diabetes or severe debility. It begins with a dome-shaped area of
tender erythematous swollen skin, and, i n a f e w d a ys, pu s d i scharge from m u l t iple
the fpiljcular orifices. A deep ulcer results that resolves with a visible permanent scar.
me Paronychia due to s taphylococcus is an acute soft tissue infection around the
fingernail that results from the breakdown of the cuticle, which prevents the inflltration of
by the infectious agent barrier u n d er t he p r o ximal n ail f o l d. T he p a tients accuse pain,
=le. tenderness, redness and swelling in the proximal and/or lateral nail folds. Pus may be
ilar expressed by slight pressure (Fig.4.15).
Acute paronychia can also be caused by other microorganisms like streptococcus,
iair pseudomonas species, gram negative and anaerobic bacteria. Favouring factors are
.of hangnails, nail biting and finger sucking, manicuring, or artificial nail placerf1ent.
Acute paronychia has to be distinguished from chronic paronychia, caused by
candida albicans, in p e ople repeatedly exposed to m o ist environment (dishwashers,
housekeepers, bartenders, swimmers).
or Staphylococcal scaled skin syndrome (SSSS) is a toxin-mediated staphylococcal
ace syndrome, given by certain staphilococcal toxigenic phag types that cause intraepidermal
splitting of the granular layer. It is more common in infants and young children, but adults
ses with renal insufficiency or immunodeficiency are also vulnerable, due to deficiency in the
elimination of toxins. SSSS originates from a focus of infection that may be impetigo, a
red purulent conjunctivitis, otitis media or nasopharyngeal infection. It starts with general
ons malaise and a rash that rapidly progresses to bullae, shedding of epidermis and
erythematous erosions. The aspect is comparable with t hat of t h e scalded skin, w i t h
c omplete recovery i n 5 - 7 d a y s . T h e t r e atment p o i nt s t o t h e e r a d ication o f t h e
sue staphylococcus focus of infection with antistaphylococcal antibiotics (cloxacillin) and
13) appropriate attention to fluid and electrolyte management.
'ew
ore Treabnent of staphylococcal infections requires local and systemic measures.
<lly Local treatment is sufficient in superficial folliculitis. One may use antiseptics
containing iod (tincture of 2% povydon iodide alcoholic solution - Betadine), chloride
S1s.
(chloramine B) or a n tibiotics (mupirocin ointment - B actroban, neomycin+bacitracin -
DS, Negamicin B, Neobasept), retapamulin 1% - Altargo.
rils Deep folliculitis is very resistant to various topical treatments because the infection
)dy of the deeper part o f t h e f o l licle is r arely r eached by t h e a ntimicrobial agents and
represents a source for reinfection.
Washes containing clorhexidine or triclosan and dilute household bleach (0.5 cup
ges of 6% sodium hypochlorid in a full bathtub) and topical antibiotic to the narines for 5-10
om days are necessary to reduce the nasal carriage of S.aureusand decolonize the skin.
the Systemic treatment is r e quired i n s e rious, painful an d f e brile i n fections like
the carbuncle or m alignant f u r uncle of th e f ace. As staphylococci secrete beta-lactamase
2'),
37
enzyme (penicillinase) that inactivates the penicillins, beta-lactamase resistent drugs have
to used, like Augmentin (amoxycilin + clavulanic acid) or other antibiotics like oxacillin,
flucloxacillin, cephalexine, or macrolides (erythromycin, azitromycin).
A ntibiotic resistance is becoming a n i m p o rtant consideration, as m ethicillin- i ~
resistant S.aureus (MRSA), former a nosocomial infection, is now a community-acquired s
s kin infection. In these situations, trimetoprim-sulfamethoxazole, doxycyline, clindamycin, ( :
minocycline (I line treatment) or oral linezolid (II-line) are recommended, and in severe
infections, intravenous vancomycin (I-line), linezolid (II-line) or t igecycline (III-line
treatment) may be necessary.
In order to strengthen the immunological resistance of the patient one may use
v accines containing e x t racts o f k il l e d s t a p h ylococci o r th e i r in a c t ivated t o x i n s 0
(staphylococcal anatoxin).
Other bacterial infections of the skin
Erysipeloid is caused by Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae that may afflict the hands of
those handling uncooked meat, fish or poultry (farmers, butchers, fishermen, housewives).
The organism enters the skin of the hands ( Qe interdigital webs) via an abrasion and
produces a well-defined, purplish-red plaque+hich spreads gradually, usually without
systemic involvement (Fig.4.16). Very rare fever, bacteremia and endocarditis can occur. The
li
infection can be controlled by penicillin. Disinfectants are important for the working areas.
MYCOBACTERIAL INFECTION
40
rial >ce the mycobacteria can not cross intact skin. Like in tuberculosis, the primary infection
sg1c
s in many persons, but the leprosy de~~lops in only 5-10'/o, who has decreased cell
iine >~djated immunity. Depending on the level of the immune deficiency, different forms of
leprosy may develop.
use Tuberculous leprosy (TL) (when the immune deficiency is minor) involves the
sldn and peripheral nerves, with sharply demarcated hypopigmented macules that are
iary spInewhat elevated, with a d r y c e nter and erythematous borders, accompanied by a
s is cha
racteristicloss of sensation, absent sweating and reduced hairs. The lesions are few in
i of >UInber (< 5) and are located on areas with lower temperature: buttocks, face, extensor
able faces of limbs. There can be palpable thickened branches of cutaneous sensory nerves,
like lnar and common peroneal nerves. Severe neuropathic pain and muscle atrophy can
be present. Skin test with antigen from killed bacilli (lepromine test) is strongly positive
(>5 mm) showing a well developed immune response, and histology in Fite stain shows
to
tUberculoid granuloma without the presence of bacilli.
with
vast Lepromatous leprosy (LL) is c haracterized by extensive skin, eyes, bones,
'nor respiratory tract and testes involvement because expressed deficiency of immune system
< in (Ininimal cellular response) and uncontrolled multiplication of bacilli. The skin lesions are
multiple (> 6) symmetric macules, infiltrated nodules and plaques causing lion-like aspect
pf the face (facies leonine: hoarsness, loss of eyebrows and eyelashes, nasal collapse
that secondary to septa perforation). Lepromin test is negative; the histology shows diffuse
ting granuloma in which acid-fast bacilli are present in greater number (multibacillary leprosy).
the This form is highly contagious.
Borderline leprosy (BLL) represents intermediate cell-mediated response to bacilli
with variable extension and severity of manifestations, between the two forms described
~ on before.
cm
The diagnosis of leprosy is established when one or more of the following are
eral
present (WHO):
hypopigmented or reddish patches with definite loss of sensation
true
thickened peripheral nerves
)S1S.
acid-fast bacilli on skin smears or biopsy material
.ires
Treatment o f l e p r osy w a s f o r m erly d o n e w i t h D a p sone, bu t a s r e sistance
increased, multidrug t h erapy w a s i n t r o duced (1981), w it h r i f a m pin, d a psone an d
clofazimine. The length of treatment ranges from 6 months to 2 years.
Sometimes antileprousy therapy i s c o m p licated b y i m m u n ological mediated
"reactional states" called leprous reactions. These are considered medical emergencies as
yes, they can result in permanent neurological sequelae, disability and deformities. Patients at
.llus highest risk are those with multibacillary leprosy (LL and BLL).
Type I reaction (type IV allergic hypersensitivity) can appear after 2-12 months of
treatment, with worsening of skin and nerve lesions, acute febrile illness. It indicates an
hod impr
ovement of the cell-mediated immunity. It i s t reated with corticosteroids and the
specific antileprosy treatment should be continued.
ong Type II reaction (type III humoral hypersensitivity) appears after a few years of
suit therapy with a systemic inflammatory response to immune complexes deposition. It shows
sch,
41
erythematous nodules on the lower legs, being also called erythema nodosum leprosum
(ENL). The elective treatment is T h alidomide, but a lso corticosteroids can be u sed.
Thalidomide can cause severe birth defects when used in pregnancy.
42
sum
sed..
.tion
resh
es a Fig.4.1. Impetigo Fig.4.2. Impetigo, disseminated
s- )
er 3
feet,
and
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46
ECT(3PARASITE INFECTIQNS
SCABIES
Scabies (Latin scabere = to scrach ) is a skin infection caused by the mite called
Sarcoptes scabiei var horninis, an obligate human parasite. Scabies is transmitted via direct
~d prolonged contact with an infected individual, also as a sexual transmitted disease.
Infested bedding and clothing is an alternate source of infection, as the
mite survives up to 3 days away from the human skin. The female scabies
mite burrows in the epidermis, and lays eggs in the burrow behind her.
The incubation period is 4-6 weeks if th e i n d i vidual was not i n fected
before {the time needed for the type IV hypersensitivity reaction to mites,
eggs and scybala) or 24-48 hours from reexposure in previously sensitized
persons. The hypersensitivity r e action i s r e sponsible fo r t h e i n t ense
pruritus that is the clinical hallmark of the disease. Sarcoptes scabies
Lesion distribution, intractable pruritus that is characteristically worse at night and
epjdemiologic history (similar symptoms in close contacts) are very suggestive for scabies.
The lesions are sy mmetric, located on t h e f l e xor a spects of t h e w r i s ts, th e
interdigital we b s p aces, a xillae, e l b ows, b e l t li n e a nd but t o c ks. A r e o lae a r e
characteristically involved in w o m en, scrotum and penis in men (F ig.5.2),while soles,
palms, face and all the body diffusely in children. In adults, the interscapular region is
spared of lesions. Lesions found i n t h e i n t erscapular area and n ap e s u ggest scalp
pediculosis.
The primary lesions in scabies are:
the burrow - th e d i agnostic sign of scabies, 2-10 millimetres long, tortuous, light-
brown in color, surrounded by mild erythema. Dermatoscopy can aid visualizing the
burrow (Fig.5.7).
erythematous papulo-vesicles/pustules (1-3 mm) (Fig.5.3)
Secondary changes such as excoriations, eczematization, secondary b acterial
infection (impetigo, ecthyma and cellulitis) or postinflammatory hyperpigmentation are
often seen in patients with scabies.
There are two particular clinical forms:
• nodular scabies - especially in c hildren, brownish-red papules and nodules
develop as an exagerated hyperergic reaction
crusted scabies - fu lminant i n festation, with c r u sted l esions (Fig.5.4), in
immun
ocompromised, e lderly ( i n ability t o m ou n t a n i mmu n e response),
institutionalized persons and in neurological disorders (can't perceive pruritus,
can't scratch — a m e chanism t o r i d t h e b o d y o f mi t e s), w h e n e n o r mous
multiplication mites occurs (to thousands, compared to less than 100, usually 10-15
in common forms ).
Treatment in a d u l ts: permethrine 5% cream (Scabex), washed off a f ter 8-l.,
h ours, can be used from 2 m o n th s of age; in i n f ants and p r egnant patients: benz~ h )
b enzoate is th e c h oice. Topical su l p hu r i n c r e am s 2-10% may b e e f f ective bu t > e
f requently i r r i t a n t a nd le s s ac c e p te d b e c a us e i t s odour. G a m m a be n z e ne
hexachloride 1% ointment (Lindan) repeatedly for 3 days, washed off after 8 hours, i
u sed as a second-line therapy because of its toxicity (seizures, aplastic anemia), no f g
u nder 2 y e ars o f a ge. A l l t o p i cal t r e atments m ust b e a p p l ie d f r o m c h i n t o t o e <
including a reas under f i n g ernails an d t o enails. A n o r a l a g ent, I v e r mectin, i s a l s~
effective in one single dose of 200-250 micrograms/kg repeated in one-two w eeks i>
typical scabies, Crusted scabies may require 3 or more doses at 1-2 week interval. m
Pruritus may p ersist up t o 2 w e ek s after succesfull t r eatment, but t y p i call>
decreases after the initiation of treatment. When persistent, antihistamines or a shor
course of topical steroids are required. lie
The family members and contact persons should be simultaneously examine<
and treated, even i f t h e y h a v e n o s y m p t o ms. A l l c a r p ets sh oul d b e v a c u u m ed
clothing laundered, bed linens and tow els washed in hot w a ter in the second day o
Cg
treatment and again after 1 week. Items that cannot be washed may be professionall~
pL
dry cleaned or sealed in p l a stic bags fo r 1 w e ek . Excess scales in cr u sted scabies
should be removed to ease the penetration of topical scabicidal agents and decreas~
the burden of infestation.
ch
PEBK.'ULOSIS
CII
There are 3 types of human lice: Pediculus humanus capias •4
•
(head louse), Pediculus humanus corporis (body louse), and Pthirus Lceas.
pubis (crab louse). Head l o use i nfestations are seen i n al l
socioeconomic groups and in school children and are not a sign of
poor hygiene, as the parasites survive underwater r'or up to 6 hours.
Body lice mainly affect the homeless. Pubic lice generally are spread
as a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Head and pubic lice infest
hair, laying their eggs at the base of hair shafts. Body lice infest
clothing, laying their eggs on fibers in the fabric seams. All 3 types
take periodic blood meals by piercing the skin of the host with their
anterior mouthparts.
Head lice spread through crawling from one person's hair to another's but als(
1
through a shared hairbrush. Lice cannot jump or fly from one person to another. Seal)
pediculosis manifests by scalp p r u r i t us. It l e ads to excoriations, secondary bacterial
infections (impetigo) and regional lymph node enlargement. Head lice are found most
commonly in the retroauricular and occipital scalp. Females lay eggs and produce)
biologic clay to form nits that attach the eggs to the hair shaft. Nits (egg-cases) are sees
just above the level of the scalp (they need body warmth to incubate) but also several
millimetres from the scalp, the latter being nonviable and indicating chronic infection
1
Nits look similar to the dandruff, but have a regular ovoid form and they adhere to th(
r 8-1i
frenzy h,rs
hairs (Fig.5.5). Blacks have a lower incidence of infestation by the head louse but may
but expe
caperience
scalp infestation by P. pubis.
nzer» Body lice live and lay eggs on the seams of clothing and only moves onto the
urs, li y to take blood meals at night (Fig.5.6). Nits are also found in the seams. The adult
i), no ferna]e body louse, unlike the head louse, can survive as long as 10 days away from the
toes h~ a n body wi t h out a blood meal.
s alsi Intense itching and papulo-vesicles caused by an allergic reaction to louse bites
eks i~ are common symptoms of body lice infestation. At sites where insects bite blue-grey
il. ~acules appear, called maculae cerulea. They are pathognomonic for infestation with
iicalbl ,ce and are caused by t h e en zymes in t h e l o use saliva that b r eaks d ow n h u m a n
shorb i]jrubjn t o b i l i v e r d in . A s a result o f s c r a tching, t h e p a t i ent h a s e x c oriations,
ljchenifications and melanoderma, condition called "vagabond's disease".
nine< Body lice are vectors of epidemic typhus, trench fever.
smed Crab lice (pubic lice) are most frequently transmitted by d i r ect physical
iay o contact with an infected indivi d ual and adapted to liv ing on thick and curled hair of
snail)
p ubic, axilary, beard, and eyelash regions. Like head l i ce, the female crab lice f i x
cabiei
their eggs to hair shafts with a cement material. They appear light-brown (Fig.5.7,
ere asi
5.7a). Intense pruritus, maculae cerulae and n i t s i n t h e a f f ected areas are h i g hly
characteristic for the crab lice infestation.
Treatment of pediculosis:
Body hce: wash clothing and bed linen in hot water and dry wi th h i gh heat; dry
cleaning also effective to kill lice and nits.
Head and pubic lice:
cleaning of h a i r a c cessories, towels, bedding, clothing ar e essential t o p r e vent
reinfestation; plain white vinegar helps dissolve the cement away from the nit and aid
in mechanical removal of nit with fine-tooth combs. Removing nits after treatment is
not necessary to prevent spreading, as these contain dead eggs.
pediculicides as 1st line treatment:
o p e r m ethrin, pyrethrine — not very effective for nits and may develop resistance
o m a l a thion (solution, spray) — effective against both lice and nits
o m e r c u ric oxide ointment — useful for eyelash infestation
o b e n zyl alcohol solution 5%
o p e d i culicides as 2nd line treatment: hexachlorocyclohexane (Lindane lotion,
cream, shampoo 1%); neurotoxic for children and pregnancy
it als(
3rd line treatment (oral): ivermectin, albendazole, levamisole.
ScalI
teria
most TICKS
duce <
. seer Ticks, Ixodes species (Fig.5.8) are common in w o o ded areas and are vectors of
vera'. Lyme disease caused by the spirochaete Borrelia burgdorferi.
ction Lyme disease is divided into three stages:
to th< 1) acute illness: erythema migrans at the site of the tick bite appears 1 day-1 month after
the tick bite and develops an annular shape greater than 5 cm in diameter (Fig.5.9);
headaches, fever, myalgia and arthralgia may associate;
49
2) d i ssemination phase: secondary annular skin l e sions, migratory arthritis, cardiac
arrhythmias and meningitis; antibodies to the spirochete are developed;
3) l at e chronic phase, 2-3 years after untreated initial i n fection: destructive chronic
arthritis, acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans and neuropathy.
Treatment: doxycycline 100 mg bid or amoxiciline 500 mg tid for 3 weeks.
C UTANEOUS LARVA M I G R A N S
im.
be1
sta
ca1
sp
ke
(F
le!
bl
lil
af
Pl
a1
s(
K
50
.rdiac
Chapter 6
.ronic
VIRAL INFECTIONS
WARTS (VERRUCAE)
give
ually ~ art s a r e b e n i g n e p i d e r ma l n e o p l asms c a u sed b y v ir u s e s o f hu m a n
y soil papillomavirus (HPV) group. Currently, more than 100 types of HPV have been
:e the >gentjfjed, with a tendency of certain HPV types to occur at particular anatomic sites.
g the +arts are transmitted by di rect or indirect contact, and predisposing factors include
ncing djsruption to the normal epithelial barrier. Treatment can be difficult, w it h f r equent
.ques, f ajlures and r e currences. Many w a r ts, h o w e ver, r e solve s p ontaneously w i t h i n 2
y ears. Probably cell-mediated immunity (CMI) p l ays a significant role in wart
.sions regression; patients w ith C M I de f i c i ency a r e p a r t i c u l arl y s u s ceptible t o H P V
tjn as i nfection and a r e n o t o r i ously d i f f i c ul t t o t r e at . A s m a l l s u b set o f H P V t y p e s,
i ncluding t y pe s 16 , 1 8 , 3 1 , 3 3 a n d 3 5 i s a s s o ciated w i t h t h e d e v e l o pment o f
rnaijgnancjes, m ost c o m m o nl y s e e n i n per s i s t en t g e n i t a l i n f e c t io n a n d i n
j~rnunocompromjsed p a tients. I n fection w i t h H P V 6 a n d 1 1 i s a s s o ciated w i t h
benign lesions and low-grade intraepithelial neoplasia.
C linial manifestation depends on th e H P V t y p e i n v o l ved an d t h e i m m u n e
status of the patient.
Plantar warts may be: a) deep, solitary or scattered over the sole of the foot
(Fig.6.4), or b) more superficial and grouped together (mosaic warts, Fig.6.5). The
lesions are round, sharply d efined, with r o ugh k eratotic surface that covers several
black dots produced by th r ombosed capillaries. Plantar warts are frequently painful
like calluses and corns, but these develop in areas of friction over bony pr ominences
and appear without capillaries, as uniformly thickened skin (calluses) or with painful
central plug of keratin (corns).
Viral papiloma are long, narrow, frond-like and flesh-colored elevations that
grow rapidly, usually on the face (Fig.6.7, 6.8, 6.9)
51
Genital warts (condyloma acuminata) are one of t he m ost common sexuall~
transmitted disease (although min or). They are caused by certain types of HPV th p~
can also cause cervical and penile cancer. Among the strains in the genital area (aboq
40), 13 are high-risk (strains 16 and 18 cause 70% of all genital cancers) and the other!
are low-risk, sometimes yielding changes in pap smears but not progressing to cance!
(6 and 11 cause about 90% of genital warts).
The virus is transmitted through d i rect genital contact. Extremely unl ikely i,
transmitted through shared clothing, bed sheets etc. The incubation may be anywher!
from 1 week to more than 1 year and lesions become apparent after additional month <
or years.
Condylomata appear as d i screte small p a p u les w i t h s m o ot h s u r f ace, skin.
colored, brown or w h i t ish (w hen m acerated), that becomes papillomatous and late!
acuminated ( v egetations) w i t h w e t a s p e ct. T h e l e s ions measure on e t o s e v er<I
m illimeters diameter but t h a y m a y a l s o p r esent as p educulated papilomas, up t !
several centimeters diameter, with f oul smell (Fig.6.10, 6.11). They are located on th!
external genitalia, perineum and perianally and may extend in the adjacent cutaneous!
areas like inguinal fold, mons pubis and also mucosal areas like vagina, uretra an)
anal canal.
Giant condylomata acuminata (Buschke-Lowenstein tumor) i s a ssociated wi Q
low-risk HPV types 6 and 11 and extensive growth as large cauliflower-like tumor an<
deep infiltration. It i s b enign bu t t r a nsformation i nt o sqarnous cell carcinoma mal
occur.
High-risk HPV type (HPV-16) is associated with squamous cell carcinoma ir
situ t ha t m a y p r e sent a s m u l t i p l e b r o w n - red p a p u les o n t h e e x t e rnal g e n italia
perineum and perianally (Bowenoid papulosis)or eroded plaques on penis shaft or vulv<
(Erythroplasia of Queyrat). Biopsy is warranted to exclude malignancy.
