SOLUTION

In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of only one phase. In

such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, known as a solvent.
The solution more or less takes on the characteristics of the solvent including its phase and
the solvent is commonly the major fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in
a solution is a measure of how much of that solute is dissolved in the solvent.

CHARACTERISTIC OF HOMOGENOUS AND HETEROGENOUS SOLUTION

Heterogeneous and homogeneous refer to mixtures of materials in chemistry. The
difference between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures is the degree at which the
materials are mixed together and the uniformity of their composition.

A homogeneous mixture is a mixture where the components that make up the

mixture are uniformly distributed throughout the mixture. The composition of the mixture
is the same throughout. There is only one phase of matter observed in a homogeneous
mixture.

Homogeneous Mixture Examples

 air
 sugar water
 rain water
 vodka
 vinegar
 dishwashing detergent
 steel

You can't pick out components of a homogeneous mixture or use a simple mechanical
means to separate them. You can't see individual chemicals or ingredients in this type of
mixture. Only one phase of matter is present in a homogeneous mixture.

A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture where the components of the mixture are not
uniform or have localized regions with different properties. Different samples from the
mixture are not identical to each other. There are always two or more phases in a
heterogeneous mixture, where you can identify a region with properties that are distinct
from those of another region, even if they are the same state of matter (.e.g., liquid, solid).
Heterogeneous Mixture Examples
 cereal in milk
 vegetable soup
 pizza
 blood
 gravel
 ice in soda
 salad dressing
 mixed nuts
 bowl of colored candies
 soil

Usually, it's possible to physically separate components of a heterogeneous mixture.

For example, you can centrifuge (spin out) solid blood cells to separate them from the
plasma of blood. You can remove ice cubes from soda. You can separate candies according
to color.

THE NATURE OF SOLUTION

 Solutions are not pure – they are mixtures that look the same throughout. They are
known as homogeneous mixtures because they have only the one phase (appearance).

Components of a Solution
 A solution is typically composed of a solvent and a solute.
 The solvent is the liquid in which the substances are dissolved and the solute is the
substance that is being dissolved in the solvent.
 When water is used as the solvent, we call it an aqueous solution.

MIXING IT UP

 Soluble – The ability of a substance to be dissolved in a second substance. Usually

refers to a solid that dissolves in a liquid.
 Insoluble – The inability of a substance to be dissolved in a second substance.
(Again, it usually refers to a solid within a liquid.)
 Miscible – The ability of two liquids to dissolve within each other.
 Immiscible – The inability of two liquids to dissolve within each other
 Solubility- is the physical property of a substance describing how soluble or
insoluble it is. It is the mass of a solute that will dissolve in a given mass of a solvent.
The more solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent, the greater the
solubility of that substance.
 When the maximum amount of a solid or gaseous solute has been dissolved in a given
volume of solvent at a given temperature, a saturated solution is obtained. If you
continue to add more solute to the solution – the solute will remain undissolved.

Factors that Affect Solubility

Solute-Solvent Interactions
The relation between the solute and solvent is very important in
determining solubility. Strong solute-solvent attractions equate to greater solubility while
weak solute-solvent attractions equate to lesser solubility. In turn, polar solutes tend to
dissolve best in polar solvents while non-polar solutes tend to dissolve best in non-polar
solvents. In the case of a polar solute and non-polar solvent (or vice versa), it tends to be
insoluble or only soluble to a miniscule degree. A general rule to remember is, "Like
dissolves like."

Common-Ion Effect
The common-ion effect is a term that describes the decrease in solubility of an ionic
compound when a salt that contains an ion that already exists in the chemical equilibrium
is added to the mixture. This effect best be explained by Le Châ telier's principle. Imagine
if the slightly soluble ionic compound calcium sulfate, CaSO4, is added to water. The net
ionic equation for the resulting chemical equilibrium is the following:
CaSO4(s)⇌Ca2+(aq)+SO24−(aq)

Calcium sulfate is slightly soluble; at equilibrium, most of the calcium and sulfate exists
in the solid form of calcium sulfate.

Suppose the soluble ionic compound copper sulfate (CuSO 4) is added to the solution.
Copper sulfate is soluble; therefore, its only important effect on the net ionic equation is the
addition of more sulfate (SO42-) ions. The sulfate ions dissociated from copper sulfate are
already presented (common to) in the mixture from the slight dissociation of calcium
sulfate. Thus, this addition of sulfate ions places stress on the previously established
equilibrium. Le Châ telier's principle dictates that the additional stress on this product side
of the equilibrium results in the shift of equilibrium towards the reactants side in order to
alleviate this new stress. Because of the shift toward the reactant side, the solubility of the
slightly soluble calcium sulfate is reduced even further. 
 Temperature
Temperature changes affect the solubility of solids, liquids and gases differently.
However, those effects are finitely determined only for solids and gases.

