Specific subfields

Astrophysics

Astrophysics applies physics and chemistry to understand the measurements made by astronomy. Representation of the

Observable Universe that includes images from Hubble and other telescopes.

Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that employs the principles of physics and chemistry "to ascertain
the nature of the astronomical objects, rather than their positions or motions in space".[65][66] Among the
objects studied are the Sun, other stars, galaxies, extrasolar planets, the interstellar medium and
the cosmic microwave background.[67][68] Their emissions are examined across all parts of
the electromagnetic spectrum, and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature,
and chemical composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply
many disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical
mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and
molecular physics.
In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms
of theoretical and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to
determine the properties of dark matter, dark energy, and black holes; whether or not time travel is
possible, wormholes can form, or the multiverse exists; and the origin and ultimate fate of the universe.
[67] Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include Solar System formation and evolution; stellar
dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale
structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology,
including string cosmology and astroparticle physics.

Astrochemistry
Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of molecules in the Universe, and their
interaction with radiation.[69] The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry. The word
"astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium. The study of the
abundance of elements and isotope ratios in Solar System objects, such as meteorites, is also
called cosmochemistry, while the study of interstellar atoms and molecules and their interaction with
radiation is sometimes called molecular astrophysics. The formation, atomic and chemical composition,
evolution and fate of molecular gas clouds is of special interest, because it is from these clouds that solar
systems form.
Studies in this field contribute to the understanding of the formation of the Solar System, Earth's origin and
geology, abiogenesis, and the origin of climate and oceans.
Astrobiology
Astrobiology is an interdisciplinary scientific field concerned with the origins, early evolution, distribution,
and future of life in the universe. Astrobiology considers the question of whether extraterrestrial life exists,
and how humans can detect it if it does.[70] The term exobiology is similar.[71]
Astrobiology makes use of molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, chemistry, astronomy, physical
cosmology, exoplanetology and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help
recognize biospheres that might be different from that on Earth.[72] The origin and early evolution of life is
an inseparable part of the discipline of astrobiology.[73] Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of
existing scientific data, and although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself
primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories.
This interdisciplinary field encompasses research on the origin of planetary systems, origins of organic
compounds in space, rock-water-carbon interactions, abiogenesis on Earth, planetary habitability, research
on biosignatures for life detection, and studies on the potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and
in outer space.[74][75][76]

Physical cosmology

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(See also: Human timeline, and Life timeline.)

Main article: Physical cosmology
Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος (kosmos) "world, universe" and λόγος (logos) "word, study" or literally
"logic") could be considered the study of the Universe as a whole.

Hubble Extreme Deep Field

Observations of the large-scale structure of the Universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have
provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. Fundamental to modern
cosmology is the well-accepted theory of the Big Bang, wherein our Universe began at a single point in
time, and thereafter expanded over the course of 13.8 billion years[77] to its present condition.[78] The
concept of the Big Bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation in
1965.[78]
In the course of this expansion, the Universe underwent several evolutionary stages. In the very early
moments, it is theorized that the Universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation, which homogenized
the starting conditions. Thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early
Universe.[78] (See also nucleocosmochronology.)
When the first neutral atoms formed from a sea of primordial ions, space became transparent to radiation,
releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation. The expanding Universe then
underwent a Dark Age due to the lack of stellar energy sources.[79]
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space. Matter
accumulated in the densest regions, forming clouds of gas and the earliest stars, the Population III stars.
These massive stars triggered the reionization process and are believed to have created many of the
heavy elements in the early Universe, which, through nuclear decay, create lighter elements, allowing the
cycle of nucleosynthesis to continue longer.[80]
Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps. Gradually, organizations of
gas and dust merged to form the first primitive galaxies. Over time, these pulled in more matter, and were
often organized into groups and clusters of galaxies, then into larger-scale superclusters.[81]
Various fields of physics are crucial to studying the universe. Interdisciplinary studies involve the fields
of quantum mechanics, particle physics, plasma physics, condensed matter physics, statistical
mechanics, optics, and nuclear physics.
Fundamental to the structure of the Universe is the existence of dark matter and dark energy. These are
now thought to be its dominant components, forming 96% of the mass of the Universe. For this reason,
much effort is expended in trying to understand the physics of these components. [82]