Genital warts should no t b e c o nfused w it h c o n dyl oma l ata f rom secondary
s yphilis, a l t h ough t h e t w o di s e ases ma y a s sociate. M o l l u scum c o n t agiosum i !
frequently located in the genital area but has a different clinical aspect. fl
Oral warts results from d i g i t al or o r a l-genital sexual transmission, as small
soft, white or pink papules or plaques. Transformation in oropharyngeal cancer mal
occur.
Therapy
3
There is no specific antiviral therapy to cure HPV infection. Treatment is aime(
at destruction of the warty growths rather than elimination of the virus. HPV infectio!!
is usually self-limited but l i f e l on g subclinical infection may be also possible. Mosl
sexual partners are likely to be sub clinically infected with HPV (no exophytic lesions)
Use of condoms may, in some cases, reduce transmission of the v i rus to u n i n fecte <
partners.
Local destructive therapies
salicilic acid, tricloracetic acid, glutaraldehyde or formaldehyde
cryotherapy with l i q uid n i t r ogen, repeated every 1-4 weeks for approx.3 month(
0
(using a cryospray or a cotton bud applicator on a stick, until the lesion is frozen),
paring plantar warts is a valuable adjunct to cryotherapy
52
:ually electrosurgery requires local anesthesia
~ that l aser is an expensive treatment, reserved for l a rge or r e fractory w a rts; mu l t i p l e
about treatments may be required.
)ther' Cytotoxic therapy
ancet > odophylotoxin 0.5% solution (Condyline) - t h e m ost active constituent of t h e
plant extract p odophyllin w hich i s n o lon g e r u s e d d u e t o its tox i c i t y ;
ely i< >odophylotoxin is a self-applied treatment, more efficient that podophyllin an d
vhere contraindicated in pregnancy
onto' 5-Fluorouracil cream (5-FU)
Topical immunomodulators
skin irniquimod 5% stimulates the innate immune response to produce cytokines (IFN-
latet ~, TNF-a, IL 1 2); it w o r k s w el l o n m u c osal sites, while on c u taneous areas its
.ver al penetl ations is i n creased by s alicylic acid p r e parations or c r y o therapy; l o nger
ap ta periods of treatment are usually needed, e.g. 3-6 months
inthe s jnecathechins 15% o i n t m ent c o n t ains g r een-tea l eaf d e r i ve d c a t echins w i t h
scout immunostimulatory and antiproliferative properties
a and HPV vaccines
The new vaccines Gardasil and Cervarix are designed to elicit vi r us-neutralizing
witl antibody responses to prevent initial infection with the HPV types represented in
~1 and the vaccine, HPV 16 & 18 (that cause cervical pre-cancers) and HPV 6 & 1 1 (that
. may cause genital warts). It is recommended for w o men and men 9-26 years old, who
have not contacted HPV infection. The research continues to develop therapeutic
ma is vaccines that elicit the immune responses against established HPV infections and
italia, HPV-induced cancers.
vulvB
MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM
n.dary
im is It is caused by a pox v i r us. Hemispheric, firm, u m b i licated papules that are
flesh-colored, white or translucent, usually 2-6 mm in diameter, arranged in groups or
small, widely disseminated are very characteristic for molluscum contagiosum. The papules
may are filled with a white material containing virus-infected degenerated cells.
In children transmission occurs from nonsexual skin contact and the lesions are
frequently localized on the face, neck and trunk (Fig.6.12).In early adulthood (age 15-
30 y) molluscum contagiosum occurs as a sexually transmitted disease (minor) and is
aimed localized perigenital, on the lower abdominal wall, inner thighs, buttocks (Fig.6.13)
'ctios
The goal of the treatment is the destruction of the lesions. The central hard core
Mosl of the lesions is removed with a sharp curette or squeezed out then 1% alcoholic iod is
ions), applied. Cryotherapy, imiquimod cream or podophylotoxin can also be used.
:ected
MILKER'S NODULKS
53
blue nodules, 0.5 cm in d i ameter, appear on the mi l k er's fingers, hands or forearms
(Fig.6.14). The initial target aspect (a papulovesicular lesion with a r ed centre, white
ring, and red periphery) is followed by weeping (loss of epidermis over the centre),
crusts and regression. Fever, lymphangitis and r egional lymphadenopathy may
a ssociate. The c o urse i s u s u ally s e lf-limited, r u n n in g f r o m 3 - 6 w e e ks. T o a v o i d
secondary infection, local disinfecting agents can be applied.
ORE
HERPES SIMPLEX
56
Most pf the patients present prodromal sensory phenomena with pain along 1
~pre sk1n dermatomes 1-10 days before skin lesions appear. This pain may simulate
.ortegapr @lore
in pf different other etiologies and can result in incorrect diagnosis.
~s an~ pa]n 0
The clinical aspect is typical: vesicles (2-4 mm) grouped on an erythematous
fectiy<
e and associated pain confined to one unilateral dermatome (Fig.6.19, 6.20), most
usta'
frequently pn the thorax or abdomen. The eruption stops abruptly at the midline of the
.main<
;nvplved dermatome. Regional lymphadenopathy may appear. Initially the content of
the vesicles is clear, but subsequently becomes cloudy and dries up in a few d ays to
give>
fprm crusts. The condition resolves within 2 w e eks wi thout v i sible sequels. Scarring
jr clove|
can pccur if secondary infection or necrosis complicates the evolution (Fig.6.21).
)mise]
Cpmplicated forms of herpes zoster.
]. I n i m m u n osuppressed individuals herpes zoster is pluridermatomic or even
disseminated (varicelhform) with n u m e rous extradermatomal vesicles that
may be hemorrhagic or necrotic (Fig.6.23).
1 year
) postherpetic neuralgia may develop, usually in elder patients, defined as the
persistence of pain for w e eks, months, years after the cutaneous lesions
have resolved.
3. Other less common postherpetic sequels include hyperesthesia,or more
rarely, local anesthesia or in v olvement of m o tor f i b res with mu scle palsy
innatt and subsequent atrophy.
oral) 4. I n t r i g eminal zoster the ophthalmic d i v i sion is most frequently i n v o lved
(zoster o p h t almicus, Fi g .6.22). O c ular i n v o lvement wi t h co n j u n c tivitis,
keratitis and iridocyclitis is heralded by zoster rash on the tip, side or root
of the nose due to involvement of the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic
d ivision. O p h t halmic i n v o l v ement r e q u i res i m m e diate r e ferral t o t h e
ophthalmologist innorder to prevent vision loss.
cause
5. Ra msay Hunt s yndrome defines herpes zoster infection t hat i n v o l v es the
geniculate ganglion of facial nerve (CNVII) and sometimes other nearby
agiou
cranial nerves, like CN VIII, IX, V an d V I ( i n o r der of f requency). It
ricella
presents with vesiculation and ulceration of the external ear and ipsilateral
1ant it
anterior 2/3 of the tongue and soft palate, ipsilateral facial paresis. Vertigo,
30% 0
h earing loss, ti nnitus, headaches or d y s arthria ma y a l s o d e v elop. T h e
pecifi i
'.onta( overall prognosis is good, but complete recovery of the facial nerve occurs
in less than 50% of patients.
.s) an(
ivated
Treatment
of th
Systemic treatment w i t h o r a l o r i . v . a c y clovir o r d e r i v a tives (v alaciclovir,
teristi i
famciciovir, penciclovir) has to be started as early as possible, ideally wi t hin 72 hours
«pm the onset of symptoms. It shortens the duration of zoster, prevents or reduces the
crania severity of postherpetic neuralgia. The dose for acyclovir is 800 mg x 5/day for 7-10
lesion
"ays; valacyclovir 1000 mg x 3/day for 7 days.
A cute pain du e t o d e m i elinisation of t h e n e r ves is t r eated w it h v i t a mi n 8
: coun
preparations in combination with analgesics. Glucocorticoids are sometimes used early
etio%
'« h e disease to reduce acute pain (by anti-inflammatory effect) but care has to be
tibilitI
taken in severe cases of zoster when dissemination of viral particles is possible.
57
Postherpetic n e u ralgia can be a l l e v iated w i t h a n t i e p ileptics ( g abapenti>
carbamazepin), tricyclic antidepressants (doxepin, amitriptiline) and capsaicine crea>
(depletes neurotransmitters like P substance at involved nerve endings).
A ntibacterial treatment i s o nl y n e cessary in p a t i ents wh o ar e a t r i s k f r y >
infections to protect them against secondary bacterial infection.
Topical t r eatment u se s w e t a n t i septic d r e ssings with 1 % z i n c s u l p h at~
cloramine 8 or cyclohexidine to dry lesions and control secondary infections. After t >,
vesicles have dried up, softening antiseptic ointments are indicated.
A vaccine for p r evention of z o ster (Zostavax) was approved in 2 006 in t$,
Unites States for persons older than 60 years, including those with previous episode <
zoster or who have chronic medical conditions. It is a live, attenuated strain of VZ)
the same strain as in varicella vaccine, but much more potent.
58
senti',
crea@
; frog
mph ate
'ter th»
in th(
ode o> Fig.6.1. Common wart Fig.6.2. Diseminated common warts
E VZW
1
4
\
( 0 ) '4'!
')
. •
Fig.6.21.
Scarring after herpes zoster Pig.6.22. Herpes zoster ophtalmicus
' • •
p<' j c '
') •
).
I
COIl.'
to i'
ver )
lbn
lynI
higl
P I'0
huf
h Ll I
no
ill'( i
PII
intl
t rl
infj
do
Chapter 7
SYPHILIS
63
• Acquired syphilis
o E arly syphilis
• pr i m a ry syphilis e
• secondary syphilis P
• early latent syphilis
o L a t e syphilis lab
• tertiary syphilis IW
P
• late latent syphilis t,
o P arenchymal syphilis (cardiovascular syphilis, tabes dorsalis, general paresis)
• Congenital syphilis j
o E a rly congenital syphilis lymf,
o L a t e congenital syphilis nod<
Acquired syphilis is distinguished from the congenital syphilis; the former occam
through exogenous transfer and u sually b egins w it h a p r i m ar y c h ancre (except th~
clas
transfusion syphilis, where the spirochete enters the bloodstream directly, thus the chancrt
i s lacking and secondary syphilis occurs from t h e b eginning), w h ile th e l a tter is ; ( s e r
ofT
consequence of the transfer of the spirochetes through the placenta to the foetus from @
infected pregnant mother.
ch
Known as a great imitator, syphilis can be a diagnostic challenge because of h
(tra
wide-ranging clinical presentations.
Acquired Syphilis
j
Primary Syphilis (stage I)
(sy
Primary syphilis occurs 3 weeks (incubation period) after the contact with z my
infected individual and is marked by the development of the chancre at the portal of entrI
and regional lymphadenopathy.
The chancre is usually single. It starts as a small indolent papule and in a few day,
it reaches its c h aracteristic aspect: round-oval erosion, 4-8 m m i n di a m eter, w it} asp
cartilaginous consistency on p alpation (pathognomonic character!), smooth, lacquere< Up
surface and sharply delimited edges (Fig.7.1). The classic lesion is usually painless an( ite
heals in 4-8 weeks even without therapy, leaving no scar. It differs from the chancroi( the
which has undermined margins.
Clinical forms of chancres:
giant chancre or microchancre
multiple chancres - when simultaneous entry sites occur be
air
successive chancres - when further infection occurs during the incubation time; <
soon as sufficient specific immunity develops, no other chancres appear
phagedenic chancre — with necrotic tissue extending to the depth, heals with scat
fa'
occurs when contaminating bacteria associate.
Chancres are most often located in genital regions, but extragenital chancres can b
m
encountered:
genital chancres:
sy
o i n m e n : on the glans penis and coronar sulcus, penis shaft, scrotum or pubj t
ra
area; when the chancre is on the prepuce, and the prepuce is drawn back, j:
fi
will flip over all at once, being too hard to bend (a dory-flop phenomenon)
I
p in women, on the major and minor labia, clitoris or urethral opening; in vagina
it is often overlooked
extragenital chancres: in the oral cavity (Fig.7.2),on the lips, on the nipple, in the
perianal region, or enywhere else(Fig.7.3)
The chancre may complicate with:
ay~osis(tight prepuce cannot bedrawn over the glans penis)
paraphymosis (prepuce, after being retracted behind the glans penis, is constricted
there and can not be brought into place again)
.sis) elep
hantiasis(g iant edema).
One week after the chancre, swollen lymph nodes (syphilitic bubo) develop in the
lymph drainage region that is inguinal, if the primary lesion is genital (Fig.7.4). The lymph
nodes are hard with freely movable and of normal color overlying skin. Regression of the
65
symmetrical, but later localized, asymmetrical, hypertrophic, sometimes confluent, q
arranged in patches, rings, corymbose or serpiginous patterns. Without treatment, tg
lesions resolve over several weeks to months. Relapses occur especially in the first year, ®hll
Variations from the above described picture may be observed: coul
• len t i c ular syphilids — disseminated, with smooth, shiny surface, like in lichen planus v\Thl
• pap u l o -squamous syphilids — disseminated, covered by adherent scale, like in guttat, dev'
psoriasis mfll
• pal m a r a nd p l a n tar s yphilids — characteristic site of i n v o l vement; coppery, flat
indurated papules with squamous collarette (Biett) or hyperkeratotic surface (Fig.7,~ oth
7.9); de
• split papules at the oral comrnissures or in the crease of alae nasi
• hypertrophic papules and papulo-erosive syphilids, with their large variant condyle,sp
lata occur in intertriginous regions, especially about the genitalia and anus, sometirnq;
in axillae and g r oins; they are broad f lat (1-3 cm) p a pules wit h s m ooth, moist
s
weeping, gray-white surface and characteristic foul smell; they are highly contagiou
(Fig.7.10, 7.11, 7.12). Condyloma lata in should be differentiated from condyle;
acuminate (due to HPV) and squamous cell carcinoma.
M lcosal secondary
syphilids se
Mucous patches are the most infectious lesions of secondary syphilis. They aa fl
painless, superficial, silvery-gray erosions with red periphery, located on: an
the lips, oral mucosa, tongue (Fig.7.13), palate, pharyngs (syphilitic sore throat)
laryngs (syphilitic laryngitis with hoarsness or aphonia), tonsils (angina syphilitica);
glans penis, inner prepuce, vulva and vagina (Fig.7.14), anal canal.
]n
Other manifestations of the secondary stage:
Pigment metabolism disorders - several small hypopigrnented and depigment6
patches on the sides of the neck, also called leucoderma syphiliticum or Venus' collar 0
Latent syphilis
Cardiovascular syphilis
opathi Occurs 10-30 years after infection and is mainly represented by aortitis resulting
tocfiti~ from thickening and hardening of vasa vasorum with consequent necrosis of elastic tissue
(optI and fibrosis of proximal aorta. This is manifested by aortic insufficiency (altered aortic
valve function), coronary disease and ultimately aortic anevrism (weakened aortic walls).
Neuro syphilis
of 8 Central nervous system involvement can occur at any stage of infection. Most
s ha>' ««n it is asymptomatic but can be detected by testing the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for
n's IEE~ mononuclear pleocytosis, non-specific and specific treponema tests. It is divided into early
and late forms (not directly correlated with early and late syphilis).
Early neurosyphilis
Meningeal neurosyphilis appears up t o 1 ye a r a f t er i n f e ction w i t h h e a dache,
vomiting, neck stiffness, cranial nerve palsies, seizures.
67
Meningo-vascular neurosyphilis a ppears 5-10 years after infection with hemipares< ~ p
and hemiplegia, as a result of infarction due to syphilitic endarteritis.
Late (parenchymatous) syphilis occurs more than 10 years after infection and I, s
due to direct invasion of the cerebrum by treponemas.
Tabes dorsalis —degeneration of the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves and posterio,
c olumns of the spinal cord; it presents with the specific tabetic dissociation of pain ~ ~
tactile sensations (which are lost, resulting in deep ulcers of the feet), from temperature, in p
sensation (preserved), with ataxis wide-based gait, foot slap and areflexia. typiC
General paresis is caused by degenerative changes in the brain, corresponding to tb,
mnemonic p aresis: personality, affect, reflexes (hyperactive), eye (Argyll-Robertso>
pupils), sensorium (illusions, hallucinations), intellect (memory, judgment) and speech.
Congenital syphilis diffe
Congenital syphilis arises from intrauterine transfer of T.pallidum to th e fete, use
from the m other w it h i n fectious syphilis after the 4th m o nth o f g estation, when @
placenta becomes permeable for T.pallidum. anti
If the mother has a recent syphilitic infection (highly infective), syphilitic stillbi <
m ay result in the 7th-8th month of pregnancy, or fulminating early congenital syphib; « e p
may develop until the child reaches 2 years of age. If the mother has an old syphilitic aug
infection (low bacteriemia), the child will be apparently healthy (latent congenital syphilis)
Plas
or will develop late congenital syphilis after the age of 2 years.
bec
Early congenital syphilis manifests in the neonate or subsequently up to 2 years pi
age, corresponding essentially to the acquired secondary syphilis of the adult. There ar< neg
also specific manifestations: spo
• syphilitic pemphigus of the new-born — bullous eruption of palms and soles ind'
• rhinitis syphilitica — abundant, muco-sanguinolent nasal secretions which i m pas
sucking and can lead to the perforation of the nasal septum fals
• wit
syphilitic laryngitis — hoarse weeping of the infant
• pe r i nasal, perioral and perianal infiltrative syphilids (papular syphilids) that caus~
depressed radiating linear scars, called Parrot's grooves
• osteo-articular signs: Parrot's pseudoparalysis with immobile forearm, due to the pais
pos
caused by osteochondriti.s syphilitica with epiphisiolysis in the ulnar region
• (sy
hepatosplenomegaly, generalized lymphadenopatia, nefritis, meningitis
Late congenital syphilis m anifests after 2 years of age, in juveniles or adults, tre
corresponding essentially to the aquired tertiary syphilis of the adult, with tuberous an <
gummous syphilids. tre
Many cases (60%) of late congenital syphilis are latent (no clinical manifestation<
but reactive serum tests). In any case of unexplained seropositive latent syphilis, not only
acquired syphilis but also congenital syphilis has to be considered. In these cases, stigmas
(sequels of active syphilitic lesions) are present:
bone abnormalities:
o s y p h i l itic saddle nose (depression of the nasal root due to destruction of th<
cartilage/bone)
o s aber shins (anterior tibila bowing)
o "Olympian brow" (bulging of the frontal bone region),
68
>resjl parrot's grooves (radial periorih.cial scars at sites of previous fissures)
Hutchjnson's triad (interstitial keratitis, inner ear deafness and Hutchinson's teeth =
nd ls small, oblique, barrel-shaped upper incisors that tapper towards the tip; crescentic
„otch of jncisal edge).
teria' I,abogatory diagnosis of syphilis
l and Dark-f jeld microscopy is essential in early syphilis with moist lesions (the chancre
ature
mpfprim
jmary syphilis, the condyloma lata in secondary syphilis) where T.pa/lidum with
j cal mov'ements i s f o u nd . D i r ect f l u orescent antibody t es t ( D F A T-TP) fo r t h e
:o the ident f cat on of T. Pattldum ln lesions ls another option.
rtson Serologic diagnosis aims to identify antibodies to T.pallidum in the serum of the
h. syphilitic Patient. According t o t h eir P roPerties, antibodies against T.Paltidum are of
djfferent types: precipitating antibodies - used in VDRL test, agglutinating antibodies-
fete used jn TPHA test and immobilizing antibodies - used in TPI test.
n. the Nontreponemal or n o nspecific reactions de tect a ntibodies against l i p o i dal
antjgens (reagins) of T.pallidum. In these tests cardiolipinic antigen (extracted from ox
lbjrth heart, rich in phospholipids) is used as it cross reacts with similar phospholipids in the
treponemai wall. Antibodies in the serum of the patient and cardiolipin antigens form
Phill
hiijtic aggregates that can be directly seen in tubes.
Most widely used are Venereal Disease Research Laboratory (VDRL) and Rapid
)hilisj
plasma Reagin (RPR) tests. These are initial screening tests all over the world, as they
b ecome positive 5-6 weeks after infection, shortly b efore the chancre heals and ar e
arsof generally strongly positive throughout the secondary phase. They usually become
.e are negative during early an d e f ficient therapy. Results may also become negative
spontaneously in the third p hase of syphilis. A f o r f old decrease in the antibody titer
indicates successful treatment, while a fourfold increase indicates relapsenor reifection.
.'np all The reaction has high sensibility (rare false negative results) and low specificity (many
false-positive results). Biologic false-positive test denotes positive VDRL/RPR tests in persons
with no history or dinical evidence of syphilis and with negative treponemal tests. Most of
these tests are of low titres. Acute false-positive VDRL/RPR revert to negative in less than 6
months and can result from pregnancy, vaccinations and infections (infectious mononucleosis,
hepatitis, measles, varicella, influenza, lymphogranuloma venereum, malaria). Chronic false-
p~
positive VDRL/RPR persist more than 6 months and is found in connective tissue diseases
(systemic lupus erythematosus), chronic liver disease, rheumatoid arthritis, tyroiditjs.
Any positive nontreponemal test result should b e c onfirmed w i t h a s p ecific
treponemal test. All patients with syphilis should also be tested for HIV infection.
s ana Treponemal or specific reactions detect antibodies directed against specific
treponemal antigens:
>tlON TEA (T r e ponema pallidum h e magglutination) t est: s pecific a ntitreponemal
t onl)' antibodies in the patient's serum are agglutinated by antigen-coated erythrocytes.
