Assessment 1 – ESSAY Zak Pretlove

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory and Implications for Pedagogy Among Diverse Learners

Introduction

There have been many theories developed and related to the cognitive development and
learning in children over the years with each focussing on different aspects that have varied
implications on how children learn. Lev Semanovich Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist
who developed a cultural-historical theory of human development between 1924 and 1932;
Vygotsky’s theory was a socio-cultural approach which was based on the idea that society
and culture shape cognition (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). He was interested in the
differences in the cognitive development of children and how those differences came about
from the social, historical and cultural context in which the child grew. Vygotsky’s theory
places a huge emphasis on learning through social interaction taking place in cultural
contexts and is underpinned by various key concepts. This essay will highlight and discuss
some key concepts relating to Vygotsky’s theory and links to student learning including
language and speech, cultural/mental tools, internalisation and social interaction, the zone
of proximal development and the role of the more knowledgeable other, scaffolding and
sociodramatic play. It will then reflect on the concepts of the theory and their implications
for pedagogy, and how the theory can be applied to support the learning and development
of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. The strengths and limitations of Vygotsky’s
theory will also be discussed.

Key Theory Concepts and Relation to Student Learning

There are many concepts that make up Vygotsky’s theory, with the overarching principles
that sociocultural forces are key to children’s learning, with culture a primary influence on
their development (Green & Piel 2016). From the time that a child is born, their objective is
to acquire a sequence of skills and competencies that are uniquely human, with language
being one of the most important; this learning is achieved through social interaction
(Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). The role that dialogue plays in the development of thought

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and promotion of cognitive development is very important which is generally progressed
from imitation of language, direct instruction and then the more complex collaborative
learning (Wertsch 1980). Once language has been developed, children can begin to extend
their learning and development. Gupta (2007) agrees by stating that once children have
become aware of language as an independent structure they begin to open up more social
interaction, with the developed awareness allowing for more opportunities for authentic
thought. As the social interactions increase, the language use becomes more complex and
there is a corresponding increase in problem-solving and reflection. There is a notion that
language and thought are interdependent, where language shapes thought and thought
shapes language; language and self-regulation develop in stages and are critical elements in
supporting cognitive development (Vygotsky 1978).

Following on from language there are three defined types of speech that make up a part of
Vygotsky’s theory. Social speech is the external communication with others such as a more
knowledgeable other providing verbal content in the form of asking questions, directing and
transmitting knowledge to allow children to use social speech to learn (Wertsch 1980).
Private speech is when children change from relying on external devices for solving problems
to speech that is internalised; this can be both silent and audible (Duchesne & McMaugh
2019). When private speech is audible, children are using it as a self-instructional tool to
guide their learning which eventually becomes quieter and ultimately silent lip movements
(Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). Private speech, which can also be termed self-talk, has been
shown to be a clear part of a child’s thinking and not a useless by-product of that thinking
(Vygotsky, cited in Newman & Holzman 1993). Inner speech can be defined as the process
behind driving thought; the thoughts then guide the words or actions to be taken (Duchesne
& McMaugh 2019). An example of the development of the child across these speeches is
using fingers to count; this then becomes internalised and the child can count out loud then
in their head.

Vygotsky argued that each culture had physical and mental tools that were passed on to
shape cognition and pivotal in constructing knowledge (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019).
Cultural/mental tools are passed on to children from adults through social interaction which
can include systems for counting (as mentioned previously), writing, and mnemonic
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techniques among many others (Vygotsky, cited in Daniels 2011). Cultural tools come in
many shapes and forms which enable children to learn through communication and problem
solve. These can include (but not limited to) physical objects like computers, phones and
smartboards or language, numbers, theories and equations. Vygotsky claims that these tools
acquired by individuals are products of their sociocultural backgrounds and therefore
parents and teachers play a vital role in providing children with these cultural tools to
function effectively and independently (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019).