Extragalactic astronomy

This image shows several blue, loop-shaped objects that are multiple images of the same galaxy, duplicated by
the gravitational lens effect of the cluster of yellow galaxies near the middle of the photograph. The lens is produced by the
cluster's gravitational field that bends light to magnify and distort the image of a more distant object.
Main article: Extragalactic astronomy
The study of objects outside our galaxy is a branch of astronomy concerned with the formation and
evolution of Galaxies, their morphology (description) and classification, the observation of active galaxies,
and at a larger scale, the groups and clusters of galaxies. Finally, the latter is important for the
understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.
Most galaxies are organized into distinct shapes that allow for classification schemes. They are commonly
divided into spiral, elliptical and Irregular galaxies.[83]
As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape of an ellipse. The stars move
along random orbits with no preferred direction. These galaxies contain little or no interstellar dust, few
star-forming regions, and older stars. Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic
clusters, and may have been formed through mergers of large galaxies.
A spiral galaxy is organized into a flat, rotating disk, usually with a prominent bulge or bar at the center, and
trailing bright arms that spiral outward. The arms are dusty regions of star formation within which massive
young stars produce a blue tint. Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars. Both
the Milky Way and one of our nearest galaxy neighbors, the Andromeda Galaxy, are spiral galaxies.
Irregular galaxies are chaotic in appearance, and are neither spiral nor elliptical. About a quarter of all
galaxies are irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational
interaction.
An active galaxy is a formation that emits a significant amount of its energy from a source other than its
stars, dust and gas. It is powered by a compact region at the core, thought to be a super-massive black
hole that is emitting radiation from in-falling material.
A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting
immense plumes or lobes of gas. Active galaxies that emit shorter frequency, high-energy radiation
include Seyfert galaxies, Quasars, and Blazars. Quasars are believed to be the most consistently luminous
objects in the known universe.[84]
The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies. This structure is
organized into a hierarchy of groupings, with the largest being the superclusters. The collective matter is
formed into filaments and walls, leaving large voids between.[85]

Galactic astronomy

Observed structure of the Milky Way's spiral arms

Main article: Galactic astronomy
The Solar System orbits within the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy that is a prominent member of
the Local Group of galaxies. It is a rotating mass of gas, dust, stars and other objects, held together by
mutual gravitational attraction. As the Earth is located within the dusty outer arms, there are large portions
of the Milky Way that are obscured from view.
In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive
black hole at its center. This is surrounded by four primary arms that spiral from the core. This is a region of
active star formation that contains many younger, population I stars. The disk is surrounded by a spheroid
halo of older, population II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular
clusters.[86]
Between the stars lies the interstellar medium, a region of sparse matter. In the densest regions, molecular
clouds of molecular hydrogen and other elements create star-forming regions. These begin as a
compact pre-stellar core or dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by
the Jeans length) to form compact protostars.[87]
As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region (ionized atomic hydrogen) of
glowing gas and plasma. The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually cause the
cloud to disperse, often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of stars. These clusters gradually
disperse, and the stars join the population of the Milky Way.[88]
Kinematic studies of matter in the Milky Way and other galaxies have demonstrated that there is more
mass than can be accounted for by visible matter. A dark matter halo appears to dominate the mass,
although the nature of this dark matter remains undetermined. [89]
Stellar astronomy

Mz 3, often referred to as the Ant planetary nebula. Ejecting gas from the dying central star shows symmetrical patterns
unlike the chaotic patterns of ordinary explosions.
Main article: Star
The study of stars and stellar evolution is fundamental to our understanding of the Universe. The
astrophysics of stars has been determined through observation and theoretical understanding; and from
computer simulations of the interior.[90] Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known
as giant molecular clouds. When destabilized, cloud fragments can collapse under the influence of gravity,
to form a protostar. A sufficiently dense, and hot, core region will trigger nuclear fusion, thus creating
a main-sequence star.[87]
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars.[90]
The characteristics of the resulting star depend primarily upon its starting mass. The more massive the star,
the greater its luminosity, and the more rapidly it fuses its hydrogen fuel into helium in its core. Over time,
this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve. The fusion of helium
requires a higher core temperature. A star with a high enough core temperature will push its outer layers
outward while increasing its core density. The resulting red giant formed by the expanding outer layers
enjoys a brief life span, before the helium fuel in the core is in turn consumed. Very massive stars can also
undergo a series of evolutionary phases, as they fuse increasingly heavier elements. [91]
The final fate of the star depends on its mass, with stars of mass greater than about eight times the Sun
becoming core collapse supernovae;[92] while smaller stars blow off their outer layers and leave behind the
inert core in the form of a white dwarf. The ejection of the outer layers forms a planetary nebula.[93] The
remnant of a supernova is a dense neutron star, or, if the stellar mass was at least three times that of the
Sun, a black hole.[94] Closely orbiting binary stars can follow more complex evolutionary paths, such as
mass transfer onto a white dwarf companion that can potentially cause a supernova. [95] Planetary nebulae
and supernovae distribute the "metals" produced in the star by fusion to the interstellar medium; without
them, all new stars (and their planetary systems) would be formed from hydrogen and helium alone. [96]
See also: Solar astronomy
Solar astronomy