~mal
7 FTA (Fluorescent treponemal antibody) test - antitreponemal antibodies are fixed on
treponemal antigens. Visualisation of this reaction is possible using fluorescein-linked
anti-human immunoglobulin (indirect jmmunofluorescence).
>f tl>e The IgM FTA-ABS test detects antitreponemal IgM antibodies that occur in congenital
and recently acquired syphilis. Treated or older spontaneously healed syphilis
produces IgG class a ntibodies. Constant t i t res o f I g M a n t i b odies i n dicate t h e
P«sjstence of T.p. in the body, thus the need of treatment.
69
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): the visualisation of antibody+specg,
antigen complex requires an enzyme-labelled antiglobulin.
The treponemal tests become positive a bit earlier than nontreponemal tests aq,
qu
remain positive for life. Therefore they confirm syphilis even in late phases, when g, year1
nontreponemal tests tend to become negative. TPHA i s u n suitable for monitoring th,
O'P
course and treatment of syphilis. VDRL test can be used as a screening test and ii, S8
quantitative form is suitable for monitoring treatment, measuring significant falls in titer.
Treatment
Penicillin is the most effective agent in all stages of syphilis thus it remains g
drug of ch oice. It p enetrates into all b od y fl u i d s an d p asses the cerebro-spinal @g
placental barriers and kills T.palhdum by blocking the synthesis of the microbial cell wg
T.pallidum divides about every 33 hours and the treatment has to be long enough to catg
all the treponemas: at least 2 w e eks w it h c onstant penicillin serum concentration ~
recommended for early syphilis and 3-4 weeks in late syphilis. P
Herxheimer reaction
When treponemas are abundant (late I stage, II stage, early congenital syphilis), on
systemic toxic effects appear within 8 h a f ter the first dose of penicillin because hig1 ba
number of microorganisms are destroyed and fever up to 40'C, shaking chills, malaise, (b
headache and intensification of syphilitic rashes may develop. Increased inflammation i
vital structures may have serious consequences, as in aortic aneurysm (aortic rupture an)
sudden death) or CNS involvement (paralyses). Herxheimer reaction in pregnancy ma~
induce premature labor and fetal distress.
In order t o m i t i g ate the sym p t oms of H e r x heimer r eaction, small d oses 0!
penicillin G ( 2 5 000 IU ) w i l l b e a d m i n i stered ev ery 6 h o u r s i n t h e f i r s t d a y Ol
treatment, w it h w a t e r-soluble i .m . o r i . v p r e d n i solon f o r m u l a ti ons. Every p a tienl
should remain u n der m e d ical observation fo r several h o ur s after th e f i rst d ose ot
penicillin. The use of retard penicillin (benzathine-penicillin) reduces the risk ol Nu
Herxheimer reaction.
Herxheimer reaction has to be distinguished from drug reactions to penicillin. Ten
seronegative. At-risk partners are those exposed for u p t o 3 m o n ths before plus th~ Ad
duration of the primary lesions, up to 6 months before plus the duration of the secondary
lesions, or up to 1 year before for latent syphilis.
70
specific $ggpipgicat tnpn'ttpnng
Every patient who has been treated for syphilis should be followed up u s ing a
!Sts anc
<tative
quantt a nontreponemal test (VDRL) at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months after treatment and then
hen ge arlyyfor
year or 3 years. It may take 8-12 months for four-fold decrease in titer. The longer lasting the
ing the the longer it takes for serological tests to normalize, if at all. Persistence of reactive
syp
and i(( ~
seruIyl te
eSs ts after 12 months requires retreatment with penicillin and prednisolon.
t titer,
71
GONORRHEA (BLENORRHEA) The ce'
Qy cull
Gonorrhea is a sexually t r a nsmitted i n f ection of mucous m e mbranes th,, phase
wofneI
commonly m a n i fests a s urethritis ( i n male), cervicitis (in f emale), proctitis
conjunctivitis. If untreated, infections at these sites can spread retrogradly, leading to lo~
complications. Sometimes resistant subepithelial gonococcal "nests" can be preserved apt
urethr
with
act as starting point for relapses in patients and reinfection of partners.
Neisseria gonorrhoeaeis a Gram-negative diplococcus shaped like a coffee bean 9@ Invos
grows in pairs with adjacent concave sides seen on Gram's or methylene blue stain sm@,
uni-/bilayered epithelia, wg POStg
examination. Go nococcushas a special affinity f o r
N.gho
pavimentous and multilayered epithelia are resistant to infection.
squ
Gonorrhea is transmitted almost exclusively through sexual intercourse. Only tt
the e
exceptional cases an extragenital infection occurs, e.g. as a smear infection through da~I
towels. Infected adults can infect children sleeping in the same bed.
ostl
Gonorrhea causes asymptomatic infection (in 10% of men and 50% of worn@
folds
especially in r e ctal and p h aryngeal infection), local symptomatic mucosal infection
sometimes with complications, and systemic dissemination.
Direct mucosal infection
a. I n men.
Anterior gonorrheal urethritis is the most common clinical form of gonorrhoea i
men, involving the columnar epithelium of the urethra up to the external sphincter of th;
bladder.
The acute form has an incubation of 2-3 days, a florid stage of 2-3 weeks andI
regression stage of 4-6 weeks, when th e d i scharge diminishes. Untreated, symptom;
disappear in about 6months. First symptoms are dysuria, prickling and heat in the ureth
on urination. The next day a v iscid, creamy yellow discharge appears with numerov
intracellular gonococci at microscopic examination.
The chronic form manifests after the 6th-7th week with discrete viscous discha
rge
("good morning drops" ) and no symptom during the daytime. The morning urine is clem
but contains whitish filaments discharged from the ureflual folds, mucus, epithelial cell~
leukocytes and bacteria.
In about one quarter of infected men, the symptoms are less pronounced, simila,
to those of non-gonococcal urethritis. H ow ever the cause of urethritis is often impossibl
to differentiate on clinical grounds alone.
Posterior gonorrheal urethritis may start 10-14 days after infection and spree
distally, as the orifices of the excretory ducts of the prostate, seminal vesicles, and ducts
deferens open into the posterior urethrae. The bladder is not infected, as its transition>
epithelium is not susceptible to the gonococci.
The patient has distressing desire to urinate every 5-10 minutes,
t(1 but voids eve'
time just a few drops. Hematuria and pain at the end of micturition are characteristic.
b. I n W omen
Gonococcal cervicitis is usually symptomatic in w o m en, with m o re acute ant
intense symptoms than in chlamydial cervicitis. Increased green/yellow muco-p uruletn
vaginal discharge from the cervical orifice and dysuria are the most common symptoS-'
The ce is red and swollen. In time, the columnar epithelium is destroyed and replaced
bycucubic
1 pr even flattened epithelium that is less favorable for gonococci, so that in chronic
> se the disease becomes less symptomatic, but gonococci are still found. Symptom-free
.s thy pl!!ase
Es omen with chronic cervical gonorrhea are a frequent source of infection.
wome
to lpq! Gonococcal urethritis u sually accompanies cervicitis. The posterior part of t h e
ethra is affected (the anterior third is coated with squamous epithelium). It manifests
ed ar!i ure
with dysuria (stinging pain or burning on urination) and scant urethral discharge.
an tQ! involvement of the trigonal region of the bladder produces tenesmus.
! sme@ Gonoc
occal v ulvovaginitis o c curs o n ly i n pr ep u b e rtal g i r l s, p r e g nant o r
73
acute perihepatitis (Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome) results in women, after migration ~,
gonococci from the faloopian tubes via the peritoneal cavity to the upper abdorne<
Pain in the right upper quadrant mimics acute colecystitis.
pelvic peritonitis re sults from t he s preading of t he i n f ection to t he p elvis and I,
characterized by nausea and vomiting.
Extragenital direct gonorrhoea
Pharyngeal gonorrhea wi th r e d d ening, swelling o f t h e m u c osa an d s l igI,,
II
dysphagia occurs in men or women after oral sexual exposure. However most of the forg,
are asymptomatic and p h aringeal gonorrhoea remains undetected and r epresents @
important source of infection.
Rectal gonorrhea occurs after anal intercourse. It is asymptomatic in at least 50<,
of cases but may result in goconococal proctitis (rectal pain, pruritus, tenesmus, rectp
discharge and bleeding).
Goncoccal ophtalmia represented years ago an important cause of blindness. ],
moanifests with p u r u lent conjuctivitis and, i f l e f t u n t r eated, can rapidly p r ogess ~~
keratitis followed by permanent corneal opacification.
In newborn it is caused by inoculation of N.gonorrheaduring delivery through@ I
infected birth c anal. Prophilactical application of 1 % s i l ver n i t r ate o r e r y thromycII
ointment immediately after birth currently reduces the rate of ophtalmia neonatorum.
In adults i t r e sults f ro m s e lf-inoculation o r u n u sual sexual p r actices. Earl~
recognition and local antibiotic are essential to avoid blindness.
I
Laboratoryexamination in gonorrhea
Is based on identification of N.gonorrheaby:
Gram smear — Gram-negative (red) diplococci within neutrophils, which differer from ne
pathogen Gram-positiveNeisseriaspecies (blue); used for urethral cad 'endocervical secretion
not for pharyngeal or recto-anal exudates, where there is a large number of other bacteria
culture on special media — most specific, gold standard for gonocccal infec'tion
DNA probe — antigen detection test fromI. mucosal secretion or from u r ine sampk
C.
more sensitive than culture for extrager6tal secretion. Chlamydia can be identified fry'
the same specimen collection tube.
Treatment of gonorrhea
N.gonorheaehas a remarkable capacity to alter its antigenic structure and adapt b
chaqges of the microenvironment, thus it has become resistant to numerous antibiotic!
74
3n of S+ifpnamldes were used in 1930, penicillin until 1976, fluoroquinolones - ciprofloxacin,
meq flpxacjn, levofloxacin, since 1993 were efficient orraly as a single-dose, and also offered
or>pxa
t,~amydial activity w h e n g i ven f o r 7 d a y s, bu t n o l o n ger u sed s ince resistant
Ld ia ~ gonorrhea strains appeared. Fluoroquinolones remain an alternative treatment option
p py fp r d i s seminated g o nococcal i n fection i f a n t i m i crobial s u sceptibility c a n b e
ented. Ampicillin and Am oxicillin are also no longer reliable in the treatment of
pnprrhea. Currently 3'~ generation cephalosporines are the antibiotics of choice:
lllght
ceftriaxone 250 mg i.m as single dose (preferred);
orrrg
cefixime 400 mg p.os as single dose
:s
cefuroxime axetil 1g, single oral dose
cefpodoxine 400 mg, single oral dose
500I,
Alternatives:
ectg
ceftizoxime 500 mg, i.m. single-dose
cefotaxime 500 mg, i.m., single-dose
ss. It
Spectinomycin 2 g, i.m. single-dose — reserved for multiresistant strains
ss tp
Azithromycin 2 g, single oral dose — effective but widespread use not recommended
because rapid emergence of resistance; an option in allergy to cephalosporines
h an
Since the infection w ith Ch lamydia trachomatisi s frequently concomitant wi t h
lyQn
gpnprrhoea, doxycycline 100 mg twice a day, orally for 7 days or a single oral dose of
Azithromycine 1g has to be associated, unless Chlamydia testing excludes coinfection.
Early
Condoms, if properly used, provide effective protection against transmission and
acquisition of gonorrhoea. All p atients should be instructed to r efer sex partners for
evaluation and treatment.
75
s ubacute. Th erefore, d i agnosis i s d e l a yed u n t i l p o s i t i v e screening r e sults o r ,
symptomatic p artner i s d i s covered. A s y m ptomatic p atients act a s a r e s ervoir fo,
chlamydial infections.
The clinical aspects in men include urethral discharge, urinary frequency and/0.
urgency, dysuria, scrotal pain/tenderness, perineal fullness (related to p r ostatitis); >
women mucopurulent endocervical discharge, easily i n d uced endocervical bleed~(
intermenstrual bleeding, dysuria, and abdominal pain.
Diagnosis:
• cytologic diagnosis — evaluates endocervical scrapings for intracellular inclusions, b,.
interpretation is difficult and both sensitivity and specificity are low.
• isolation in tissue culture (40-72 hours) and then detection of intracytoplasmatic inclusipg,
by Giemsa stains or immunofluorescent staining with m onoclonal antibodies; hi~~
specificity (100%) and sensitivity; expensive; swabs need to be taken invasively frog
urethra or cervix
• antigen detection —d etects the ribosomal RNA by h ybridization with a DNA p r o b f..
simpler, less expensive, high sensitivity but lower than cell culture; other technique>
direct fluorescent antibody (DFA), ELISA
• detection of chlamydial genes by DNA amplification tests — e.g. polymerase ch~
reaction (PCR) in urine or self-administered vaginal swab specimens
serologic tests are valuable in L G V, b ut n ot i n c e rvicitis, urethritis, where positivf
results reflecting a possible anterior infection, the antibody titers are low and thf.r~
may be a cross-over reactivity between C.trachomatisand C.pneumoniae
Treatment is indicated when the diagnosis is established or suspected, in sexua l
partners o f t h e p a t i ents an d f o r p a t i ents b eing t r e ated f o r g o n o coccal i n fection
Recommended drugs are:
azithromycine 1 g p.os, single dose
doxycycline 100 mg x2/day p.os for 7 days
Alternatives
erythromycine 500 mgx4/day, p.os for 7 days - in pregnancy
ampicillin 500 mgx3/day, p.os for 7 days — in pregnancy
ofloxacin 300 mgx2/day p.os for 7 days
levofloxacin 500 mg once daily for 7 days
76
or ceIls
sI ~iia
g cells, keratinocytes and any other cells in the human body. Increased destruction
rr for of $ cells results in impaired immune response and in the proliferation of opportunistic
•sections
e and malignancies.
d/or HIV infection evolves in 3 stages after an incubation of 1-3 weeks:
rs) acute viral HIV infection starts asymptomatic or with flu-like illness (10-20% of cases):
edlQL headache, sor e thr o at , mal a ise, pe r sistent lym p h adenopathy,
hepatosplenomegaly, maculo-papular exanthema. Anti-HIV antibodies are detectable
by ELISA by 3-4 weeks.
s. but 2nd stage - starts when a specific immune response against HIV has been mounted
and has controlled the initial viremia. It may last at least 1 year but can be over 10
usrorrr years; in some patients may persist indefinitely (at least 20 years so far)
; higg o c o m p letely asymptomatic o r w i t h p r o g ressive weight l o ss, m alaise, and
frog generalized lymphadenopathy
o t h e patient is source of infection for others
robe. o C D4 positive lymphocyte counts drop progressively as they are sequestered in
.iquea the lymph nodes.
hard stage — AIDS (overt disease) — severity is directly related to the decline in CD4+ T
char'rr cells below 200/pl (normal 500-2000), which causes diminished function of T cells, B
c ells (hypogammaglobulinemia), macr ophages and N K c e l l s a n d l e ad s t o
>sitivj. opportunistic infections, neoplasms and dementia.
there Opportunistic infections are caused by microorganisms that take advantage of the
decreased immune response in order to develop:
fungal (o ral a n d oe s ophagial c a ndid osis, wid espread p i ty riasis v e rsicolor,
ction dermatophytosis, proximal white onychomycosis, deep mycoses)
viral (disseminated CMV i nfection, herpes simplex not healing after 1 m o nth,
multidermatomeric o r v a r i celliform h e r pes z oster, o r al, g e nital o r w i d e spread
cutaneous warts, mollusca contagiosa; Epstein-Barr virus induces hairy leukoplakia
that appears early in HI V i n f ection, as asymptomatic white plaques with hair-like
projections on the lateral aspects of the tongue
mycobactevia, atypical
bacterial (stafilococci, streptococci, treponema pallidum)
ectopavaziteinfections (norvegian scabies)
Non-infectious HIV-related disorders
seborrheic dermatitis with exaggerated presentation or resistant to treatment
psoriasis — severe forms; tends to worsen with decreased immunity status
atientr
Tun ol's:
on arr Kaposi sarcoma (hemorrhagic disseminated angiosarcoma) — associated with human
s wiS herpes virus type 8 (HHV-8) that can be t ransmitted by infected semen or saliva; the
blood lesions start on the upper part of the body, characteristically on the face, intraorally
ion 0< induding gingiva and the hard palate, with purple/red macules that increase in size
and become raised and tender, some of them nodular and ulcerated (Fig.8.13, 8.14). In
everI HIV-related Kaposi sarcoma, l y m p h no d e s a r e i nv o l ve d ( w i t h se c o ndary
.lls for lymphedema), gastrointestinal tract and lungs.
.rhaNr lymphomas (associated with Epstein Barr virus)
77
squamous cell carcinomas —especially in men having sex with men and infected witI
HPV condyloma acuminatum in anogenital region
Paraclini c examination
• HIV screening should be encouraged as part of routine physical examination @g
by ELISA. Western-blot test is used for confirmation.
• Laboratory tests that help in staging HIV infection are:
o C D 4 T-cell count indicates the risk of acquiring opportunistic infectio~
The reference range for C D 4 c o unts i s 5 00-2000 cells/pL. A +
seroconversion, CD4 counts tend to decrease (around 700/pL on
average
and under 200/pL is considered AIDS-defining.
o Q u a ntitative v i ral l oad assays in p e r ipheral bl ood m easure the v i rg
replication rate (even if this occurs in the lymph nodes rather than in th<
peripheral blood), which is related to progression to AIDS and death.
The treatment of HIV infection aims to reduce viral multiplication and to treat 0~
prevent opportunistic infections. Anti-retroviral therapy suppresses viral loads to @
undetectable level so that CD 4 count r ises and the r isk o f o p p ortunistic infection g
reduced. Viral eradication is impossible as the virus is integrated in the DNA of the hog
lymphocytes.
The prognosis of HIV infection is poor. The average time from diagnosis to deaf
is one decade, with individual variability.
78
ioQs,
A.fter
rage) Fig.7.1. Primary syphilis Fig.7.2. Chancre of the soft palate
virg
n tge
L
.'at o(
3Il is
host
3.eath
Fig.7.3. Extragenital chancre Fig.7.4. Syphilitic bubo
79
Fig.7.9. Palmar syphilids Fig.7.10.Secondary syphilis (condilomalag)
22 12 2002
80
Chapter 8
81
• Induction o f sensitization. Small m o l ecules (nickel, cobalt or d i c h r o mate) art,
called haptens or incomplete antigens because they have to be conjugated tto
epidermal proteins to form f ul l antigenic structures. These antigens are take<
up and processed by antigen-presenting Langerhans cells that migrate to tpe
regional l y m p h n o d e . A n t i g ens ar e p r e sented t o t h e T ly m p h o c ytes
s
conjunction with class II histocompatibility antigens (HLA-DR). As a responseI
T lymphocytes proliferate to form antigen-specific memory T cell clones, unde>
the control of the suppressor cells. The induction of sensitization to a contag
allergen takes 5 to 7 days and, once realized, it is long lasting (years, decades
or life-long).
• Reaction phase. In a sensitized person, re-exposure to very low concentrations of q
specific allergen stimulates memory T c el l c l ones that p r o liferate and r eap,
Various cytokines (IL-2, IFNs etc) will be released at the site of the contact with +
a llergen, leading to eczema type reaction w it h i n creased permeability o f + t
vessels, lymphocytic exocytosis and epidermal spongiosis followed by interstitial)
vesiculization. The clinical manifestations appear 24-48 hours after re-exposur
xpos\Q'q
and represent allergic contact dermatitis.
b. D e layed reaction of tuberculin type occurs when the antigens enter the skin
through vascular system. They r eact w i& . p r eviously sensitized ly mphocyte~
which release lymphokines and lymphotoxins, leading to an inflammatory cellul@
reaction with vasodilatation, increased permeability, edema and the clinical aspeg
of allergic exanthems (morbilliform, scarlatiniform, rubeoliform drug reactions,
fixed drug reactions).
URTICARIA
82
Angioedema (Quincke's edema) is a deeper form of u r t icaria, characterized by
~den pronounced localized edema of the lower dermis and subcutis. The edema is not
en haply delimited, it is nonpitting, sometimes painful rather than itching and its resolution
he ~ fake up to 72 hours (Fig.8.6).
Angioedema is most apparent in the head and neck (face, lips, floor of the mouth,
se, „+ e and l arynx), external genital organs, hands and feet. In advanced cases it can
tongue
ler <ass to complete airway obstruction by laryngeal edema and death. It may also
proP
let ,nvo v the gastro-intestinal tract, with edema of the intestinal wall leading to colicky
nvp]Qe
les bdorninal pain, nausea, vomiting and diareea.
a
Classification of urticaria
fa
Lct, Spontaneous urticaria:
the
Acute spontaneous urticaria: up to 6 weeks of wheals/angioedema;
the
Chronic urticaria: continuous/recurrent episodes of wheals/angioedema over a 6-week
tial
period.
1re
Inducible urticaria
Q1l
tea Phisi cal urticaria (defined by the triggering stimulus):
• Dermographic urticaria (urticaria factitia) (Fig.8.7) - rubbing or writing
on the skin, induced by mechanical share forces that produce an initial red
line (capillary dilatation), followed by broadening erythema (axon-reflex
arteriolar dilatation) and the formation of a linear wheal in 1-5 minutes
(transudation of fluid/edema) termed the triple response foLewis. The
lesions are intensely pruritic.