Another key concept of Vygotsky’s theory is that of internalisation and social interaction.
Vygotsky’s strong theory basis of interaction with others in learning how to think is further
strengthened through internalisation, which can be defined by the notion that individuals
internalise the ideas and processes they observe and are a part of (Duchesne & McMaugh
2019). The individual then participates in social interaction as new ways of thinking, which is
constantly transforming through regular social interaction; this is unique to the individual. A
student must be exposed to new ideas and experiences in a social setting and then
internalise and make sense of this experience so it becomes part of the students cognitive
functioning (Doolittle 1997). An example of this in the classroom could be a health teacher
introducing a new topic on illicit drugs; after discussions to establish the student’s level of
knowledge, the teacher can extend their thinking by questioning and providing specific
information. After responding to student idea’s and correcting misconceptions, the teacher
will allow for students to internalise the new ways of thinking and potentially apply them to
other areas. Vygotsky (1986, p. 36) sums this concept up by stating ‘the true direction of the
development of thinking is not from the individual to the social, but from the social to
individual’.

One of the more well-known concepts to come out of Vygotsky’s theory is the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD can be defined as the distance between a child’s
current level of competence on a task and the level they can achieve with support or
guidance (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). Essentially it is a task that the student cannot do by
themselves but are capable of carrying out and achieving with teacher assistance; it is
important the teacher is not explicitly telling the student how to solve the issue but give
hints to assist to allow the student to still be active in learning (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019).
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The ZPD is in an important part of Vygotsky’s theory because of its importance to cognitive
development in children; this is the zone where children develop cognitive functioning and
construct knowledge (Doolittle 1997). The role of the more knowledgeable other (MKO)
plays an important part in conjunction with the ZPD. Vygotsky (cited in Cicconi 2014)
describes the MKO as an essential component of the learning process and defines it as
someone with more knowledge or a greater understanding of a particular task or process
than the learner. Through social interactions, the MKO can guide a child through the zone of
proximal development to further their cognitive development and allows students to
perform tasks they couldn’t before independently. Teaching must be focused on the ZPD so
it can be focussed at an optimum level for each child. The difference between what children
can do (establishing the level of the learner) and what they can achieve with support from
an MKO is extremely important and allows teachers to play a significant role in assisting
students progress in learning (Rasku-Puttonen et al. 2003).

There is a consensus that the concept of the ZPD formed in Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory
is at the heart of the notion of scaffolding (Shabani, Khatib & Ebadi 2010). Scaffolding is the
support provided to learners to enable a task to be achieved successfully and more
independently; this can be achieved by adjusting the assistance the learner requires to fit
their current level of performance (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). Essentially the tasks are
broken down into more achievable feats, focussing the learner’s attention and giving general
or specific feedback on strategies to problem solve. Main (2017) discusses differentiation
(another dimension that supports scaffolding) which is about students becoming more
independent and self-directed in their learning to achieve their own learning outcomes.
Operating on a strength-based approach to student learning, teachers can differentiate
various aspects of content, process, products and the learning environment. Through tiered
instruction, the content and process can be differentiated but the same outcome achieved.
Another aspect that scaffolding can support is intersubjectivity, where students who begin a
task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding at the end of the
learning task (Newson & Newson 1975).

Another major concept of Vygotsky’s theory is the role of sociodramatic play in the
development of children and students. Sociodramatic play generally involves children
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developing roles, creating storylines, interacting, directing and negotiating how the play will
go (Dinham & Chalk 2018). It plays an important role in developing higher cognitive
functions, allows children to learn sociocultural roles and enhance language development
which has been highlighted as one of the more important features of Vygotsky’s theory
(Koray, Bahar & Snapir 2002). Social interaction is at the forefront of sociodramatic play and
the experiences are especially advantageous to children, particularly those behind their
peers in self-regulatory development (Elias & Berk 2002). There are elements of
sociodramatic play that can be shaped by the teacher/adult including facilitating dialogue,
introducing conflict or defining the roles and responsibilities of characters. Bodrova (2008)
backs up this need for adult scaffolding of sociodramatic play to help shape and enhance
cognitive development.