An ultraviolet image of the Sun's active photosphere as viewed by the TRACE space telescope. NASA  photo

Solar observatory Lomnický štít (Slovakia) built in 1962

Main article: Sun
See also: Solar telescope
At a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied star is the Sun, a typical main-
sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2 V, and about 4.6 billion years (Gyr) old. The Sun is not considered
a variable star, but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot cycle. This is an 11-
year oscillation in sunspot number. Sunspots are regions of lower-than- average temperatures that are
associated with intense magnetic activity.[97]
The Sun has steadily increased in luminosity by 40% since it first became a main-sequence star. The Sun
has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth.
[98] The Maunder minimum, for example, is believed to have caused the Little Ice Age phenomenon during
the Middle Ages.[99]
The visible outer surface of the Sun is called the photosphere. Above this layer is a thin region known as
the chromosphere. This is surrounded by a transition region of rapidly increasing temperatures, and finally
by the super-heated corona.
At the center of the Sun is the core region, a volume of sufficient temperature and pressure for nuclear
fusion to occur. Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means
of radiation. Above that is the convection zone where the gas material transports energy primarily through
physical displacement of the gas known as convection. It is believed that the movement of mass within the
convection zone creates the magnetic activity that generates sunspots. [97]
A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until, at the outermost limit of the
Solar System, it reaches the heliopause. As the solar wind passes the Earth, it interacts with the Earth's
magnetic field (magnetosphere) and deflects the solar wind, but traps some creating the Van Allen radiation
belts that envelop the Earth. The aurora are created when solar wind particles are guided by the magnetic
flux lines into the Earth's polar regions where the lines then descend into the atmosphere.[100]

Planetary science

The black spot at the top is a dust devil climbing a crater wall on Mars. This moving, swirling column of Martian
atmosphere (comparable to a terrestrial tornado) created the long, dark streak.
Main articles: Planetary science and Planetary geology
Planetary science is the study of the assemblage of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids, and
other bodies orbiting the Sun, as well as extrasolar planets. The Solar System has been relatively well-
studied, initially through telescopes and then later by spacecraft. This has provided a good overall
understanding of the formation and evolution of the Sun's planetary system, although many new
discoveries are still being made.[101]
The Solar System is subdivided into the inner planets, the asteroid belt, and the outer planets. The
inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The outer gas giant planets
are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.[102] Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper belt, and finally the Oort
Cloud, which may extend as far as a light-year.
The planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun.
Through a process that included gravitational attraction, collision, and accretion, the disk formed clumps of
matter that, with time, became protoplanets. The radiation pressure of the solar wind then expelled most of
the unaccreted matter, and only those planets with sufficient mass retained their gaseous atmosphere. The
planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment,
evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon. During this period, some of the protoplanets may have
collided and one such collision may have formed the Moon.[103]
Once a planet reaches sufficient mass, the materials of different densities segregate within,
during planetary differentiation. This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and
an outer crust. The core may include solid and liquid regions, and some planetary cores generate their
own magnetic field, which can protect their atmospheres from solar wind stripping. [104]
A planet or moon's interior heat is produced from the collisions that created the body, by the decay of
radioactive materials (e.g. uranium, thorium, and 26Al), or tidal heating caused by interactions with other
bodies. Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such
as volcanism and tectonics. Those that accumulate or retain an atmosphere can also undergo
surface erosion from wind or water. Smaller bodies, without tidal heating, cool more quickly; and their
geological activity ceases with the exception of impact cratering.[105]