Simple dermographism, without pruritus, appears in about 5% of
Lan healthy population and i s c onsidered an exaggerated physiological
response.
White dermographism is a misnomer (false dermographism, not
red urticaria), in f act a b l anching response to skin s troking explained by
capillary vasoconstriction. It is more pronounced in persons with atopy.
Cold contact urticaria - wh e aling w i t h in m i n u t es of rewarming after
ion cold exposure. It can be elicited by r a i ny, w i nd y w e a ther or c ontact
with cold objects; can be congenital, or associated to cryoglobulines or
cryofibrinogen. Cold u r t i caria r equires HC V d e t ermination, because
c ryoglobulins ar e i n d i r ect m a r k er s o f h e p a t i ti s C . S w i m m i n g o r
jumping into cold water may be particulary dangerous, resulting in
anaphylaxia.
• Heat contact urticaria - elicited by localized heat
• Solar urticaria — e licited by U V a n d / or v i s ible l ig ht; w h e als on s u n
exposed areas, in up to 30 minutes after exposure
• Delayed pressure urticaria —wheals within 3-12 h latency elicited by sustained
pressure under the waistband of tight clothes, under the elastic part of socks,
on buttocks sitting for a long time, feet in tight shoes, soles after prolonged
walking or climbing a ladder;
• Vibratory urticarialangioedema - elicited by j o gging or t he u se oi
vibrating machinery e.g. pneumatic hammer, lawn mowers, motorcycles.
Classification of angioedema:
• allergic angioedema —often associated with urticaria
• drug-induced angioedema (non-allergic angioedema) due to A CE inhibitors, Dpi
associated to urticaria
• aquired angioedema (AAE) - rare
o a ssociated w it h l y m p hoproliferative diseases of B ty p e ( i n creased
consumption of C1-inhibitor)
o a u t o i m mune process (auto-antibodies against the C1-inhibitor)
• heredita~ angioedema (HAE) — rare, inherited, autosomal dominant, deficiency of thy
C1-esterase inhibitor
The deficiency of th e C1-esterase inhibitor of t h e c omplement system allo<vs
u ncontrolled activation o f t h e c o m p lement cascade w it h t h e release of k i n i n-like
mediators. Increased vascular permeability results with subcutaneous and mucosal edem,
AAE and HAE are nonhistaminergic angioedema and are no longer considered subtype>
of urticaria, due to their different pathomechanisms.
•
Pathogeny of urticaria/angioedema
Allergic urticaria (20% of cases):
J
o I g E-dependent (type I hypersensitivity reaction)
o a u t o immune mechanism: autoantibodies against IgE or IgE receptor (iD
chronic urticaria)
• Non-allergic urticaria (80% of cases): direct mast cell degranulation by alterin[
membrane properties and secondary release of histamine, i n d uced by radiocontrast
media, drugs (agiotensin-converting enzyme i nhibitors, aspirin, AINS), fool
preservatives and food (fish, sea fruits, all types of berries, red wine)
Treatment
Patients should be informed that usually the disease has a self-limiting duration.
E tiologic therapy attempts the removal of t h e eliciting f a ctors, w h enever
identified. History should focus on medications (aspirin, NSAID, angiotensin-converting<
enzyme inhibitors), food allergens (animal proteins: meat, milk, eggs) and foo|i
pseudoallergens (fish, seafood, strawberries, nuts and food additives like tartrazin<,
sodium benzoate), contactants (latex, medication, tomato, plants), infections (bacterisi
infections of the nasopharynx, H.pylori, bowel parasites), exposure to arthropods, physicsi
precipitants (pressure, cold, sun, water), and family history. Acute spontaneous urticaria i~
84
se oI usua> ycaused by food and drugs, while chronic spontaneous urticaria may be associated
:les, tpgronune disorders (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus).
to autoi
Symptomatic therapy is aimed at palliation of pruritus and discomfort, by:
1. First hne therapy n on-sedating anti-H1 antihistamines (compete with histamine for
histamine receptor, reduce vascular permeability): l oratadine (Claritine),
ue t0 desloratadine (Clarinex, Aerius), fexofenadine (Telfast, Allegra), cetirizine (Alerid),
feve, levo-cetirizine (Xyzal), ebastine.
Wlg Second line therapy: The dose of non-sedating antihistamine may be increased up to 4
times.
Classic, traditional anti-H1 antihistiamines may be associated in the evening, for
sedative a n d an t i c holinergic e f f ects. T h ese a r e hy d r o x y zine ( A t a rax)
promethazine, dyphenhydramine (Benadryl), c l o r pheniramine, a l k y lamine,
ethylenediamine, propylamine and phenothiazine.
I10f
3 Third-line therapy (drugs added to H1 antihistimies):
I
leukotriene receptor antagonist (LTRA) — Montelukast
Ciclosporin — in severe disease, refractory to an y d ose of antihistamine; high
ec5$$
incidence ofadverse effects
Q malizumab — IgG monoclonal antibody that inhibits IgE from binding to t h e
surface of basophils and mast cells; this removes and deactivates free circulating
of the
IgE, preventing the activation of basophils and mast cells
~liow~ oral glucocorticoids should be administered only in short course (3-7 days): for
.n-jil(e exacerbations of chronic urticaria unresponsive to H 1 a n f i histamines. Topical
den glucocorticosteroids are not indicated in urticaria.
)types Phototherapy UV-B and UV-A for 1-3 months — lowers the number of mast cells in
the upper dermis; indication: chronic urticaria and symptomatic dermographism
induction of tolerance — in cold urticaria, cholinergic urticaria, solar urticaria (UV-
A treatment), physical urticaria
4. Local treatment only achieves some symptomatic relief of pruritus using antihistamin-
containing lotions or gels, alcoholic solution with menthol 1%.
Anaphylaxis is a "serious allergic reaction that is rapid in o nset and may cause
terin) death. Anaphylaxis typically involves multiple organ systems. The signs and symptoms, in
intr@I order of frequency, are:
foo< cutaneous: flushing, pruritus, urticaria, angioedema
respiratory: nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, throat pruritus, laryngeal edema,
choking, wheeze, cough, dyspnea
ion. gastrointestinal: cramping, abdominal pain, nausea, emesis, diarrhea
weve cardiovascular: dizziness, tachycardia, hypotension, collapse
ertisf other: anxiety, mental confusion, lethargy, seizures
foo< The emergency treatment in anaphylaxis:
First line therapy:
cter>a o 0 . 5 ml of epinephrine intramuscularly in the anterior-lateral thigh; may need
to be repeated every 5-15 minutes
lysi<> v'
.ariaI' Adjunctive therapy:
85
o i . v . soluble glucocorticoids (hemisuccinate) are indicated up to 1000 mg, 0,
metilprednisolon 60-80 mg; further oral treatment with 40-80 mg prednisoloqp
o b r onchodilator ( P2-agonist): albuterol nebulised solution every 20 minutes 0,
continuously when brochospasm appears
o H 1 a n t ihistamine(diphenhydramine) 50 mg i.v. or oral solution; alternate<
second generation less sedating antihistamine
o H 2 a ntihistamine (Ranitidine) 75-150 iv
Additonal steps
o p l a ce the patient in recumbent position if tolerated, with elevated lower legs
o o x ygen therapy
o i v fl u i d s in large volumes (volume resuscitation)
o p r o m p t transfer to an acute care facility
Dermatitis (Anglo-American term) and eczema (in Europe) are synonyms used tp
describe e p i dermal i n t o l erance r eaction o r pru r i t i c noninfectious infl
ammatory
dermatoses. They are extremely common (in 15-25% of all patients with skin diseases).
Classification
a. Ac c ording to the clinical aspect and evolution:
o Ac u te e czema:erythematous plaques unclearly d e marcated, with o o z in~
surface and covered with vesicles (Fig.8.8). Histology shows spongiosis with
formation of interstitial vesicles.
o Su b a cute eczema:after the acute phase the oozing diminishes, the lesion i
covered by crusts. Histology shows acanthosis and parakeratosis.
o Ch r o nic eczemais c h a racterized by s c a les and l i c h enification ( F ig.8.9),
Histology s h o w s a c a n thosis, hyperkeratosis w i t h pa r akeratosis an<
inflammatory inflltrates in the dermis.
b. Ac c ording to the etiopathogenesis,
eczema can be exogenous, endogenous and mixt
Contact dermatitis/eczema (Exogenous eczema)
There are two types of contact dermatitis:
a. Irritant (toxic or orthoergic) contact dermatitis is a nonspecific inflammator)t
response of the skin to agents that cause direct skin-damage in all persons, without T-cell
immunity involvement. The lesion has sharp margins, according to the contact area and
healing starts promptly when the offending agent is withdrawn (Fig.8.10).
Clinical forms:
• acute: appears after a single exposure to corrosive agents that cause immediatt.'
death of e p i d ermal cells, destroying th e b a r r ier f u n c tion o f t h e s k in , e.g.
physical (UV, X-rays) or chemical irritants (alkaline/acid solutions, organi(
I
solvents)
chronic: a p pears by a cu mu l a t i v e e ffect o f r e p e ated e x p o sures t o l o e
concentration of contact irritants (water, soap, detergents causing "housewife'~
eczema", organic solvents, w o un d s e cretions, amm oniac i n u r i n e c a usin)
diaper dermatitis)
p, Allergic contact eczema: is a T-cell immune response of delayed type resulting
31re
~ cutaneous contact with an allergen to which the patient has previously developed a
e<fic sensitivity. After the allergen contact the skin for the first time sensitization is
speci
.„duced
u within 5-7 days (induction phase). Lesions occur 24-48 h hours after a subsequent
ntact (reaction phase). They tend t o s p r ead ar ound th e c ontact area and a lso on
cbstant body regions (Fig.8. 1 1 ), because the contact allergen is transported through the
blood to o t her a r eas o f t h e s k in , w h e r e i t e n c o unters sensitized T - l y m p hocytes.
Memory T cells persist in the dermis even after allergic contact dermatitis clinically
resolves
The causes of contact allergic reactions include nickel (Fig.8.12; earrings, necklace,
etc)' chemicals in rubber gloves; dyes added to textiles; fragrances; topical corticosteroids;
topical antibiotics: neomycin.
Atopy and atopic eczema (Endogenous eczema)
Atopy is a t endency to develop specific allergic disorders like atopic eczema,
allergic bronchial asthma, hay fever, allergic rhinitis and allergic conjunctivitis, due to a
Btp
tory genetic predisposition to increased production of IgE immunoglobulins.
Atopy is characterized by a v ariety of i m munoregulatory and skin barrier
abnormalities:
increased serum level of IgE and specific IgE to foods, aeroallergens and bacteria
.11lg
deficient c h emotaxis o f t he ne u t r o phil s a n d ma c r o phages c ausing f r e quent
87
superinfection. The lesions may gradually heal up to 2 years or may be followed b>
atopic eczema of the childhood.
Nummular eczema
It i s m o r e c o m mo n i n me n , m o s tl y b e t w een 5 0-70 y ears, p r esenting @
disseminated round-to-oval, usually sharply d emarcated, "coin-shaped" erythem
atous
lesions, with overlying scaling (Fig.8.14) or oozing with crusting. The lesions art
distributed symmetrically on the legs, but they may occur on the trunk, hands or feet. Tirr,'
sharp margins make them look like psoriasis, while central clearing makes the clinic<i
differentiation from tinea corporis difficult.
Focal infection can be associated (chronic tonsillitis, chronic prostatitis, intestinal
dismicrobism, H.pylori gastritis); venous insufficiency and stasis dermatits could explaIrr
the envolvement of the lower legs.
88
drugs, bacterial o r f u n gal a n t igens through a d e l ayed t y p e c el l m e d i ated
action),
reac 1 Fungal infection of th e f eet can cause palmar p ompholyx an d a n t imicotic
~pic eatrnenf of the primary site resolves the recurrences. Emotional stressexacerbates
trea
)ltd Jyshidrotic eczema.
lQ@
It js characterized by crops of vesicles and/or bullae located strictly on the hands
thy d feet (lateral aspects of the fingers/toes, palms and soles, sometimes extending to the
p>ck of hands and feet) that will ti pically resolve with desquamation and no rupturing
(F;g 8 15, 8.16). Burning pain and intense pruritus are associated. Dyshidrotic eczema may
disseminate on the trunk or face (id reaction).
thy
)I@a Stasis dermatitis (gravitational eczema, varicous eczema)
also It occurs mostly after the age of 50 on the lower extremities in patients with venous
the hypertension and edema du e t o c h ronic venous insufficiency, heart failure or o t h er
tie conditions that cause swelling in the legs.
Stasis dermatitis starts at the medial ankle and gradually involves the lower leg up
to the knee. Itching then vesiculous, oozing erythematous plaques are the first signs
(Fig 8.17), later lichenification and hyperpigmentation secondary to scratching. Edema is
<suan p resent at the beginning, but in chronic cases of stasis dermatitis, there is gradual
tightening and sclerosing of the skin. Dermal fibrosis is the hallmark of advanced stasis
dermatitis. In severe cases, the skin breaks down with oozing, crusted areas and ulceration
which may heal with shiny scars or complicate with superintection.
non O ther ty pes o f a l l e rgic d e rmatitis ma y a s sociate, l ik e s ensitisation t o t h e
cia microorganisms present in the venous ulcer (microbial eczema) and/or to the drugs used
topically on the ulcer (allergic contact dermatitis).
Id reaction (autoeczematization)
Is a generalized acute allergic reaction to intense inflammatory diseases of the skin
caused by fungi (dermatophyte, candida, bacteria) or some antigen created during the
.rgic
inflammatory processes.
mic,
Id r eaction o c c urs 1- 2 w e e ks a f t er t h e p r i m a r y i n f e c t ion o r d e r m a t i t i s
pear
exacerbated due to infection, scratching or innapropriate treatment. The eruption has
acute onset at distant sites from the primary in fection, is symmetrical and extremely
p ruritic, with m a culo-papular o r p a p u l o -vesicular lesions. The i n f ectious agent i s
a5 absent in the id lesions. It resolves as the inflammation that initiated it resolves.
too5 Etiology of id reactions:
are stasis dermatitis — id reaction on the forearms, trunk and/or face (Ftg.8.18, 8.19)
The allergic contact dermatitis — id reaction at long distance from the contact area (Fig.8.12)
ical inflammatory tinea pedis — id reaction on the sides of the fingers (pompholyx)
kerion — id reaction as symmetrical small follicular papules on the upper trunk
final
Microbial eczema (infective eczema, paratraumatic eczema)
)laia
It is provoked by the superantigens of staphylococcus aureus and streptococcus on
t"e skin. Area of advancing erythema with microvesicles is seen around infected wounds,
Ul«rs, bacterial dermatoses, scars (Fig.8.20). Superantigens can activate multiple clones of
lymphocytes, even without prior senzitisation.
ioU5 Microbial (infective) dermatitis should be distinguished from infected eczema
tof5 ( «erna complicated by secondary bacterial or viral infection).
89
F'
Seborrheic dermatitis
Seborrheic dermatitis needs three factors to develop: individual susceptibility
sebaceous secretion and the yeast Malasseziafurfur.
Seborreic dermatitis exhibits erythematous patches with greasy flakes on the scalp,
ears, eyebrows, nasolabial folds and the middle of the chest, with itching (Fig.8.21,8.22)
Dandruff is a m i l d f o r m o f seborrheic dermatitis, presenting with small w h ite fl akes
confined to th e scalp, w it h o r w i t h out i t ching. Seborrheic dermatitis is w orsened ~
neurological disorders (Parkinson disease, polynevritis), HIV infection, obesity, emotional
stress, myocardial ischemia.
In neonates, seborrheic dermatitis manifests with redness and greasy scaling o~
the scalp and folds during the first 3 months of life. It may complicate with erythroderrnia
desquamativa (Leiner's disease) that associates fever, diarhea and anemia.
90
<ge from very mild to very strong and they are chosen according to the severity of
rang
the d]sease and th e a r e a o f t h e b o d y t h a t i s a f f e cted. C l o betasol p r o p i onate
(perrnovate) is a potent formulation, mometason furoate (Elocom), methyprednisolon
Lp, eponat (Advantan) and hydrocortison butirate (Locoid) have medium activity and
acepo
2), hydrocortisone
h ro is th e w e akest TCS. The l o n g -use of T CSs (m ore t ha n 3- 4 w e eks
'es <ontinuously applied) is limited by the cutaneous side effects:
cutaneous atrophy — after potent formulations
ial striae, skin fragility
steroidic purpura — on the arms, legs; telangiectasia — most striking on the face,
on after fluorinated formulations (Fig.8.24)
steroid acne, steroid rosacea (Fig.8.25) and perioral dermatitis are induced or
aggravated
hypertricosis
rly microbial, viral and fungal infections are favoured through depression of the local
immune response
or healing of the wounds is suppressed by inhibition of the collagen synthesis, thus
dermatocorticoids applied on the ulcers will increase their depth (Fig.8.26)
S ystemic side effects like suppression of th e h y pothalamic-pituitary axis w i t h
ibition of growth in children may appear after potent TCSs on more than 30% of the
body surface,
for long periods.
its, Tar (coal tar, ichtiol, oleum cadini) can be associated to topical steroids as it
'.Ss, decreases inflammation, especially in t hickened, scaly plaques (e.g. Flumethasone
rut pivalat with coal tar - Locacorten tar). When lichenification appears dermatocorticoids
es, are applied u n d e r oc c l u siv e d r e s sings o r dep o t co r t i c o id s ( m i c r o cristalline
triamcinolon - Volon A, bethametasone diproprionate - Diprophos) are infiltrated
lee sublesionally.
ith Topical calcineurin inhibitors block the inflammatory cascade produced by the
SO, pathologic T cells in the skin, preventing expression of proinflammatory cytokines and
t he proliferation o f T c e l l s . T acrolimus 0 .03% an d 0 .1% o i n t ment ( P r otopic) an d
ter Pimecrolimus 1% cream (Elidel) are now available. They are indicated as continuous
of followed by non-continuos treatment in chronic eczema to reduce the incidence and
nd severity of flares and prolong the time between flares. The most common side effects
are stinging, burning or itching immediately after application.
Systemic treatment
Oral corticosteroids are used for short periods in severe flares of acute eczema if
the topical treatment is not efficient or in widespread eczema.
Systemic antibiotics are generally used in superinfected eczema, and also to
eliminate bacterial superantigens that cause the flares of the microbial eczema. Antibiotics
tee h»e no effect without the clinical evidence of infection. Only l a boratory evidence of
.lly Sa«eus without c l i nical m a n ifestation i s n o t e v i d ence of clinical i n f ection, since
«aphylococcal organisms commonly colonize the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis.
cal H1 antihistamines of sedative type reduce the pruritus.
UV light (UVB and PUVA-therapy) help reduce inflammatory activity in the skin
cd (»ibits Langerhans cells and lymphocytes).
'.Ss Ciclosporin, azathioprine, metotrexate can be recommended in very severe cases.
91
PRURIGO
Subacute prurigo
It is a chronic inflammatory dermatoses encountered more frequently in wome~
between 20-30 years of age. Insects seem to play no role. It is frequently associated with:
diabetes mellitus (prurigo diabetica)
pregnancy {prurigo gestationis)
liver diseases (prurigo hepatica)
menses (prurigo dysmenorrheica)
hormonal influences (contraceptives)
gastrointestinal disorders (hypoacidity, chronic gastritis, enteral candidiasis)
focal infections
Clinical findings: symmetric papulo-vesiculous lesions on the extensor surfaces Of
the extremities, upper part of the anterior and posterior thorax. Atrophic scars result,
hyperpigmented or more often depigmented and surrounded by hyperpigmentation.
Chronic prurigo
It is described as multiple, intensely pruritic, excoriated nodules, erupting on thr
extensor surfaces of the limbs secondary to itching or rubbing. The individual lesions art.'
generally symmetric, 3-20 mm, firm, erythematous or brownish papules or nodules that
evolve slowly (F ig.8.28).The pruritus is characteristically p a r oxystic: i n termittent,
unbearably severe and relieved only by scratching to the point of damaging the skin, with
bleeding and scarring.
The cause of prurigo nodularis is not known, but multiple factors are supposed to
contribute: atopic dermatitis, anemia, hepatic (including l i ve r C i n f e ction) o r r ene~
dysfunction, l y m phoproliproliferative diseases, p s y chiatric c onditions, H I V
immunodeficiency conditions. The majority of patients have a positive history for atop)'
(atopic dermatitis, asthma, hay fever).
Treatment is challenging, as lesions may not heal completely. The treatment 0~
choice is i n t r alesional o r t o p i cal ( u n d er occlusive d ressing) corticosteroids. Oth«
treatments are: PUVA ( p soralen+UVA) o r c r y o therapy. Systemic treatment i n cludt'~
antihistamines, antidepressants, anxiolytics, Dapsone, Thalidomide.
92
DRUG ERUPTIONS
The undesirable side effects of the drugs can mimic a wide range of derrnatosis. A
r eactiorl should be considered in any patient who is taking medication and wh o
drug rea
d denly
sud e develops a symmetric cutaneous eruption. Medications that are kn own f o r
sing sidn reactions more frequently are antimicrobials, non-steroidal antiinflammatory
causing
s (NSAIDs), cytokines, chemotherapeutic agents, anticonvulsivants and psychotropic
drugs
aa a
and agen s. Drug eruptions may be produced by i mmunological or nonimmunological
kfter rocesses. Immunosuppression due to HIV i n creases 10-fold the risk of d rug eruption,
process
l13ea
including severe reactions.