Implications for Pedagogy

Vygotsky’s theory has been informing teaching for decades and there are a number of
pedagogical strategies that support the use of the theory concepts. Reciprocal teaching is a
teaching approach where the teacher will guide a group of students by asking students
question that guide their learning; it has been widely used to assist with reading
comprehension tasks (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). It combines teacher intervention and
student-directed learning and adopts Vygotsky’s concepts of social interaction, language and
scaffolding to direct learning through collaboration with peers under the guidance of the
teacher (Rogoff 1998). Reciprocal teaching is made up of four strategies (predicting,
questioning, summarising and clarifying) with the intention of the students increasing their
responsibility by leading discussion, with the teacher providing support by predicting what
will happen or providing clarification (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019).

As social interactions are the foundation of Vygotsky’s theory, cooperative and collaborative
work in the classroom are vital to facilitate learning by supporting theory principles. This can
include manipulating factors to provide an environment that encourages collaborative
learning, such as setting up tables in groups or providing spaces that allow for discussion or
group projects (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). Teachers have some responsibilities when

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structuring cooperative learning, including structuring groups to ensure positive
interdependence, interaction, accountability and small-group skills, consider the size, ability
and gender composition of groups in relation to the task and set tasks that encourage all
students to interact by being inclusive of all in students within the group (Gillies 2007). In
addition to the learning benefits, it has been reported that students working collaboratively
expressed levels of fun and enthusiasm with the underlying benefit of social skill
improvement and social inclusion within the learning environment (Thurston et al. 2010).
The role of the MKO is important in group work as it can be a peer, not only the teacher.
Each individual will have varying levels of knowledge on different tasks and can therefore
play the role of the MKO when they indeed are more knowledgeable than their peers.

Teachers need to focus on the student’s potential, not their outcomes. Therefore, when it
comes to assessment, teachers need to be assessing the student’s zone of actual
development (ZAD) then planning for their ZPD to further progress cognitive development
(Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). Students bring unique funds of knowledge into the classroom
through the concept of the virtual backpack (Prosser 2010). For learning to be effective, the
teacher must design tasks that take into account what funds of knowledge the student
brings into the classroom and their interests and assign tasks that lie within the student’s
ZPD so they are encouraged to deepen their understandings and be engaged due to the task
aligning with their personal interests.

Cultural tools in the modern era play a huge role in broadening pedagogical strategies for
teachers. As mentioned previously, in the classroom these can include computers,
smartboards, phones, signage and theories to name a few, all which apply the theories of
Vygotsky in that they enhance cognitive function via sociocultural avenues. Other cultural
tools can include student supports officers who act as the MKO for students who need more
personal guidance and inviting experts into the classroom from varied cultural backgrounds
to promote inclusivity and offer diverse perspectives (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019).

Applying the Theory to Support Aboriginal Learners

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To allow all students to have a quality education, teaching needs to support learners from
diverse cultural backgrounds including those of Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islander descent.
Vygotsky’s theory can be applied to support Indigenous learners through different aspects. It
is important to develop literacy programs that engage Indigenous children early and provide
positive outcomes. Storytelling is entrenched in Indigenous culture and is a culturally
relevant learning tool; passed down through generations, stories are used to provide a
sociocultural and historical context of the community from elders to young children
(McKeough et al. 2008). Teachers can use this by incorporating storytelling or inviting in
Indigenous leaders to guest speak, as language and dialogue play a crucial role in how
Indigenous students can learn to speak, read and write, with traditional methods also
supporting their cognitive development (McKeough et al. 2008).