Solids
The effects of temperature on the solubility of solids differ depending on whether the
reaction is endothermic or exothermic. Using Le Chatelier's principle, the effects of
temperature in both scenarios can be determined.
1. First, consider an endothermic reaction (heat is effectively on the reactant side with
the solid). Increasing the temperature results in a stress on the reactants side from the
additional heat. Le Châ telier's principle predicts that the system shifts toward the product
side in order to alleviate this stress. By shifting towards the product side, more of the solid
is dissociated when equilibrium is again established, resulting in increased solubility.
2. Second, consider an exothermic reaction (heat is effectively on the product side with
the dissociated ions). Increasing the temperature results in a stress on the products side
from the additional heat. Le Châ telier's principle predicts that the system shifts toward the
reactant side in order to alleviate this stress. By shifting towards the reactant's side, less of
the solid is dissociated when equilibrium is again established, resulting
in decreased solubility.

Liquids
In the case of liquids, there are no defined trends for the effects of temperature on the
solubility of liquids. 

Gases
In understanding the effects of temperature on the solubility of gases, it is first
important to remember that temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy. As
temperature increases, kinetic energy increases. The greater kinetic energy results in
greater molecular motion of the gas particles. As a result, the gas particles dissolved in the
liquid are more likely to escape to the gas phase and the existing gas particles are less likely
to be dissolved. The converse is true as well. The trend is thus as follows: increased
temperatures mean lesser solubility and decreased temperatures mean higher solubility.
Le Chatelier's principle allows better conceptualization of these trends. First, note that the
process of dissolving gas in liquid is usually exothermic. As such, increasing temperatures
result in stress on the product side (because heat is on the product side). In turn, Le
Chatelier's principle predicts that the system shifts towards the reactant side in order to
alleviate this new stress. Consequently, the equilibrium concentration of the gas particles in
gaseous phase increases, resulting in lowered solubility.

Conversely, decreasing temperatures result in stress on the reactant side (because

heat is on the product side). In turn, Le Châ telier's principle predicts that the system shifts
toward the product side in order to compensate for this new stress. Consequently, the
equilibrium concentration of the gas particles in gaseous phase would decrease, resulting
in greater solubility.
 Pressure
The effects of pressure are only significant in affecting the solubility of gases in
liquids.
 Solids & Liquids:  The effects of pressure changes on the solubility of solids and
liquids are negligible.
 Gases: The effects of pressure on the solubility of gases in liquids can best be
described through a combination of Henry's law and Le Châ telier principle. Henry's
law dictates that when temperature is constant, the solubility of the gas corresponds to its
partial pressure. Consider the following formula of Henry's law: 
p=khc

Where:

 p is the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid, 

 kh is Henry's law constant, and
 c is the concentrate of the gas in the liquid.
This formula indicates that (at a constant temperature) when the partial pressure
decreases, the concentration of gas in the liquid decreases as well and consequently the
solubility also decreases. Conversely, when the partial pressure increases in such a
situation, the concentration of gas in the liquid will increase as well; the solubility also
increases. Extending the implications from Henry's law, the usefulness of Le
Châ telier's principle is enhanced in predicting the effects of pressure on the solubility of
gases.

Consider a system consisting of a gas that is partially dissolved in liquid. An increase in

pressure would result in greater partial pressure (because the gas is being further
compressed). This increased partial pressure means that more gas particles will enter the
liquid (there is therefore less gas above the liquid, so the partial pressure decreases) in
order to alleviate the stress created by the increase in pressure, resulting in greater
solubility.

The converse case in such a system is also true, as a decrease in pressure equates to
more gas particles escaping the liquid to compensate.

TYPES OF SOLUTION ACCORDING TO PHASES

Gaseous solutions
If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a given set of conditions. An
example of a gaseous solution is air (oxygen and other gases dissolved in nitrogen). Since
interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial
solutions. In part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed
as mixtures.
Liquid solutions
If the solvent is a liquid, then gases, liquids, and solids can be dissolved. Here are some
examples:

 Gas in liquid:
 Oxygen in water
 Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is
accompanied by a chemical reaction (formation of ions). Note also that the visible
bubbles incarbonated water are not the dissolved gas, but only an effervescence of
carbon dioxide that has come out of solution; the dissolved gas itself is not visible
since it is dissolved on a molecular level.
 Liquid in liquid:
 The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different
concentrations to form a constant. (Homogenization of solutions)
 Alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water.
 Solid in liquid:
 Sucrose (table sugar) in water
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) (table salt) or any other salt in water, which forms
an electrolyte: When dissolving, salt dissociates into ions.
Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are
not homogeneous: colloids, suspensions, emulsions are not considered solutions.
Body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes. Many
of these are electrolytes, since they contain solute ions, such as potassium. Furthermore,
they contain solute molecules like sugar and urea. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are also
essential components of blood chemistry, where significant changes in their concentrations
may be a sign of severe illness or injury.
Solid solutions
If the solvent is a solid, then gases, liquids and solids can be dissolved.

 Gas in solids:
 Hydrogen dissolves rather well in metals, especially in palladium; this is
studied as a means of hydrogen storage.