Immunologically mediated d r u g eru p t i on s a r e non - d os e r e l a ted and
unpredictable; they are classified in 4 groups (Gell and Coombs):
Igp dependent reactions (urticaria, angioedema, anaphylaxis). Anaphylaxis combines
(urticaria, angioedema) with systemic manifestations such as hypotension and
tachycardia and in severe cases cardiovascular shock with death. All these types of
metr
'r: reactions appear within minutes after drug administration, faster and more frequently
after parenteral drugs as compared to oral ingestion. Anaphylactoid reactions, as seen
with radiographic contrast media, may mimic clinically IgE-induced histamine release,
but are secondary to a non-immunologically release of histamine.
cjtotoxic reactions (the drug antigen is fixed on some cells, antibody-antigen reaction
activates the complement and cytolysis results) e.g. hemolytic anemia after penicillin
therapy, post-drug purpura
une complex reactions: serum sickness syndrome — caused by treatments with
heterologue serum or depot penidllin; leukocytodastic vasculitis (Fig.9.29) that appears 7-
as Ot
21 days after the onset of therapy, with red macules quiddy followed by palpable purpura
.suit,
and hemoragic vesicies associated with constitutional symptoms (fever, arthritis)
delayed hypersensitivity reactions: allergic contact dermatitis (after topical use of
neomycin, rivanol, antibiotics), exanthematous reactions, photoallergic reactions (after
doxicycline); they begin 7-20 days after medication is started.
a are
Non-immunological drug reactions are dose-related and predictable and are called
side-effects:
tent,
d yschromia: argyria — blue-gray d i scoloration o f s k i n a n d n a i l s d u e t o s i l v e r
with
treatments; brownish colour caused by antimalarics, melasma caused by estrogens
direct degranulation of mast cells (opioids, contrast substances)
anaphilactoid drug reaction after aspirine (affects the arachidonic acid metabolism
enar
resulting in synthesis of leucotriens)
imbalance of the intestinal flora (candida infections after antibiotics)
tOIrIr
m etabolic disorders (hiperlipemia and c u taneous xanthoma after t r eatment w i t h
isotrebnoin)
xt or
Herxheimer reaction due to bacterial endotoxins released from destroyed treponema;
tther
symptoms resolve with continued therapy.
ader
»opecia after retinoids, antimetabolite chemotherapeutic agents (cyclophosphamide)
hypertricosis (minoxidil, fenitoin)
skin necrosis: cumarins (warfarin, heparin)
93
Clinical forms of drug eruptions
yell
toi(I
nhl
abc
less
isa
%oj
'ter,
Fig.8.3. Urticaria porcelanea Fig.8.4. Urticaria anularis
lute
'Qls,
torl
itine
n. It
anti
ives
UV
iuG'
ime, Fig.8.5. Urticaria vasculitis Fig.8.6. Angioedema
ines,
)S
onir I
k,
'.tlesi
95
Fig.8.9. Chronic eczema (neurodermitis) Fig.8.10. Acute iritant contact
dermatitis to plasture
Fig.8.11. Acute alergic contact dermatitis Fig.8.12. Acute alergic contact dermatitis
to topical NSAID to nickel with id reaction
96
Ai!
i'
tT
C
f
I
/
Fig.8.24. Erythema and telangiectasia
Fig.8.23.Asteatotic eczema after fluocinolon
97
Fig.8.25. Steroidal rosacea Fig.8.26. Superinfected steroidal ulcers
98
Chapter 9
The teim „collagen diseases" was created by Klemperer in 1941. He observed that
in t e connective tissue of th e p atients w it h l u p u s erythematosus, scleroderma and
derirlatomyositis an eosinophilic homogenous substance is present. He called it „fibrinoid"
because it was like fibrin. Later this group of diseases was called autoimmune, because of
the presence of autoantibodies in the serum.
Autoonmunlty is caused by loss of immune tolerance to „self" (antigens of the
b dy) due to a genetic anomaly of the i m m une system or due to autosensitisation to
tiip dified self antigens transformed in „ n o n self" af ter contact with exogenous factors
(physical, chemical, microbial, viral).
There are two main forms of lupus erythematosus: chronic cutaneous and acute
systemic. Cutaneous form may progress in less than 5% of the cases into the systemic form.
Cutaneous lupus erythematosus
Chronic cutaneous LE (discoid LE) is a photosensitive autoimmune dermatosis
that produces scarring and atrophy. There is no visceral involvement and the serologic
abnormalities are uncommon.
The exact pathophysiology of CLE is not well understood. It probably occurs in
g enetically predisposed individuals, where a heat shock protein is induced in t he
keratinocyte following UV light exposure or stress. This protein may act as a target for the
T-cell mediated cytotoxicity.
Clinical findings
The most characteristic elements of chronic cutaneous LE are: erythema, scales and
scarring atrophy. The disease begins with persistent erythematous papules or plaques
(Fig.9.1) that are sharply delimited and raised (with palpable infiltrate). Then adherent
thick scales appear. The scales have characteristically carpet tack aspect, that describes
multiple small keratin plugs corresponding to the follicular openings (follicular plugging)
attached to the underside of scales. The lesions progress centrifugally and may merge.
«solution of th e a c t iv e l e s ion r e s ult s i n at r o p h y a n d s c a r r ing (F i g .9.2, 9 . 3).
Hyperpigmentation, hypopigmentation (Fig.9.4) and telangiectasia may associate in old
~e»orLs leading to poikiloderma. The course is chronic, lasting for years to decades.
Most of the lesions are photodistributed on the face (often on the cheeks with
biitt«fly-shaped distribution; forehead, nose), on the ear, scalp, the V cf the chest, but they
ca»e also found on the trunk and extremities. The scalp is commonly involved and
P«iiianent alopecia may result (pseudopelade-Fig.9.5). The vermilion of the lips is often
~ffected, with epithelial thickening, erosions.
99
There are two subsets of chronic cutaneous LE: localized —on the head and neci,
and widespread —on the trunk and limbs, regardless of whether lesions are seen on tg~
head or neck (Fig.9.6). The patients with l a t ter form o f t en have haematological any
serological abnormalities, are m o r e d i f f i cult t o t r e a t an d m o r e l i k el y t o d e v elop
systemic LE.
100
cia Systemic lupus erythematosus
he TMs is a heterogeneous connective-tissue disease affecting several organs and
ld
sys a ssociated w it h a u t o antibodies against n u clear a n t igens. I t a f f ects m o r e
Dp
ffrequ
equently young women (men/women ratio 1 / 1 0).
The etiology is unknown. Interactions of genetic anomalies of the immune system and
xp<npus factors (UV radiations) are responsible for the disease. It is assumed that UV
expgen
ad,at pn dters the nat ve DNA in such a way that tl is recog e d as forelg and induces the
ra
fprrnatipn pf autoantibodies. Genetic T cell defects of the suppressor cells are responsible for
the fact that the B cells form autoantibodies in an uncontrolled way. The immune complexes
that are deposited in the vessel walls of the skin and internal organs activate the complement
tat
casca
de resulting in immune complex vasculitis, nephritis, endocarditis and arthritis.
pn Clinical findings
The patient, frequently a y o un g w o m an, p r esents facial erythema, tiredness,
<eneral malaise, fever and swallen, painful joints.
Skin findings are present in only 80% of cases, the rest representing lupus sine lupo
(lupus patients without skin lesions). Symmetric diffuse erythema occurs on the face and
IUC exposed areas of the chest (I'ig.9.7). There is a butterfly-like aspect on the face, with malar
Xld ermnences and nasal bridge involvement. Morbilliform, scarlatiniform (Jig.9.8) or livedo-
like exanthems may develop on the trunk, patchy or diffuse erythema on the palms and
:ct
spies, felangiectatic blood vessels at the fingertips and along the nail folds, with subungual
at hemprrhages, even gangrene and ulcerations due to th e angiitis. Skin lesions can be
'he
transient for several days or weeks and they wax and vane in several hours with sun
)ut
exposure. The lesions are not scarring.
Joint in v olvement w i t h a r t h r algia an d p e r i p heral p o l y arthritis i s f r e quent.
Myalgias and polymyositis are signs of the muscular involvement
ive Renal involvement may exist in the form of focal nephritis, nephrotic syndrome,
Jlg nephrosclerosis with hypertension, ending in renal insufficiency.
.nt Involvement of other organs: pericarditis, endocarditis, polyserositis, polyneuritis,
uveitis, pneumonia, hepatospelnomegaly, aseptic bone necrosis.
Laboratoryfindings
ion non-specific changes:
o a n e mia, leukocytopenia, thrombocytopenia
o t h e ESR is significantly raised (100 mm/more in the 1s~ h)
tg o e l ectrophoresis sh ow s h y p o albuminemia, i n c reased a l ph a 2 gl o b u l ins,
the hypergammaglobulinemia with polyclonal IgG
o t h e C-reactive protein and RF are frequently positive, immune complexes and
cryoglobulins can be present; the complement level is usually low
o p r o t einuria, hematuria and urine casts reveal nephritis
|ne o f a l se positive serological syphilis reactions (VDRL, RPR) — in 10% of cases, due
'JV to antophospholipid antibodies responsible for thrombosis, fetal loss
immunological changes:
o a n t i n uclear antibodies (ANA) — positive in m ore than 95% of patients, but
non-specific for SLE; may be positive in 10-15% of healthy persons;
o a t b . anti-native double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) — very specific for SLE
101
o Sm a n t igen, which is part of the RNAse-resistant fraction of the extractable
nuclear antigens (ENA) — strongly specific for SLE
are neutrophili<
o L E - cell p h e n omenon and L E -cell t e st . T h e L E ce l l s
granulocytes containing phagocytosed basophilic nuclear material resulted
from th e d e struction o f t h e n u c l eus b y t h e a n t i nuclear factors. LE-cell
material is ',
phenomenon is rosette formation, when th e a l t ered n u clear
surrounded by neutrophils
o l u p u s band test is specific for SLE and demonstrates the deposition of IgG @
the basement membrane in unaltered skin which is not exposed to sunlight. g
diseased skin the test is positive in both systemic and chronic LE.
Course and prognosis
L
The formerly very poor prognosis, often with fatal outcome within a few weeks up
to 2 years, has improved since the introduction of corticosteroids.
Treatment
Systemic
Advise patients to avoid exposure to the sun.
Systemic corticosteroids are the mainstay of therapy for systemic disease. Initial]y
high doses are given (over 1g/kb/d, usually 100-150 mg prednisolone). After cutaneous,
clinical and paraclinical response (ESR) is obtained, the dose is carefully reduced to
individual maintenance dose that must be continued for years. Adverse effects of systemic
osteoporosis,
corticosteroids must b e a d d r essed: d i abetes mellitus, o steonecrosis,
hypertension, stigmata of Cushing syndrome, gastritis, gastric ulcer.
Additional immun o s uppressives a re u s e d (azathioprine = IMURAN,
cyclophosphamide) because of steroid-sparing effects.
Antimalarial drugs (hydroxichloroquine) also have steroid-sparing effects and are
used as first-line therapy especially in patients with skin lesions.
Intravenous IgG (0.5-1 g/kb/d for 4 days) have recently become important in
controlling recalcitrant disease.
Topical
creams or
UV sunscreens, topical c alcineurin i n h i bitors, c orticosteroids i n
ointments are used as an adjunct to systemic therapies.
DERMATOMYOSITIS
Clinical findings
The skin symptoms are accompanied by muscle disease. In the absence of the s
>
involvement one speaks of polyrnyositis.
The pathognomonic skin lesions in D M a r e t h e h eliotrope rash and Gottro~
papules. The heliotrope rash is a periorbital violaceous erythema with or without
ed'~
of the eyelids (Eig.9.9). Gottron papules are violaceous-red, flat-topped papules an
102
)Ie ues located over bony p r o m inences, particularly th e m etacarpophalangeal joints,
terphalangeal joints, wrists, elbows and k ees
irtterp
4c Other characteristic but not pathognomonic cutaneous findings include:
symm
etric violaceous-red or h y p erpigmented macular p atches: in a d i s t ribution
'lar to that of Gottron papules (Gottron sign-Fig.9.10), on the nape of the neck,
ell
upper back and shoulders (Shawl sign), on the V of the neck and upper chest (V sign),
on the latera] thighs or hips (Holster sign), linear extensor erythema on the legs, thighs,
upper arms and forearms, hands and feet, facial erythema in a malar distribution or
at
In more extensively with perioral sparing
poikilodermia results from chronic evolution of macular violaceous erythema in sun-
exposed areas and consists of mottled hyperplgmentatlon and h y p opi g e n t atlon.
telangiectasia and skin atrophy with or without scale
LlP
periunghial erythema, nail-fold telangiectasia, cuticular overgrowth
caicinosis cutis (dystrophic calciflcation) - firm, yellow or flesh-colored nodules in the
subcutis {Fig.9.11) and muscles
photosensjtlvlty
• pr u r i tus
lly Muscle findings are characteristic: increased fatigability, proximal symmetrical
Ila, tnUscle weakness and tenderness of the limbs. Patients may have difficulty in r a ising
to hands (combing), squatting or rising from this position and climbing. Involvement of the
respiratory muscles leads to dysphagia and dyspnea.
Inc
Systemic findings include interstitial pneumonia, arthralgias and o p ortunistic
ns,
infections.
Laboratory findings
mildly raised ESR, leukocytosis with l y m p h openia and eosinophilia; occasionally
ire positive rheumatoid factor; negative LE factor, ANA and syphilis serology
muscle enzyme levels are increased and m easure the l evel o f d e struction: CPK
(creatine phosphokinase), GOT (glutamate-oxalate transaminase), LDH ( l actate
dehydrogenase), ALD (aldolase); serum creatine is raised and excreted in urine
electromyogram (EMG) demonstrates fibrilation and small polyphasic potentials
musde biopsy shows inflammatory infiltrates in the connective tissue between muscle
fibers and degenerative lesions with l oss of t h e c r oss striations in t h e m u scles,
homogenization and destruction of the muscle fibers, resulting in sclerosis.
An evaluation for a possible malignancy should be performed, as dermatomyositis
may be a paraneoplastic disorder (carcinomas of t h e d i g estive tract, l u ngs, female
genitalia).
re,
Evolution, prognosis
iac DM can be acute in more than half of the cases in children but rarer in adults; it
«rt have a polycyclic evolution i n 1/ 3 o f t h e cases or i t can b e c hronic. In case of
Paraneoplastic disease, dermatomyositis improves after removal of the tumor, but recurs
with recurrence of tumor or metastases.
Treatment
'On S ystemic glucocorticoids (0.5-1 mg/kb/d t apered t o 5 0 % o ve r 6 m o n th s a n d
"'scontinued in 2-3 years) are the treatment of choice. Steroid-sparing immunosuppressants
trta
I an be associated, like Metotrexate {weekly low dose), Azathioprine (2-3 mg/kb/d), pulse
g(l
103
Cyclophosphamide, Cyclosporine, recently biologics and intravenous immunoglobulin
Sun avoidance and sunscreens are recommended.
SCLERODERMAS
Guttate morphea
It is characterized by small (<1 cm in diameter) scattered yellowish-white sclerotic
lesions (white spots disease).
Linear scleroderma
Is characterized by unilateral, linear, band-shaped lesions along the length of an
extremity, causing restricted movement; circumferentially on a finger or a limb, leading to
I
amputation of a digit; or paramedian on the frontoparietal region, from the eyebrows up
into the scalp. The latter is also called „coup d e sabre" because the linear, atrophic
depression with permanent alopecia resembles the stroke from a sw o rd. This form is
deeper than the plaque and guttate forms, involving the underlying tissue (muscles or
bones or even the cerebral substance).
Etiology may be l i n ked to i n f ections like Borrelia burgdorferi (after tick bite),
Epstein-Barr virus, varicella etc at least in some cases.
Course. Morphea typically has a benign, self-limited c o urse, with sp ontan
resolution over 3-5 years. Unlike systemic scleroderma, morphea lacks sclerodactily,
Raynaud phenomenon and internal organ involvement.
Treatment
Topical treatment is based on glucocorticoids that can be applied as ointments or
injected intralesionally (triamcinolone acetonide suspension) in early lesions to reduce
inflammation. Topical calcipotriene, tacrolimus or i m i quimod can also be used under
oclusion. Physiotherapy with heat treatment and massage is useful.
Systemic treatment with penicillin is recommended in extensive and active forms
Systemic corticoids might be helpful in the inflammatory phases of morphea, but they
104
have l'ttle
itte benefit for established sclerosis. Broadband UVA (320-400 nm), or better UVA1
0 400 nm) penetrate deeper into the dermis than UVB and is particularly eHective in the
(340-4
treatment of morphea.
progressive systemic scleroderma (systemic sclerosis)
T his i s a chronic systemic a u toimmune d i sease o f t h e c o n n ective t i ssue
characterjzed
er by cutaneous and systemic manifestations. The pathogenesis of the disease
inclu es unologic system disturbances and vascular changes that lead to increased
collagen
ag deposition in skin and other tissues.
Clinical findings
Skin lesions
The disease starts slowl y w i t h v a s omotor d i s o rders - ac r ocyanosis',cutis
rrnorata 2 and the most characteristic Raynaud syndrome. The Raynaud syndrome
marmor
ecedes
prece e the development of skin and systemic sclerosis by 1-15 years, it is caused by
episodic vascular spasm i n t h e f i n g ers an d i t e v o l ves i n a t y p i cal t h r ee-stage
sequence of painful ischaemia, local cyanosis, and arterial vasoplegia. The skin color
changes from white to blue and red, and intense pain associated through the spastic
crisis (15-30 min).
Skin sclerosis is acral at the beginning. Sclerodactily appears progressively as
sbght erythematous swelling of the fingers and turns into extremely tight, stretched and
~ax-like skin. The mobility of th e hands and feet is greatly restricted because of the
sc}erotic shrinkage of t h e s ki n r e sulting i n b en t an d c o m pletely i m m ovable fingers
(Fig.9.14).Small painful necroses at the fingertips are often found (rat-bite necroses), with
mutilated terminal digits.
The face shows loss of facial expression, the nose becomes pointed, the lips are
narrow, the mouth becomes small and r ound ( m i crostomia) with r a dial grooves. The
mobility of the face is restricted. Sclerosis may slowly become generalized, on the trunk
and limbs (Fig.9.15).
Involvement of internal organs:
• digestive tract: the esophagus (most frequently involved) looses peristalsis and shows
atonic dilatation in scintigraphic examination
• lungs: massive fibrosis
• heart: diffuse, interstitial, myocardial fibrosis and cor pulmonale
• kidneys: fibrosis of the interlobular arteries and atrophy. The first sign is proteinuria,
and then progressive insufficiency with malignant hypertension develops.
CRESTsyndrom
e is a particular form of scleroderma manifested with calcinosis,
Raynaud, esophagus involvement, sclerodactyly and telangiectasia (Fig.9.16).
1
> «aii symmetric, permanent blue-red color of the skin in cold environment due to reduced oxygenation
reticulated blue color of the skin due to obstruction of superficial vessels and secondary stasis in other vessels
t»t are compensatory dilated; it does not blanch on pressure
105
Treatment
The therapeutic approach depends o n t h e p r e sentation o f t h e d i sease and
complexity of symptoms. In systemic sclerosis the treatment is symptomatic
in Raynaud syndrome - v a soactive drugs: calcium-channel blockers, vasodilators I
106
Fig.9.1. Chronic lupus erythematosus Fig.9.2. Chronic lupus erythematosus
107
Fig.9.10. Gottron sign in dermatomyositis
Fig.9.9. Heliotrope rash in dermatomyositis
Fig.9.12. Morphea
Fig.9.11. Calcinosis cutis in dermatomyositis
BUI.GUS DISEASES
PEMPHIGUS VULGARIS
Pemphigus vulgaris (PV), the most severe and frequent autoimmune bullous
disease, is mediated b y c i r culating autoantibodies directed against k eratinocyte cell
surface.The disease usually affects people between 40 and 60.
Pathogenesis:
IgG a u t oantibodies t o de s m osomes ( i n f a c t to des m o g lein I and III,
transmembranar proteins that belong to d esmosomes) are produced. Desmoglein-
autoantibody complexes initiate an immunologic inflammatory reaction that destroys the
d esmosomes resulting i n l o s s of cell-cell adhesion, a p rocess called acantholysis.
lntraepidermal acantholytic blisters are formed in the lower part of the prickle cell layer
(medium blisters) within a few hours.
1 Clinical findings:
Mucous membranes are typically affected first in PV, preceding cutaneous lesions
for about 4 months. Blisters develop most often in the mouth. These soon rupture and
painful, slow-healing erosions result with peripheral extension and epithelial shedding
(Fig.10.1,10.2).
On normal appearing skin flaccid blisters filled with clear fluid arise. They
are fragile an d s o o n p r o d u c e p a i n fu l e r o s i on s w i t h p e r i p h e ra l e x t ension and
shedding of the epithelium. Crusting develops while the margin o f t h e b l ister
advances (Fig.10.3). T he lesions have litt le tendency to epithelisation but w h e n t h i s
happens, characteristic hyperpigmented macules result (Fig.10.4). As new lesions
a ppear, the e r u p t ion b e comes p o l y m o r p h ous, w i t h b l i s t ers, erosions, crusts an d
hyperpigmented macules.
The skin fragility might be revealed in two ways: a) firm and repetead sliding
pressure with a f i nger separates the upper layers of normal-appearing epidermis,
producing bulla (Nikolskysign); b) pressing on the top of a blister may spread the content
into clinically unaffected skin (Asboe-Hansen signor blister's migrating sign).