Yunkaporta (2009) highlights the eight ways of Aboriginal learning including story sharing,
learning maps, non-verbal learning, symbols and images, land links, non-linear processes,
deconstruct/reconstruct and community links. As discussed, story sharing has strong links to
Vygotsky’s theory but so do the ways of symbols and images and community links. Each are
comprised of various sociocultural elements of language and culture and the use of cultural
tools which relate directly to Vygotsky’s theory. To help teachers engage Indigenous
students in culturally inclusive practices, Yunkaporta (2009, p. 8) states ‘

‘Always link content back to land and place. Use images, colours and symbols to teach new
vocabulary and concepts like grammar and structure. Don't build to final outcomes, but
rather find the outcomes along the way and don't be afraid to go off the straight track to find
them. Support students in the first half of the unit by backtracking though the modelled work
then guide them towards working independently in the second half. Finally, return the
learning to community for community benefit and for them to evaluate. Allow Elders and
other keepers of knowledge to have a say in the criteria for success.’

Various key concepts of Vygotsky’s theory such as using language and cultural tools to build
knowledge and scaffolding to allow students to become more independent are evident here.

Indigenous culture has a major focus on interdependence and community involvement in

child-rearing which is a feature that could be built on in pedagogy. It has been reported that
cultures who emphasize relationships over tasks are suited to cooperative and collaborative
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teaching approaches (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). This implies that group work would be
beneficial to Indigenous students, with the sociocultural development occurring from this
directly relating to Vygotsky’s theory.

Strengths and Limitations of Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

As with all learning theories, there are strengths and limitations that arise after critical
analysis. One of the more influential aspects of Vygotsky’s theory is that cognitive
development is a social process with societal, cultural and historical factors influencing the
differences in cognitive development among learners (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019).
Vygotsky’s focus on the internalisation concept where children’s learning is shaped by their
social experiences has underpinned many pedagogical strategies that focus on cooperation
and collaboration due to the interactive nature of these methods. One of the key strengths
from this theory is that it has wide-ranging applicability to learning and teaching which is
inclusive of diverse cultures; this is pivotal in Australian classrooms with multiculturalism a
massive part of our society (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). Woolfolk and Margetts (2016)
also highlight a strength of the theory is the emphasis of importance it places on
sociodramatic play in cognitive development.

One limitation that scholars have identified in Vygotsky’s theory is the role of language in
children’s thinking and cognitive development. As other theories suggest, verbal interactions
are just one of many avenues in which children learn; in many societies, observation and
participation in learning tasks alongside adults or teachers are the primary learning methods
rather than language (Duchesne & McMaugh 2019). Another limitation is the parameters
surrounding the ZPD – is this the same distance for all children? Is it the same across
different topics? Does it vary with time of day or student motivation? All are provocative
questions which highlights the somewhat vagueness of the ZPD (Duchesne & McMaugh
2019). There is also questions around the emphasis placed on the MKO, which suggests that
children cannot learn independently and being introduced to key ideas or over-assisted may
hinder spontaneous discovery and development of self-regulation (Duchesne & McMaugh
2019).

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Conclusion

Vygotsky’s theory consists of many key concepts which have been discussed and all play a
role in the development of child cognition. Language is a key influence on learning in the
sociocultural context and underpins many principles of the theory. The zone of proximal
development is crucial for teachers to target their teaching to allow all students to achieve
personalised outcomes. The role of the more knowledgeable other was highlighted and the
importance of it within the ZPD. The theory has had a major impact and long-lasting effect
on pedagogical practices and perspectives of child development through the strategies of
cooperative and collaborative work and targeted teaching at the ZPD. The theory has a
positive impact on the way Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders learn and can go a long way
in maintaining engagement amongst this population. The strengths and limitations of the
theory have been highlighted to show that it has been critically analysed. The overarching
principle of Vygotsky’s theory is the focus on the role of social interactions and how they
contribute in the development of thinking and how the human mind is formed within the
societal and cultural context. This helps teachers provide instruction that recognises and
empowers linguistically and culturally diverse students to provide more authentic
opportunities for learning and other positive outcomes for students.

Word Count: 3120 (includes in-text references, would come under 2970 without)

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