Lab tests
Blister smear cytology (Tzank test): acantholytic cells are found on a smear taken from
the base of a freshly opened blister, in May-Griinwald-Giernsa stain; these are
epidermal cells with a round shape because they lost desmosomes
Histopathology: suprabasal cells separate from t h e b a sal cells t o f o r m b l i sters;
acantholytic cells are found in the blisters (Fig.10.5).
Immunology:
109
o d i r ec t i m m u n o fluorescence (DIF) o n p e r i l esional s ki n d e t ects Ig G a r i d
complement on the surface of keratinocytes, resulting in a fluorescent networl,
aspect throughout the epidermis
o i n d i r ect imm unofluorescence(IDIF) using the patient's serum and m o nkey
esophagus demonstrates circulating antibodies IgG against desmosomes. The
titre of the circulating antibodies correlates with the disease activity.
Pemphigus vulgarls
IgG 8, C3 blister urlthin the epidermis
floor lined by basal cells
acantholybc cells in blister fluid
intercellular IgG & Ca by direct
immunofluorescence
Pemphigoid
subepidermal blister
eosinophil infiltrate in underlying dermis
basement membrane IgG & Ce by
•
•
• ••
•
•
~ • IgG 8 C3 direct
immunofluores cence
Dermatitis herpetlformh
f subepidermal blister
neutrophil infiltrate in underlying dermis
dermal papillary Ig A by direct
•
• Immunofluorescence
IgA
Course
The untreated disease usually leads to death within 1-3 years because of cachexy,
as water, electrolytes and proteins are lost and oral erosions hinder feeding or because of
superinfections.
Tfeatfnent
The aim of th e treatment is to i n duce disease remission by reducing antibody
production. ail]
Since the introduction of glucocorticosteroids and imunosupressive drugs, over'
mortality has been reduced by more than 50 %. Most of the mortality is now linked to the
side effects of therapy. Minimal drug doses required for disease control should be used in
order to minimise side effects.
T reatment o f pe m p h i gu s i s started wit h h i g h s t eroid d o ses (1-2 r ng
prednisolone/kg) in order to in duce rapid remission. After remission of cutaneous and
mucous lesions is achieved (4-8 weeks), the dose is slowly tapered to a sufficient
maintenance dose (5-15 mg prednisolone daily) that will be for life. If the dose is reduced
too fast, recurrence can occur. As the treatment is in many cases for life, side effects such as
diabetes rnellitus, g a stric h y p e rsecretion or u l c eration, h y p e rtension, t i e ombosis
l
110
Immunosuppressants should be considered early in the disease, as steroid-sparing
ents when complete remission is attained. Azathioprine and mycophenolate mophetil
are first-line agents.
~ o un d ca r e i nc l u d e s g e n t l e c l e a n sin g w i th anti s e p ti c a g e n t s a n d
n onadherent dressings to p r o m ote healing, m i n i m iz e t r a um a t o s u r r o u n d in g s k i n
and Prevent scarring.
Pemphigus vegetans
Is a rare form of pemphigus that involves predominantly skin folds (axilla and
;Aghinai regions, the lip commissures, vulva and anal areas), scalp and face. In these
areas the blisters are rapidly b r o ken, thus barely seen, and v egetations and crusts
develop. The target is desmoglein 3 (lower epidermis, suprabasal). This form is more
resistant to therapy.
Pemphigus foliaceus
Is a benign variety of pemphigus characterized by acantholysis in the upper
layers of the epidermis resulting in s uperficial blisters (Fig.10.6). The target is
desmoglein 1. The blisters are not evident but extensive scales, crusts and erosions on
an erythematous base are observed mainly i n t h e s o -called seborrheic areas (face,
scalp, upper part of the trunk). Mucosal areas are respected and the N i k olsky sign is
positive.
Pemphigus erythematosus
It is a v a r i ant o f t h e p e m p h i gu s f o l i aceus that can be p h o t oactivated. The
target i s d e s m o g l ei n 1 . It has ov e r l a pe d f e a t u r e s o f lu p u s e r y t h e m atosus
( circulating AN A a n d I g G d e p o sits a t t h e d e r m o-epidermal j u n ction) a n d
pemphigus (superficial a catolysis an d I g G d e p o sits i n t h e i n t e r keratincyte
substance). Prognosis is favorable.
Paraneoplastic pemphigus
Is a rare form o f p e m p h igus, associated wit h c ancer elsewhere in th e body,
most commonly l eukemia or l y m p h oma. The most common cl i nical presentation is
intractable erosive stomatitis that can be confused with severe herpes simplex infection
O r erythema m u l t i f o rma. Systemic t h erapy p r o v i des t e m p orary r e l ie f u n l ess t h e
primary tumour is not treated.
Drug-induced pemphigus
Thiol-drugs (D-penicillamine, captopril, enalapril, piroxicam) and non-thiol
«ugs (penicillin, cefalopsporins, quinolones, carbamazepin) may i n duce bullous
eruption similar to pemphigus.
BULLOUS PKMPHIGOID
111
It is characterized by IgG autoantibodies directed against the hemidesmosorrtg pe>
prtl
antigens (minor and major bullous pemphigoid antigens - BPAG1 and BPAG2)
Subepidermal bullae result when hemidesmosomes are destroyed (Graphic 10.1, 10.2). mI
Bullous pemphigoid may have a paraneoplastic character.
orI
Clinical findings coI
Tense, large bullae with clear content associated with i n t ense pruritus arise CO'
or m or e o f t e n o n s y m m e tric
spontaneously e i t h er o n apparently n o r m a l s k i n
erythematous plaques, slightly elevated (urticariform). The lesions appear mostly 0>
the flexural areas: neck, axillae, inghinal fold, and upper abdomen. Later the blisters
may show hemorrhagic content and bloody crusts (Fig.70.7, 10.8). Nikolsky apd
Asbboe-Hansen signs are negative. Oral l e sions rarely occur. The general state of
health is good. it
p
igry/y .r/y'- r r ,'.',,Pr.~gz •
'
. ~- — — irtsrtrre ~gPAG t~
L
f rl~ r r
rtrerrrbrsrre -
'hertsrrrerrrbterre trrroteirrs
grrg Q trttegrlrr y
Arrretrrtstrrgtitemerrts -.,
tttgltgI r.r t t.. l l i tt :~ :: "'; , ",. " : ~r, l igg l
grsset terrrrrre
f4e8rttrr tf'f
Arretrrrrrflrrgr trtsrtrre
tCottsgerr tV, Usrrrtrrrrirr'f
Lab exufns
Tzank test is negative. The histopathology shows deep subepidermal bulls
without a cantholysis (G raphic 10.7). DIF f r o m n o r m a l -appearing p e r i lesional sknt
shows deposits of I g G an d c o m p l ement C 3 i n a l i n ear b an d a t d e r m al-epidermal
junction. IDIF and ELISA techniques show circulating autoantibodies in the patient' s
serum that target the bullous pemphigoid antigens (BPAG) 1 and 2 i n t h e skin
basement membrane.
The course of b u l l ous pemphigoid i s u s u ally c h r onic w i t h r e m issions over
months an d y e a rs. W i t h ou t t r e atment t h e m o r t a l it y r a t e i s l o w e r t h a n t h a t Ut
pemphigus vulgaris.
As in o t h e r autoimmune d i s o r d ers, t r e atment i s d i r e c ted a t r e d u c irt
<
ed
infla
mmatory r esponse and a u t oantibody p r o d u c tion. Th e m o s t c o m m o nl y u s e
medications are antiinflammatory dr ugs (glucocorticosteroids in lower doses than irt
112
ernphigus vu l garis, are u s u ally s u f f i cient t o i n d u c e r e m ission, e.g. 0.5-1 m g / k b
rednisolon) an d i m m u n o s u p p ressants ( a zathioprine, mycophenolate m o p h e t il,
®etotrexate, cyclophosphamide). As compared to pemphigus vulgaris, patients with
bulious pemphigoid ar e n o t c o r t i co-dependent, systemic steroid b e in g n e cessary
only in recurrences. Recent evidence shows that strong topical corticosteroids may
c ontrol cases wit h l o c alized l e sions w h i l e a v o i d in g s y stemic s id e e f f ects o f o r a l
corticosteroids.
Clinical findings
The symptoms of dermatitis herpetiformis appear in early adulthood (20-30
years old).
Intense itch and burning sensation located tipically symmetric on the extensor
arms, knees and buttocks are followed by erythematous, pseudo-urticarial plaques with
herpetiform vesicles (small, clustered) or bullae. The pruritus is so intense that often
patients present with erosions or crusts in the absence of vesicles which have ruptured
due to excoriation (Fig.10.9). The oral mucosa is usually not involved. The Nikolsky sign
i»egative
Symptoms of celiac disease may be associated (abdominal p ain, l oose stool,
fatigue).
113
L,ab exams
Tzank test is negative.
Biopsy taken from the edge of the lesion shows neutrophil deposits in the
derma
l
papillae and deep, subepidermal bulla, without acantholysis (Graphic 10. 1).
• DI F of normal-appearing perilesional skin shows granular deposits of IgA and C3 ~
the dermai papillae, the standard criterion for the diagnosis ot herpettform dermatitis
• ID I F or ELISA of the patient's serum shows the presence of IgA autoantibodies against
gliadine or the endomysium in smooth muscle tissue.
Course
Dermatitis herpetiformis is a benign disease with recurrent eruptions and periods
of several months with few or no symptoms, related to the amount of ingested gluten.
Treabnent
Gluten-free diet ( i ncluding m a ize, rice, mi llet, teff, sorghum, bu ckwheat) is
necessary in p atients with g l uten-sensitive entheropathy. Oats are also generally not
recommended, as they induce symptoms in a small minority of celiac patients. N o n-
cereals as amaranth, quinoa are allowed. I o d inated salts, sea fish and drugs containing
iodine have to be avoided, as they may exacerbate the disease.
Sulfones (DAPSONE, 100 mg daily) are the primary drugs in the treatment pf
dermatitis herpetiformis. They act b y i n h i b ition o f n e u trophil m i g ration. Immediate
(within a few hours) improvement of pruritus and skin lesions after first dose of treatment
is another diagnostic criterion. Side effects: methemoglobinemia, anemia, hemolysis. Other
sulfonamides that can be used: sulphapyridine, sulphametoxypyridazine.
Absolute gluten restriction in the diet is the best treatment, making the reduction
of Dapsone dosage possible or even eliminating the disease from the skin and gut mucosa.
Topical t r eatment a i m s t o relieve th e b u r n in g i t c h in g s e nsation. T o pical
corticosteroids could be apllied.
Epidermolysis bullosa aquisita (EBA) is a very rare disease with tense blisters
at sites of trauma and IgG autoantibodies to type VII collagen (anchoring fibrils).
These fibrils attach th e b asement m e mbrane t o t h e u n d e r l y in g d e r mi s an d t h eir
destruction results in subepidermal blisters, within lamina densa.
EBA is not inherited and usually presents in adult life (50-60 years old), unlike
epidermolysis bullosa (EB) which is inherited blistering disease that is present from birth.
Clinically is characterized by blisters, scars and millia at trauma-prone areas such
as the hands, feet, knees, elbows and buttocks. Mucus membranes may also be involved
(oropharyngeal, nasal, ocular) with possible sequels — esophageal strictures, conjunctival
scarring, blindness). The scarring nature of EBA can lead to nail destruction and hair loss.
Skin biopsy shows subepidermal blister and direct immunofluorescence detects
linear C3 and IgG deposits along the basement membrane, like in bullous pemphigoid
Indirect immunofluorescence detects in the patient's serum IgG circulating autoantibodies
to type VII collagen, on of the skin basement membrane component. Split skin technique i~
114
„ed to differentiate EBA (IgG autoantibodies are located in the lower part of the basement
>embrane, that is lamina densa and sublamina densa) from bullous PemPhigoid (IgG
utpantibodies to the hemidesmosome are localized in the upper lamina lucida).
The treatment is similar with that in bullous pemphigoid.
PORPHYRIA S
Rttt Z'041$
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ter.rrri:.elntnte prntnporphyrn'.
Haettt
115
There are two main groups of porphyrias:
manifested with abdominal pain and neurological signs due to superproduction of
porphyrin precursors (dALA and porphobilinogen)
photosensitization due to accumulation of porphyrins in the skin that are activated by
UV light resulting in free radicals which induce blisters.
Porphyria Cutanea Tarvia
elbo
h e p a t i c deficiency of deIIl
Porphyria c u t a n ea tarda ( PCT) r e sults f rom
of cc
uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase. This is the most common form of porphyria seen by the
dermatologist. Types of PCT:
• fa m i lial PCT - autosomal d o minant d i s order w here more t h a n 9 0 % o f t h e
uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase is deficient
• sporadic PCT —the deficiency of uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase is about 50% and is
usually compensated, but becomes manifested when hepatic disease is associated
(ethanol, oral contraceptives, hepatitis, hepatic tumors, and environmental exposure to
polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbon compounds).
Clinical ff.'ndings
The first manifestations usually occur after th e age of 30, m ore frequent in
males.
The most common presenting sign of PCT is fragility of skin exposed to sun and
mechanical trauma, leading to erosions and bullae typically on hands and forearms,
occasionally on feet, face, and ears. Crusted lesions heal with hypopigmented atrophic
scars, milia (keratotic cysts-Fig.10.10) and patchy hyperpigmentation. Hypertrichosis pre(
appears over m a la r a n d t e m p oral a r eas an d t h e f a c e b ecomes hy p erpigmented. by I
Sometimes extensive sclerosis and t h i ckening o f t h e s k i n o n t h e c h est an d b a ck invl
develops.
Laboratory findings
The excretion of urinary porphyrins is massive and urine appears beer-brown with tarl
red fluorescence in UV light (Wood's light). Evaluation of the iron profile (serum ferritin pur
level), liver enzymes (transaminases, AT) and screening for hepatitis viruses are required. (Fig
Treatment epi(
Systemic
Sun, alcohol, estrogen and hepato-toxic agents must be avoided. Treatment of clas
chronic hepatopathy has to be associated.
Therapeutic phlebotomy reduces iron levels (250-500 ml blood weekly and
then every 2-4 weeks until haemoglobin drops to 10 microgm/dl or until the serum
iron drops t o 5 0 m i c romg/dl). H ig h l e vels of i ro n i n h i b i t u r o p o r p h i r i n ogen-
decarboxylase and disturb haem synthesis. In patients in w h o m p h l ebotomy is not
convenient or is contraindicated, alternatives for iron mobilization are: Chloroquine
hy
i n l o w d o ses 125 m g t w i c e w eekly f o r 8- 1 8 m o n t h s or c h el atin g a g ents
SllII
(desferrioxamine).
8, i
Topical
ha
I
Superinfected blisters are treated with antiseptics.
116
ERYTHEMA MULTIFORME
Treatment
Recurrent EM is typically related to episodes of recurrent herpes simplex infection
and can be prevented by continuos antiviral therapy.
Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) are rare and
present as dermatological emergencies, potentially life-threatening. They are characterized
by targetoid lesions with full-thickness epidermal necrosis and with mucous membrane
involvement.
Oral, genital and ocular mucosa involvement precedes the cutaneous lesions and is
manifested by painful erosions, ulcerations and crusts in almost all the cases.
The cutaneous lesions begin on the face and upper trunck and differ from classic
target lesions of EM by a) having only 2 zones of color (targetoid lesions): central dusky
purpura or central bulla, w it h s u rrounding macular erythema that is p o orly d e fined
{Fig.10.12); b) typicall flat aspect, with the exception of central bulla. Areas of denuded
epidermis are dark red with oozing surface.
D epending o n t h e e x t ension o f t h e e p i d ermal d e tachment, th e f o l l o w i ng
classification has been proposed:
SJS - less than 10% of the body surface detachment (Fig.10.13, 10.14)
overlapping SJS/TEN — confluent lesions, epidermal detachment of 10-30% of the
body surface
TEN — more than 30% epidermal detachment (Fig.10.15); the mortality rate can
approach 40%
C learing o f the les i on s t a k e s 3 - 6 w ee k s, with s ubsequent h y per-or
hypopigmentation. Nearly al l c ases of SJS/TEN are d r ug-induced (trimetoprim-
supfamethoxazole, NSAID, allopurinol, carbamazepine etc), but viral infections (hepatitis
~. influenza), microbial infections (streprococcal, mycoplasma), autoimmune disease (LES)
"ave also been reported.
117
Treahnent
TEN should be treated in an intensive care unit. Principles of management of
SJS/TEN:
withdrawal of the causative drug
r esulting i n fl u i d s h i f t s and
fluid r e placement because of epidermal loss
dehydration
nutritional supplementation — because massive protein loss through denuded s~
wound care — debridement of necrotic epidermis, application of antiseptics and
biologic dressings, avoiding silver sulfadiazine as sulfonamides are frequent
inciting drugs; broad-spectrum antibiotics are not recommended.
Systemic glucocorticoids are controversial, as some believe they may predispose to
superinfections. Intravenous Ig and cyciosporine have shown some benefit in reducing the
mortality rate.
Because the high mortality rate in TEN and treatment arrest progression when
administered early enough, the early recognition of this entity is very important.
118
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120
Chapter 11
PSORIASIS VULGARIS
121
Clinical findings
The primary lesion in psoriasis is a red and sharply marginated palpable plaque
that soon becomes incompletely covered by multilayered, dry, silvery-white or micaceous
scales. The number of the lesions can range from a few to many at any given time and the
s ize varies from one to several centimetres (Fig.11.1). The lesionsmacules
' mented are symmetric an t e y
result (Fig.11.2j
usually do not itch. After regression, temporary hypopigmented ma
and then the skin becomes completely normal.
Clinical signs:
: 'f h 1 scraped off they detach from the lesion as small
candle phenomenon: i t e sca es are scrape
flakes, like wax flakes scraped from a candle
g off the scales, a
last cuticle phenomenon: if one continues scraping, after removin
moist sheet appears (the lowest layer in the epidermis above the dermal papillae)
focal bleeding phenomenon (Auspitz sign): after removing the last epidermal layer
spotty bleeding occurs, as enlarged dermal capillaries within unequally elongated
dermal papillae are eroded
Kobner phenomenon: psoriatic lesions often appear after injuries (surgical scars-
) thi' s sign is specific for psoriasis, but also for lichen
Fig.11.3, burning, insect b't
i es et c);
planus (where lichen lesions appear)
The psoriadc lesions are frequently localized on the scalp, knees, elbows (Fig.11.4),
'
sacra1region an d trunk.. Ps oriasis is generalized or universal when lesions are spread over all
. ). Mucous membranes
are left ((Fi'g..11.5).
anatomical regions and just some areas or normal skin
(ips,
(li s, glans
anspenis with circinate erythematous plaques) are rarely affected. 'p
o atica. The nail l ate might
.
plaque
l ular
h ' 1 p soriasis) lesions with a clear centre ( annu ar
(
irregular lesions (geograp ica p
rs
pso riasis)I with polycyclic margins (gyrate psoriasis) surfaces and aaffects
spears the ty pically
e p ' i n v o l ved e x tensor
psoriasis inversa: ma a nd/or
intertriginous areas with minimal scales (axillae, inguinal folds, inframammary and or
intermammary creases -Fig.11.9)
Histopathology
Hyperproliferation of keratinocytes leads to irregular thickening of the epidermis
(acanthosis), with elongated rete ridges and dermal papillae. Above the tops of the papillae, the
nl fe 11 1 ers thick. Abnormal differentiation of the keratinocytes is
manifested as parakeratosis in the thickened corneum layer and loss of the stratum granulosum.
with p e r i vascular chronic in fl ammatory
The d ermis shows v asodilatation
infiltration. Neutrophylic leukocytes migrate from the dermis (exocitosis) and extend up to
form microabscesses in the horny layer (Munro abscess).
122
Special forms of psoriasis
a. Pustular psoriasis
c. Erythrodermic psoriasis
This is a severe form, characterized by the extension of the psoriatic lesions over
the entire skin („red man"), which shows deep inflammatory reddening with scaling and
slight lymph node enlargement (Fig.11.14). Pruritus can be intense. Water, protein and
heat loss is an aggravating factor. These cases require appropriate fluid and protein
supplements. Erythroderma can be triggered by drugs or excessive UV exposure.
Course
The guttate psoriasis is an acute form in w h ich the cutaneous lesions disappear
spontaneously in a few w e eks without treatment, or represent the initial stage of the
chronic plaque-type psoriasis. Once cleared, patients with guttate psoriasis usually have
hmited or no evidence of psoriasis for prolonged periods.
Plaque psoriasis is a chronic disease with a relapsing course. It is impossible to
predict the duration of the active disease, the time or the frequency of relapses, or the
duration of a remission. The disease is rarely life-threatening, but often is intractable to
treatment, with relapses occurring in most patients. With age, the relapses are more and
~ore frequent, becoming annual, and then the lesions are permanent.
Psoriasis is linked to other disorders, particularly to cardiovascular disease (long-
standing psoriasis is a risk factor for coronary arterial disease) and metabolic syndrome
123
(obesity, dyslipidemia, high blood pressure, increased glucose tolerance) but also to
rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, Crohn's disease and streptococcal infections.
The quality of life is very much affected in psoriatic patients, related to dry and
peeling skin, fissuring (especially at the fingers), embarrassment about appearance, the
adverse effects and high cost of therapy. The mortality rate in psoriasis is low, related tp rom
associated disorders (cardiovascular disease) or to its therapy: liver and lung fibrosis f
metotrexate, PUVA-induced skin cancers with metastasis.
Treatment
Psoriasis is a chronic skin condition w it h a n i n h erited predisposition, so the
treatment is not curable and must be considered for long term.
Experience shows that low-calories diet can be favourable. Alcohol is considered a
risk factor for psoriasis and smoking aggravates palmo-plantar pustular psoriasis.
Three basic treatment modalities are available for the management of psoriasis.
These can be used alone or in combination.
1. Topical therapy
is generally suitable for plaque psoriasis. Many topical agents are used
sequentially over t i m e o n t h e s ame p atient ( a r o t ational therapeutic approach),
lowering the adverse effects of each drug. Clearing of th e scale is observed first,
followed by the flattening of the plaque. Sometimes perilesional white ring precedes
psoriatic lesion regression (Fig.11.16). Resolution of erythema may take 6-8 weeks and
then transitory hypopigmented macules result before the skin turns to normal.
Kerutolytics (5-10% salicylic acid, 5-10% urea) are recommended alone at the
beginning of the treatment to remove the thick scales. As scales continuously reappear,
keratolytics will be combined after a few days with anthralin, corticosteroids or other
drugs that reduce the turnover of th e k eratinocytes. Keratolytics are followed by
prolonged bathing for a soaking effect. Sea bathing is even more favourable.
Anthrulin (dithranol) reduces oxidative metabolic processes, decreasing the rate of
epidermal cell proliferation. It is one of the most effective topical reductor, but irritates and
stains the skin, cloths and bedding. The desirable irritant effect is confined to slight
reddening of the skin (crisophanic erythema, Fig.11.15). Increased irritation (vesicles,
oozing) may favor evolution of plaque psoriasis into erythroderma or pustular psoriasis.
Because it is irritating, it should not be applied on the face, scalp and folds. There are two
different methods of application: a) prolonged contact method — 0.5% preparations, for 2-4
hours; b) short contact method -1-2% preparations, for as much as 1 hour.
Topicul corticosteroids in creams, ointments, foams, sprays and lotions are the
eks
most used topical agents. High potency steroids can be used for maximum 4 wee
(Clobetasol/Dermovate) and continued with medium potency preparations (Elocom,
Advantan). If stopped abruptly, they have a rebound effect. Topical steroids are
quickly effective but psoriasis usually recurs rapidly after the end of treatment. Sid<
effects: skin atrophy, purpura, hypertrichosis, telangiectasia, striae distensae, steroid
acne and pyoderma. To reduce the incidence of adverse local effects, two weeks of
continuous treatment can be followed by pulse therapy on weekends. d
Culcipotriene is synthetic vitamin D3 a nalogue that in hibits proliferation an
promotes differentiation of the keratinocytes and has immunosuppressive effects on
lymphoid cells. For best results it is combined with strong topical corticosteroids, e.g
with betamethasone in Daivobet, with fewer side effects and steroid sparing effects.
124
Tazarotene (Tazorac) is a topical retinoid derivative, available as 0.05 and 0.1%
gels, particularly useful for scalp lesions. It modulates keratinocyte proliferation and
differentiation and su pp."esses inflammation. M a y b e c o m b i ned w i t h t o p i c al
corticosteroids to increase effects and decrease irritation that commonly occurs when
used alone.
Tacrolimus and pimecrolimus are topical calcineurin inhibitors (macrolactams)
and can be u sed w h en c orticosteroids are contraindicated (thin l e sions prone to
atrophy or s teroid acne). The burning sensation associated with t h e ir u se can be
avoided by prior treatment with a corticosteroid.
Crude coal tar (pix lithantracis) and tar extracts have antimitotic effect. Bath oils
and shampoos are available, often combined with salicylic acid. They are effective but
have an o f fensive odour. C oal ta r i s a s sociated w it h f l u m ethasone pivalate in
I.ocacorten Tar formulation. It can be used in occlusive dressings.
Phototherapy is now frequently used in extensive and widespread disease and if lesions
are resistant to t o p ical therapy. UV r a d i ation r educes DNA sy n t hesis, decreases
cellular proliferation and induces local immunosuppression. While sunlight usually
improves psoriasis, burning o f t h e s k i n m a y c a use K oebner p h enomenon and
e xacerbation o f p s o r iasis. Climatotherapy combining sea b athing w i t h U V a r e
especially effective.
Artificial UV light is produced by fluorescent bulbs in short-wave UVB (280-320
nm) or long-wave UVA spectrum (320-400 nm). The whole body can be exposed to UV
in special phototherapy cabins but there are also small devices for limited affected
areas (scalp, palms, and soles). There are different types of phototherapy:
narrow-band UVB of 311 nm, more effective than broadband UVB
PUVA photochemotherapy combines the oral administration of a photosensitizing
agent (8-methoxypsoralen Oxoralen) with UVA irradiation
excimer laser UVB therapy delivers high-dose light to limited plaques
Systemic therapy is i n d i cated when t o p ical t herapy a nd p h o t otherapy have b een
unsuccessful or in complicated forms (erythrodermic psoriasis, generalized pustular
psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis):
Methotrexate is a folic acid antagonist with immunosuppressing effects through
inhibition of DNA synthesis in tissues with high rates of turnover (such as psoriatic
plaques); the weekly dose is 10-20 mg orally, divided in 3 doses at 12h interval.
Methotrexate can induce anemia, leukopenia, liver (elevated transaminases) and lung
fibrosis or aggravate kidney disease. Methotrexate has to be stopped when leukocytes
are under 3000/mm', haemoglobin is under 10g% or transaminases rise above normal
values.
Retiwoids are vitamin A d e r i v atives that control t he a bnormal keratinisation.
Etretinate (Tigason) was first used and t hen i t ' s m or e active derivative acitretin
(Neotigason). Side effects: transitory hyperlipemia and teratogenity. Contraception is
m andatory i n f e r t ile w o men fo r t h e t r eatment p eriod an d o n e m o r e y e ar. Th e
combination of retinoids with PUVA (Re-PUVA) is very efficient.
Cyclosporin inhibits the activity of T h e lper lymphocytes and proinflammatory
epidermal cytokines. Side effects: renal toxicity. It i s v ery expensive. It can not be
combined with UVA, as it enhances the risk of cutaneous carcinogenesis.
125
Biological therapies are relatively new systemic therapies that provide selective
intervention at key steps in the pathogenesis of the disease:
inhibit the initial cytokine release and the Langerhans cell migration
prevent further T-cell activation and eliminate pathogenic T-cells (alefacept)
block cell-to-cell interactions that lead to T -cell activation and m i gration into
tissues (efalizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody)
alter the balance between T-cell types
inhibit the proinflammatory cytokines: infliximab, adalimumab (both anti TNFg
monoclonal antibodies) and etanercept (TNFa Ig-receptor protein) inhibit alfa-
tumour-necrosis factor (TNFa).
PARAPSORIASIS
Large plaque parapsoriasis and small plaque parapsoriasis are 2 diseases caused
by T-cell infiltrates in the skin. They differ in respect to the capacity of progressing to
mycosis fungoides (MF), a form of cutaneous T-cell lyrnphoma (CTCL).
as well-circumscribed, slightly scaly,
Small plaque purapsoriusis manifests
elongated fingerlike patches, with less than 6 cm in diameter on the lateral thorax
are asymptomatic,
and abdomen, f o l l owing t h e d e r m atomes. Th e l e sions
occasionally slightly itching. Small plaque parapsoriasis is a benign disease that
can last for several months to years and rarely if ever progresses to malignancy.
Large plaque parapsoriasis manifests as faint erythematous patches > 6 cm ®
diameter with arcuate geographic borders, on the proximal extremities and trunk
The lesions show thin scales and central cigarette-paper-like atrophy. Large plaque
parapsoriasis can progress in 10% of cases in CTCL. Controversies exist in tb<
126
terminology, as some consider large plaque parapsoriasis to be equivalent to the
early stage of CTCL, the patch stage.
Treutment
In small plaque parapsoriasis, emolients and mild topical corticosteroids reduce
scaliness and pruritus. Phototherapy (UVB, PUVA) can induce remission.
In large plaque parapsoriasis, treatment may prevent progression to MF (CTCL).
Beside mid-to potent topical corticosteroids and phototherapy, chemotherapeutic agents
g<e nitrogen mustard and topical carmustine can be used. Follow-up every 6 months is
recommended. Possible progression should be considered when lesions grow in number
and size, induration or epidermal atrophy develops. These situations suggest a need for
reevaluating by skin biopsy.
LICHEN PLANUS
Etiopathogeny
It is most likely a cell-mediated immunological reaction with u n k n ow n o r igin.
Viral infection (HCV hepatitis), stress, drugs (antimalarials, gold salts, isoniazid) have
been suspected to elicit the disease. Autoimmunity has also been suspected, based on the
presence of „lichen planus antigens" detected by immunofluorescent methods.
Clinical f'indings
The name of lichen derives from the typical appearence of aggregated papules that
resembles that of lichen growing on rocks and trees.
The lesions appear first on wrists and anterior calves and then they spread on the
whole body (Fig. 11.18). The typical lesions of lichen planus are violaceous, poligonal
(delimited by the natural skin lines) papules 1-3 mm in size, with shiny and plane surface
that reflects light. Adjacent papules can coalesce to form p l aques. After healing
characteristic hyperpigmented macules remain (Fig.11.19). Pruritus is common. Sometimes
the papules located especially on the anterior shins become extremely pruritic, brown-red
to blue-red, larger and thicker, hyperkeratotic (hypertrophic lichen planus — Fig.11.20).
This form is very resistant to treatment.
Characteristic fine, milky-white network can be observed on the surface of the
papules, called Wickham stria and representing focal thickening of the statum granulosum
(Fig.11.21). On sites of skin injury new lichen papules appear (Kobner sign-Fig.11.22).
M ucous membrane i n v olvement i s c o m mo n a n d m a y o c c u r w ithout s k i n
involvement. On the buccal, genital and anal region striated, reticular, arborizing, or
ramifying whitish lesions appear, called leukoplasia, explained by aberrant thickening of
granular layer (Fig.11.23). They are asymptomatic but erosions that may add are painful.
Some of the mucous membrane lesions may develop in carcinoma (facultative precancer).
The nails can be involved and also the scalp, with permanent hair loss.
127
Histopathology epidermal changes are
The papule i n l i c hen p l a nu s i s d e r m o-epidermal:
a band-like
acanthosis, orthokeratosis and hypergranulosis. Beneath the epidermis
inflammatory infiltrate can be seen. Degenerated basal cells release melanin that is taken
up by dermal macrophages resulting in hyperpigmentation.
Course
Lichen planus is a self-limited disease that usually resolves within 6-12 months.
Recurrences after healing are quite often, even after years. Oral lichen has a mean duration
of 5 years. Hypertrophic lichen planus is usually chronic.
Treatment
Topical steroids with high activity are the first-line therapy of lichen planus. In
hypertrophic forms corticosteroids can be applied under occlusion (covered by plastic
sheets) or, as intralesional injections (triamcinolone acetonide suspension).
Systemic steroids are used for e xtensive disease and m ore r apid r e gression.
Prednisolone 20-40 mg is administered daily for about 3 weeks with slowly reduction of
the doses. Other options are retinoids, such as acitretin (Neotigason), PUVA, UVB.
PITYRIASIS ROSKA
Clinical findings
The disease begins with a typical, single plaque („ medallion" or herald plaque)
usually on the trunk. It is pink, oval, 2-7 cm in diameter, with pseudoatrophic, slightly
depressed centre, like cigarette paper and with a collaret of fine scale just inside the well-
demarcated border. The herald patch is mistaken as ringworm or psoriasis (Fig.11.24).
Within the next 1-2 weeks, symmetrical round to oval scaly patches appear, that
resemble the primary plaque but are smaller. They are found on the trunk, with the long
axes following the rib lines, like a fir tree, but also seen on the neck, upper third of the
arms and thighs. Facial involvement is rare, except in African Americans. The palms and
soles are not i n v o lved an d t h ere i s n o l y m p h adenopathy, w h ich d i stinguishes the
condition from secondary syphilis. The eruption gradually resolves within 6-8 weeks.
Pruritus is commonly m il d an d b ecomes moderate severe with i n appropriate
treatment. The disease is very irritable under some physical factors: frequent hot baths,
rubbing, exercise, leading to atypical forms that have to be differentiated from psoriasis,
urticaria, eczema, secondary syphilis.
Treatment
Topical corticosteroids, antihistamines and UVB can be used to reduce the itching
Systemic treatment is not necessary, because of the spontaneous tendency to regression.
128
Fig.11.1. Psoriasis vulgaris Fig.11.2. VA6tening psoriatic lesion (1)
3$
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131
Chapter 12
G ENOI3ERM A T O S E S
Genodermatoses are skin diseases caused by gene mutations or, more rarely by
chromosomal anomalies. Sex-linked genodermatoses result when a gene from a sexual
chromosome is involved. Autosomal genodermatoses result when the mutation involves a
gene from an autosomal chromosome.
The recessive inheritance is caused by genes that are capable of exerting their full
effect only in homozygous state (the patient has mutated genes from both mother and
father). The recessive diseases are rare. The parents do not have the disease, but they have
affected relatives.
The dominant inheritance is caused by a gene that is capable of exerting its full
effect when present on only one chromosome in the pair (heterozygous state). In this case
the mutated gene comes from only one parent, who has the disease. Mutations de novo
can also exist.
T he probability fo r a m u t ated gene to p r o d uce the d i sease depends on t h e
expression of the gene. The frequency with w h i ch a g e ne produces a disease is called
penetrance.
DISORDERS OF KERATINIZATION
ICHTHYOSIS
The Greek w ord ic h thys m eaning " f i s h" i s c o n s idered the r o ot o f t h e t e r m
ichthyosis that encompasses a heterogeneous group o f d i seases with a bnormal
differentiation of the epidermis presenting with excessive scaling.
Ichthyosis vulgaris is the most common form of ichthyosis. Most of the cases are
inherited as autosomal dominant genetic disorder but acquired forms also exist, secondary
to systemic diseases, including malignancy (leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma,
hypervitaminosis A, pellagra, chronic renal failure, hypothyroidism, sarcoidosis, leprosy,
dermatomyositis etc) o r t o c e r t ai n m e d ications ( cimetidine, i soniazid, allopurinol,
retinoids). Inherited form appears in early childhood, intensifies up until puberty and then
decreases with age, while acquired form appears at adult age and follows the severity of
the associated systemic disease.
Ichthyosis vulgaris is caused by a defective synthesis in f'Ellagrin, an epidermal
protein responsible for the skin barrier function. Genetic mutation that causes ichthyosis
vulgaris is a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis, thus the two diseases are
frequently associated.
T he clinical aspect i s s i m i lar i n b o t h f o r m s o f i c h t h yosis v u l garis an d i s
characterized by symmetrical dryness and scaling of the skin of v ariable severity. The
scales are small (1mm-lcm), polygonal, curled at the edges and more expressed at the
lower a nd e x tensor e x t r emities (F ig.12.1). Palms and s oles ar e i n v olved w i t h
133
hyperkeratosis and accentuated skin m arkings while the flexural areas (neck, axillae,
antecubital and popli
tealfolds) are spared. Keratosis pilaris (follicular hyperkeratosis) is
associated on the cheeks, neck, dorsum of the upper arms, buttoks and thighs. Pruritus,
caused by dry skin leads to scratching and erythema. Symptoms improve during summer
and with age.
Biopsy shows moderate orthokeratosis and reduced or absent granular layer.
There are other forms of ichthyosis that are rare, are apparent at birth and continue
throughout life, showing dramatic aspects:
epidermolytic hyperkeratosis — autosomal dominant, with wi d espread denuded
areas and bullae and later development of hyperkeratosis; it improves with age
congenital ichthyosiform erythroderma — autosomal recessive; the new-born is
enclosed in a tough, firm membrane collodion-like or "baked-apple"-like which
fissures when stretched; this peels of within 2 weeks, followed by red skin and fine
scales that generalize, including the face and large folds
lammelar ichthyosis — autosomal recessive, with collodion-like membrane that
peels of within 2 w e eks, followed by l arge scales with free edges and central
adhesion
Harlequin fetus — autosomal recessive; the m o st s evere form w i t h m a s sive
hyperkeratotic plates, limb deformities, rudimentary ears, ectropion and eclabium,
leading to death usually within a week.
134
becomes worse during summer, especially after sunburns, with malodorous vegetating
growths (Fig.12.2, 12.3). Flat, wart-like papules may be seen on the dorsa of the hands
(Fig.12.4) and shins and punctuate keratosis may be present on the palms and soles. Nails
are fragile, with i r r egular ni cks of t h e f ree edges. Oral and r e ctal m u cosal surfaces
demonstrate s m all , c o b blestone-like p a p u les. H e r pe s s i m p le x i n f e ction b e c omes
widespread and severe in these patients.
Biopsy shows acantholytic dyskeratosis. Acantholysis results from the detachment
at the desmosome/tonofilaments level and is seen as a suprabasal cleft. Dyskeratotic cells
appear as round eosinophilic cells (corps rounds) in the lower layers of the epidermis and
flat, deeply basophilic cells (grains) in the upper layers of the epidermis.
Treatment is not able to cure the disease, but reduces the flares. Moisturizers
containing urea, lactic acid, salicilyc acid or t o pical corticosteroids reduce scaling and
irritation. Oral retinoids (Neotigason) are the drugs of choice for more severe cases, but
toxicity (teratogenicity) limits their use.
135
2. Junctional EB — autosomal recessive; the bullae appear between the epidermis and
dermis, at the level of lamina lucida due to alteration in laminin 5.
The blisters form l a rge denuded areas with l i t tl e t endency to h eal, m u cous
membranes are severely involved and the teeth are abnormal. A high proportion of
these children die in infancy.
3. Dy s trophic EB — both autosomal dominant and recessive; subepidermal blisters result
due to defective anchoring fibrils (collagen VII) that connect the basement membrane to
the dermal collagen.
The dominant variant is not very severe, showing a tendency to become localized
and less severe with age (Fig.12.7). Bullae heal with scars and milia, while hair and
teeth develop normally.
In the recessive variant hemorrhagic blisters appear at birth and heal with scarring
and formation of w ebs between fingers. Eventually a useless fist results (Fig.12.8),
conjunctival s ynechia), h a i r
Mucous m e mbranes ( esophageal strictures,
abnormal an d s q u amous ceQ
( pseudopellade-type alopecia) and teeth may be
carcinoma may develop over the scars.
As the clinical and histological picture is not specific to one form o f EB, the
electron m i c r oscopy and
diagnosis is e s t ablished by im m u n o f iuorescence,
immunomapping. Th e l a tter t echnique i n v olves antibodies directed against k n own
pro
roteins oca e at specific sites in the skin i n o r der t o d etect the level of the blister
eins located
formation.
There is no specific treatment for t hi s group o f d i sorders. Trauma has to be
minimized to prevent new blisters (soft shoes, for infants padded trousers). Emollients
minimize shearing forces. Occupational therapy may d elay th e d evelopment of
contractures. Specialist dental care is needed. Antiseptic treatment of the wounds prevents
superinfection.
Parents of children with EB should benefit for genetic counselling and should be
informed about the possibility of prenatal diagnosis by fetal skin biopsy at around 9 weeks
of gestation.
136
Fig.12.1. Ichtyosis vulgaris Fig.12.2. Darier's disease
a 4P
lb
137
Fig.13.1. Epidermal nevus Fig.13.2. Sebaceous nevus
138
Chapter 13
139
high number (> 50), located mostly on the trunk. The number of nevi is high in children with poor
sun intolerance.
Congenital nevi (Fig.13.5)are subdivided into large (> 20 cm), medium-sized (1.5
19.9 cm) and small {( 1.5 cm). They are present at birth (especially the large and medium-
sized) or appear during childhood and puberty (small congenital nevi). Sometimes,
congenital nevi have terminal hairs. The melanocytic nests extend down to the reticular
dermis. Their occurrence is independent of exposure to UV r ays. The high number of
congenital nevi correlates with a higher risk of melanoma.
Nevus Spilus is a variant of congenital nevus with variously pigmented dots that
are rised or flat on a light brow macule.
Sutton nevus (halo nevus) occurs mainly in ch ildren and adolescents as small
congenital nevi with a hypopigmented halo. This is more likely due to an immune reaction
that sometimes leads to complete disappearance of the nevus.
B oth Miescher nevus and U n n a n evus h ave similar h i stopathologically w i t h
congenital nevi presenting with dermal melanocytic nests. Both appear around puberty.
Miescher nevus is a dome-shaped nodule on the face, skin-colored or light brown, rarely
dark-brown and sometimens with terminal hairs. Unna nevus appears usually on the
trunk as papillomatous, soft, occasionally pedunculated skin-colored or brown papule.
Acquired nevocytic nevi, called Clark nevi (Fig.13.6,13.7) appear after the age of 2
until 35-40 years, with increasing numbers throughout childhood and early adulthood and
slowly involute towars advanced years. Their pigmentation is related to the skin color, so
that light-skinned persons have less-pigmented and non-pigmented varieties. The clinical
s pectrum varies from small m acules of fe w m i l l i m etres to p l aques up t o 1 c m , o f
symmetrical aspect. Acquired nevi typically have less than 1 cm in diameter. Clark nevi
appear on the trunk and the proximal parts of the extremities, not on the face or acral
areas. Ultraviolet radiation favors the appearance of acquired melanocytic nevi especially
in children with poor sun tolerance.
Atypical moles or dysplastic nevi are acquired nevocytic nevi that usually appear
after puberty an d a r e c onsidered t o h a v e a h i g h r a t e o f m e l anoma d evelopment.
" Atypical" r e fers t o t h e a b n ormal c l inical aspect, according t o t h e A B CD E r u l e -
asymmetric, irregular borders, mottled color, diameter > 6m m a n d e l evated surface.
"Dysplastic" refers to the abnormal histological aspect (atypia of melanocytes). But
atypical mole is sometimes difficult to be clinically distinguished from melanoma and, on
the other hand, histological "dysplasia" in nevi can not predict melanoma development.
Thus the terms "atypical" an d " d y splastic" are controversial and t h ere are opinions
sustaining that they should no longer be used.
clinician just predicts it, based on the clinical presentation. The nevi cannot be definite y
140
distinguished only upon clinical aspect. The nests of melanocytes can be located at the
dermoepidermal junction or in the dermis (papillary or reticular dermis). In interpreting
the behaviour of a nevus, the morphopathological aspect plays a leading role, so that we
will use this criterium to classify nevi.
Malignant transformation of nevi is more frequent in patients with positive family
history of melanoma (inherited risk) or can be triggered by exogenous factors like trauma
Qf the nevi and brutal sun exposure (sun burning).
Treatment
Patients with multiple nevi need to be educated about the importance of self-skin
examination, watching for new and changing lesions. The entire cutaneous surface should
be examined every year. Not all melanomas will exhibit the classic ABCDE rule (e.g. they
may be less than 6 mm), therefore always be suspicious about changing nevi and consider
an excision and a biopsy to rule out the dev lopment of malignant melanoma.
Intensive sun exposure and UV tanning beds have to be avoided and sunscreens
with SPF at least 30 are to be used on skin areas exposed incidentally to sun. Sun has to be
avoided and/or protective clothing has to be used between 12 a.m. and 4 p.m.
Because melanoma may develop de novo on the skin (on healthy skin, without
previous nevi) and because the risk of any one atypical mole to progress to melanoma is
low (considering the immense number of nevi in the general population ), prophylactic
excision of all atypical moles does not prevent melanoma and is not recommended. The
nevi that must be removed and examined histologically are the ones that change along a
few months and are clinically worrisome for melanoma.
141
Chapter 14
B ENIGN TUM O R S
143
b>
are multiple symmetrical distributed, on the upper cheeks and lower eyelids (Fig.14.5),
cosmetic reason an d c o n sists of bt
c hest, l o w er a bdomen, p e n is. T r e atment h a s
cl
electrosurgery, laser therapy or cryotherapy.
hi
Epidermal and pilar cysts re
Keratinous cysts have been incorrectly named as sebaceous cysts. There are
p(
two types of keratinous cysts: a) epidermal cysts that result from t he i m p l a ntation of
epidermal elements in the dermis, more frequently from the infundibular region of the re
o cysts arise from the outer root sheet of the
hair follicle (Fig.14.6a);b) pilar (trichilemma T(
hair follicle at or distal to the level of sebaceous duct (Fig.14.7). fh
The cysts appear as hemispherical, skin-colored, painless nodules. Epidermal Si
cysts occur on any part of the skin (face, trunk, scalp scrotum, extremities, fingers),
while pilar cysts occur mostly on th e scalp. A central pun ctum exists in epidermal
cysts, from w h i c h a t h i c k f o u l - smelling cheesy m aterial i s s o m etimes expressed,
while in p i la r cy sts there is no p u n ctum. They are asymptomatic but ma y b ecome
ot
inflamed (Fig.14.6b) or secondarily infected, resulting in pain and tenderness.
Histologically the two variants differ: the epidermoid cyst is characterized by
cornified epithelium with well-defined granular layer and multiple lamellae of keratin; of
the pilar cyst has a trichilemmal keratinisation pattern that lacks the granular layer. er
Very rarely, malignant transformation can occur (BCC, SCC).
Treatment: surgical excision. p(
eI
BENIGN MESENCHYMAL TUMORS
d<
h<
13ermatof ibroma
cO
This is a c o m mon t u m o r o f t h e e x t r emities, particularly th e l o w e r l e gs. It
(e
usually occurs as a solitary nodule that hardly exceeds the size of 3-8 mm and is firm,
uz
grey-brown, slightly raised, usually set into the skin like a lens or a pastille (Fig.14.8).
Dermatofibroma are characteristically asymptomatic but i t c hing an d p ai n ar e often
noted. A useful clinical sign for diagnostic is the dimple sign: the overlying epidermis
tethers to the underlying lesion with lateral compression.
Treatment: excision, for symptomatic lesions.
Fibroma pendulum (acrochordon, skin tag)
These are small, skin-colored to dark-brown, sessile or pediculated papilomas
that commonly occur on th e n eck, axillae, eyelids and l ess often on th e t r un k an d
groins (Fig.14.9, 14.10). Occasionally, as a result of twisting the pedicle, the lesion
becomes inflamed, tender or even gangrenous. Fibroma pendulum o ften increases in
size with age (Fig.14.11) but mostly with gaining weight or pregnancy. Histologically,
they are characterized by epidermis enclosing a dermal fibrovascular stalk. without
Treatment: cryotherapy, electroexcision, l a ser t h e r ap y w i t h or
anesthesia, depending on the size of the lesion.
Keloid
of scar t i s s«
Keloids and h y p ertrophic scars ar e e xagerated g r o w t h s
surgery
developing after a deep (dermal) skin injury that can be physical (piercing,
144
bruns etc) or pathological (acne scars, chickenpox). Keloids usually extend beyond the
borders of th e o r i ginal w o u nd , w i t h c l a w - l ike aspect (the Greek chete, mean crab's
claw) and have no tendency to regress spontaneously (Ftg.14.12). They differ from
hypertrophic scars that d o n o t e x t end b eyond th e i n i t ial i n j ur y a n d m a y p a r t i ally
regress spontaneously within 12-24 months. Both are erythematous and may be tender,
painful and puritic.
Keloids are t r eated w i t h i n t r a lesional i njection o f t r i a m cinolon su spension,
repeated at 4-6 weeks, as required. Other treatment is p u lse dye laser. Both reduce
TGF-P, know n t o b e i n v o l v e d i n k e l o i d f o r m a t ion. C r y o therapy, i n t r alesional 5-
f luorouracil an d c a l c i u m-channel b l o ckers ( V erapamil) a l s o h a v e some efficacy.
Silicone sheeting and pressure are adjunctive methods to reduce recurrences.
Hemangioma s
These are benign tumors of blood vessels of the skin, mucous membranes and
other organs, characterized by the proliferation of the endothelial cells.
145
(Fig.14.15, 14.16). The cause of the p y o genic granuloma is n ot k n o w n, b ut t r a u m a ,
hormonal influences, topical and systemic retinoids are implicated.
Clinically, acromic melanoma must be excluded.
Treatment: excision, electroexcision, laser therapy. It i s i m p o rtant to r emove
t he angiomatous pedicle w h ich e x tends deep i n t o t h e d e r m is, since i f i t i s o n l y
removed superficially, recurrence may occur.
146
Fig.14.1. Seborrheic keratosis on the back Fig.14.2.Seborrheic keratosis
I»
,I
' 0
•
jt
II
•
147
Fig.14.10. Fibroma pendulum of the neck
Fig.14.9. Axillary fibroma pendulum
Y.
Fig.14.14. Cherry angioma (red) and
Fig.14.13. Infantile angioma
seborrheic keratosis (brown)
PRE CANCEROSES
Treatment of both actinic keratosis and actinic keilitis is warranted as they can be
cured and malignant progression prevented:
sun avoidance between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m., protective clothing, sunscreens
i medi c al therapies:
o t o p i cal 5-fluorouracil (EFUDIX cream) — 2x/day for 4 weeks has cytostatic
effect; it results in temporary intense erythema and erosions over the areas
of actinic keratosis (Fig.15.4)/ actinic keilitis
o i m i q u i mod — 2-3 times/week for up to 4 months; immunoregulator
o t o p i cal diclofenac sodium gel 3%, 2x/day for 3 months
o p h o t odynamic therapy (PDT): application of delta-aminolevulinic acid, a
photosensitizer that accumulates preferentially in dysplastic cells of actinic
keratosis, is followed by exposure to light; this will generate oxigen free
radicals and cell death
surgical care
o c r y o therapy with liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide
o e l ectroexcision or electrocauterisation
o s u r g ical excision — for cutaneous horn
149
Radiation keratoses
Following prolonged X-ray therapy or p r ofessional exposure (radiologists)
atrophic skin l e sions w it h t e l agiectasia and h y p opigmentation w i t h i n c reased focal
h yperpig
perpigmentation ma y a p p ear. Six-twelve m onths after i r r adiation, f i brotic, t hick,
adherent erythematous plaques are formed, characteristic for chronic radhodermabbs.
Radiation keratosis presents with f i r m ly a d h ering keratosis that cannot be r e moved
without pain and bleeding and that can transform 20-40 years later into squamous cell
carcinoma.
Treatment: excision.
Xeroderma pigmentosum
Is an autosomal-recessive disorder characterized by a) defective DNA repair after
UV insult; b) sun sensitivity and lentigines before the age of 2; c) actinic keratoses and skin
cancer before the age of 10. Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma
often results in an early lethal outcome.
Bovren disease (sqamous ce11 carcinoma in situ)
Bowen disease or squamous cell carcinoma in situ is an intraepidermal carcinoma
with potential lateral spreading. Usually the lesion is unique, asymptomatic with very
slow progression, over months or a few years. The initial erythematous scaly patch may
become hyperkeratotic, crusted, fissured (simulating psoriatis plaques), or ulcerated. After
removing the crust, a red, eroded surface appears (Fig.15.6).
Bowen disease can also occur on mucosa. On the glans penis and foreskin is called
erythroplasia Queyrat. It appears as a persistent sharply delimited red patch without
crusts and scales(Fig.15.7).
Histopathology shows a full-thickness anaplasia of the epidermis with atypical
and disorderly keratinocytes (windblown appearance), under the hyperkeratotic or
are atypical epithelial cells, with i n d i v i dual
p ar akeratotic k e r atin l a y er . T h e r e
keratinization (dyskeratosis), and atypical mitoses.
Course: chronic, with malignant transformation after some years.
Treatment: 5-flourouracil cream (EFUDIX), cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen,
excision, electroexcision, laser therapy.
Paget disease of the nipple
Paget disease occurs almost exclusively in w omen. It is no longer considered a
precancerosis but a retrograde extension into the overlying
epidermisof an underlying
intraductal carcinoma of the breast.
The initial presentation of mammary Paget disease is typical for a long standing
eczema of the nipple with itching, recurrent small vesicles and excoriations, but unlike
eczema, Paget disease is located unilaterally and th e er ythematous patch is sharply
demarcated and infiltrated. Retraction of the nipple and palpable nodules indicate the
underlying breast cancer.
Histopathology: Paget cells are found in the thickened epidermis (large cells
devoid of desmosomes, with edematous cytoplasm and large oval nuclei).
Treatment: mastectomy with removal of the axillary lymph nodes. ands
occurs in a r eas w i t h a p o crine s w eat g i an
Extramammary P aget d i sease
(anogenital and axillary region).
150
Fig.15.1. Actinic keratoses Fig.15.2. Cutaneous horn
L'
151
Lentigo maligna (melanosis Dubreuilh)
Lentigo maligna is melanoma in situ, characterized by the proliferation of atypical
melanocytes within th e epidermis that can p r ogress to melanoma when th e atypical
melanocytes reach the dermis. Lentigo m aligna is i n d uced by l o n g-term cu mulative
ultraviolet injury. It occurs mainly on the face or lower leg, as brown-black macules and
plaques that increase very slowly in size and change both the contour (extension of one
margin and regression of another) and the colors (from pale and dark-brown to black
colors) (Fig.15.8). Lentigo maligna can be present for 5-15 years before invasion occurs.
Invasion is suggested by slight infiltration and elevation of the surface.
Other precanceroses
o C h r o nic ulcers
o B u r n scars
o L u p u s vulgaris
o C h r o nic lupus erithematosus
o E p i d ermolysis bullosa dystrophica
153
Chapter 16
Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most common malignant tumor, characterized by
dermal proliferation of cells that closely resemble normal epidermal basal cells. It occurs in
persons aged 50-80 years, with fair skin, especially on the sun-exposed skin regions (face,
ears, scalp, neck, upper trunk). Chronic exposure to UVB radiation is more involved. Basal
cell carcinoma usually arises from clinically normal skin w i thout precursor changes, in
contrast to squamous cell carcinoma, which is preceded by precancerous lesions.
The initial basal cell carcinoma is often a small, grayish-white induration wi t h
telagiectases. At the very beginning, patients observe a small hemorrhagic crust, always in
the same l o cation a f te r r e p eated t r auma ( scratching o r s h a v i ng). T h e t u m o r i s
asymptomatic, without pain, neither spontaneously, nor upon palpation.
Clinical forms:
solid BCC: waxy, translucent papules that grow slowly (in months, years) to nodules
with telangiectases over the surface (Fig.16.1)
ulcerating BCC (ulcus rodens): persistent erosion or ulceration surrounded by a hard
pearly border formed from confluated tiny emisferic nodules with shiny surface (so
called basalioma pearls) (Fig.16.2, 16.3)
superficial BCC (pagetoid) occurs frequently on the trunk as red-brown, fine scaly
patches with pearly nodules at the periphery (Fig.16.4)
pigmented BCC is a brown or black aspect of any type of BCC (Fig.16.5). Distinction
from melanoma, pigmented nevocytic nevi, and seborrheic keratosis is very important
morpheaform and i n f i l t rating BCC are sclerotic (scar-like) plaques with ill-defined
borders that s u rpass the cl inical m argins. I t i s a n a g g ressive for m a n d r e c urs
frequently after excision (Fig.16.6)
basalioma terebrans leads to deep tissue destruction that can affect the cartilage and
the bone (Fig.16.7). This tumor can be life threatening due to erosion, hemorrhage, and
meningeal complications
Histopatho
logy
The tumoral cells resemble normal basal cells with t h eir l arge oval basophilic
nuclei and appear as nodular aggregates in the dermis with a palisade-type arrangement
of the cells at th e p eriphery. The epidermis over the basal cell carcinoma is usually
atrophic and frequently eroded.
Course
BCC has a slow course, over a few years, with tendency to ulcerate. Metastases do
not occur, but the terebrant form may be life threatening or mutilating. The tumour can
155
recur within a treated area because of basal cell carcinoma residues that were not removed,
but new basal cell carcinomas can also arise in predisposed patients. Treated patients
should be followed up l ong enough (5 years) in order to detect recurrences as soon as
possible.
Treatment
Surgical treatment
excision of the tumour with 4 mm margins of normal tissue is the treatment of choice;
plastic surgery methods can be used in large tumours
Mobs chemosurgery method involves histological monitoring of all the outer edges of
the excised tissue. The sections are frozen and examined while the patient is still in the
operating room. Tissue is mapped microscopically, so if any t u m oral nests persist,
further excision is directed to only those areas to spare the normal tissues, repeatedly,
until no malignant cell is found.
radiation therapy i n s e lected patients: elderly o r d e b ilitated patients, aggressive
tumours that have already been treated surgically, patients who refuse surgery
electroexcision and laser therapy are not recommended as no tissue for biopsy can be
provided
Medical treatment
topical cytostatic treatment w it h 5 - f luorouracil o r i m u n o m odulating agents like
imiquimod are used only in very superficial tumours or in patients who refuse other
treatments
Avoidance of exposure to UV is strongly recommended, with protective clothing,
road-brimmed hat and sunscreen during outdoor activities.
Clinical findings
SCC starts with a small, slightly raised, firm and painless warty hyperkeratosis
that grows slowly until 1 cm di ameter, then quickly larger. It can express sometimes a
yellowish paste-like material, like little worms which consist of cornified tumour cells.
Clinical forms:
Nodular squamous cell carcinoma (Fig.16.8)
156
Ulcerated squamous cell carcinoma (Fig.16.9)
Ulcero-vegetant squamous cell carcinoma (Fig.16.10, 16.11)
E xtensive u l c er at iv e n e c r osis occurs af ter m o n t h s an d t h e t u m o u r i n v a d e s t h e
soft tissues, bones, and cartilages. It develops faster (within a few m o n t hs-one year)
than BCC and metastasizes, first in the regional lymph nodes and later on, after years
in internal organs (lungs etc). The lymph nodes are enlarged and hard, then fixed to
the neighbouring tissues, with possible central ulceration and fistulisation (Fig.16.12).
In advanced stages, SCC affects the general state of health, producing haemorrhagia,
anemia, and death.
Histopatho
logy
While SCC in situ i s c onfined to th e epidermis, SCC is characterized b y t h e
proliferation of atypical keratinocytes that invade the dermis. The tumoral cells resemble
those in the prickle cell layer (plasma-rich, large nuclei and visible intercellular bridges),
but they have varying degrees of differentiation and atypia (atypical dyskeratosis, atypical
mitosis, nuclear atypia), with the formation of concentrically layered cornified spheres
within the tumour, so-called horny pearls. Marked stromal reaction with h istiocytes and
mast cells, lymphocytes and plasma cells are present.
Staging of the squamous cell carcinoma
according to the TNM classification system, based on the characteristic of the primary
tumor and on the presence or absence of regional lymph node and metastasis:
o T x : p r imary tumor cannot be assessed
o T O : no evidence of primary tumor
o Ti s : c arcinoma in situ
o T l : t u mor < 2 cm in greatest diameter
o T 2 : tumor 2-5 cm in greatest diameter
o T3 : t u m o r > 5 cm in g r eatest diameter (+metastases in lymph nodes)
o T 4 : destructive tumor invading the cartilage, muscle, bone
o N x: regionallymph nodes cannot be assesed
o N O : No regional lymph node metastasis
o N l : r e gional lymph node metastasis
Broders classification according to the degree of differentiation
• gra d e I — under 25% undifferentiated tumor cells
• gr a d e II — under 50%;
• gr a d e III — under 75%;
• gra d e IV — more than 75% undifferentiated tumor cells.
Prognosis
The prognosis depends on the a) localization: SCC of the tongue, vulva, and penis
have a relatively poor prognosis, b) dimension: up to a size of 2-3 cm can be cured in about
90% of cases and c) the degree of differentiation: greater differentiation, lower tendency to
metastasize.
Treatment
Surgical methods
radical removal of t h e t u mo r m ass w it h a m a r gin o f 4 - 6 m m o f n o r m a l t i ssue,
depending on the TNM stage
157
5.
Mohs micrographic surgery is the treatment of choice with reconstruction by plastic B
surgery s
electrodessication in low-risk cases
Nonsurgical methods are used in inoperable tumours and metastasizing forms:
radiotherapy
systemic chemotherapy node
Patients with a history of SCC should be carefully examined every 6-12 months as bone
MALIGNANT MELANOMA • s
158
5. Ac r o mic melanomais a nonpigmented variant that looks like pyogenic granuloma,
BCC or SCC, but grows faster; it occurs more often as a nodular melanoma or as
skin metastasis of the melanoma or visceral carcinoma.
Histopathology
The histopathological examination is the criterion standard for melanoma diagnosis.
The epidermis is invaded by large atypical melanocytes, arranged haphazardly at the dermo-
epidermal junction, with upward migration. Dermal invasion by atypical melanocytes confers
metastatic potential. The stromal inflammatory reaction is pronounced.
Histology offers also important prognostic information:
• Levels of invasion (Clark) — measure anatomical tumour invasion
o s t age I: epidermal invasion
o s t age II: discontinuous invasion of the papillary dermis
o s t age III: continuous invasion of the papillary dermis
o s t age IV: invasion of the reticular dermis
o s t age V: invasion of the subcutis
• Breslow index: tumour thickness in mm, measured from the stratum granulosum to
the deepest tumoral cell
Treatment
Malignant melanomas should be treated by surgery. As far as possible, extensive
three dimensional surgical removal of the primary tumor is performed with a resection
margin that depends on the Breslow index (e.g. 1 cm margins for up to 1 mm thickness or
2 cm margins for 4mm thickness) into the healthy tissue and down to the fascia. The skin
defect must be covered by plastic surgery. Mohs micrographic surgery has also been used
in melanoma with the advantage of providing visualisation of 100% peripheral and deep
margins microscopically.
Prophylactic lymph node excision might confer a survival advantage, compared to
delayed removal of the lymph nodes when lymphadenopathy became clinically apparent.
Lymphatic mapping and sentinel node biopsy were developed to identify the localisation
of the first-draining nodal metastasis (sentinel node).
In extensive lymph node metastases and distant metastases palliative radiotherapy
is used for pain relief.
Cytostatic drugs used in melanoma: dacarbazine (DTIC), vinca alcaloids, cisplatin
used in monotherapy or polychemotherapy.
159
s pecific i m m u n otherapy w i t h
Interferon alpha an d i n t e rleukins and al so
melanoma vaccines (based on tumor cell associated antigens) have been used in clinical
trials.
160
Fig.16.1. Solid basal cell carcinoma Fig.16.2. Ulcerated basal cell cardnoma
; • , '
Fig.16.5. Pigmented basal cell carcinoma Fig.16.6. Morpheaform basal cell carcinoma
161
Fig.16.9. Ulcerated squamous cell carcinoma Pig.16.10. Ulcero-vegetant SCC
and actinic keratoses
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