 Liquid in solid:
 Mercury in gold, forming an amalgam
 Hexane in paraffin wax

 Solid in solid:
 Steel, basically a solution of carbon atoms in a crystalline matrix of iron
atoms.
 Alloys like bronze and many others.
 Polymers containing plasticizers.
 TYPES OF SOLUTION ACCORDING TO SOLUBILITY

1) saturated solution
 contains the maximum amount of solute in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
 a solution in equilibrium with undissolved solute

2) unsaturated solution
 contains less solute than it has the capacity to dissolve a solution not in equilibrium
with dissolved solute more solute can be dissolved

3) supersaturated solution
 contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution unstable solution prep:
heat solution to high temperature, then slowly cool

CONCENTRATION

In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total

volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: mass
concentration, molar concentration, number concentration, and volume concentration. The
term concentration can be applied to any kind of chemical mixture, but most frequently it
refers to solutes and solvents in solutions. The molar (amount) concentration has variants
such as normal concentration and osmotic concentration.

Qualitative Description

These glasses containing red dye demonstrate qualitative changes in concentration.

The solutions on the left are more dilute, compared to the more concentrated solutions on
the right.

Often in informal, non-technical language, concentration is described in

a qualitative way, through the use of adjectives such as "dilute" for solutions of relatively
low concentration and "concentrated" for solutions of relatively high concentration.
To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute (for example, alcohol), or reduce the
amount of solvent (for example, water). By contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add
more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. Unless two substances
are fully miscible there exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a
solution. At this point, the solution is said to be saturated. If additional solute is added to a
saturated solution, it will not dissolve, except in certain circumstances, when super
saturation may occur. Instead, phase separation will occur, leading to coexisting phases,
either completely separated or mixed as a suspension. The point of saturation depends on
many variables such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the
solvent and solute.
Quantitative Description
There are four quantities that describe concentration:
 Mass concentration
The mass concentration   is defined as the mass of a constituent   divided by the
volume of the mixture  :

The SI unit is kg/m3 (equal to g/L).

 Molar concentration
The molar concentration   is defined as the amount of a constituent   (in moles)
divided by the volume of the mixture  :

The SI unit is mol/m3. However, more commonly the unit mol/L (= mol/dm3) is
used.
 Number concentration
The number concentration   is defined as the number of entities of a constituent   
in a mixture divided by the volume of the mixture  :

The SI unit is 1/m3.

 Volume concentration
The volume concentration   (do not confuse with volume fraction) is defined as the
volume of a constituent   divided by the volume of the mixture  :
 Being dimensionless, it is expressed as a number, e.g., 0.18 or 18%; its unit
is 1.

EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION

 The concentration of a solution:

 is a macroscopic property,
 represents the amount of solute dissolved in a unit amount of solvent or of solution,
and
 can be expressed in a variety of ways (qualitatively and quantitatively).

 Qualitative Expressions of Concentration

A solution can be qualitatively described as

 dilute: a solution that contains a small proportion of solute relative to solvent, or

 concentrated: a solution that contains a large proportion of solute relative to
solvent.

Microscopic view of a dilute Microscopic view of a

solution of liquid concentrated solution of liquid
Br2 dissolved in liquid water. Br2 dissolved in liquid water.

 Semi-Quantitative Expressions of Concentration

A solution can be semi-quantitatively described as

 unsaturated: a solution in which more solute will dissolve, or

 saturated: a solution in which no more solute will dissolve.

The solubility of a solute is the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount
of solvent to produce a saturated solution. For example, at 0 oC, we can dissolve a maximum
of 35.7 g of solid NaCl in 100 mL of water (a saturated solution). Any additional solid NaCl
that we add to the saturated solution simply falls to the bottom of the container and does
not dissolve.

 Quantitative Expressions of Concentration

There are a number of ways to express the relative amounts of solute and solvent in a
solution. Which one we choose to use often depends on convenience. For example, it is
sometimes easier to measure the volume of a solution rather than the mass of the solution.

Note that some expressions for concentration are temperature-dependent (i.e., the
concentration of the solution changes as the temperature changes), whereas others are not.
This is an important consideration for experiments in which the temperature does not
remain constant.

Temperature Dependence of Several Concentration Expressions

concentration expression measurements required temperature dependent?
percent composition mass of solute no
(by mass) mass of solution (mass does not change
with temperature)
molarity moles of solute yes
volume of solution (volume changes with
temperature)
molality moles of solute no
mass of solvent (neither mass nor moles
changes with
temperature)
mole fraction moles of solute no
moles of solvent (moles does not change
with temperature)

 Percent Composition (by mass)

We can consider percent by mass (or weight percent, as it is sometimes called) in two
ways:

 The parts of solute per 100 parts of solution.

 The fraction of a solute in a solution multiplied by 100.

We need two pieces of information to calculate the percent by mass of a solute in a

solution:
  The mass of the solute in the solution.
 The mass of the solution.

Use the following equation to calculate percent by mass:

 Molarity

Molarity tells us the number of moles of solute in exactly one liter of a solution. (Note
that molarity is spelled with an "r" and is represented by a capital M.)

We need two pieces of information to calculate the molarity of a solute in a solution:

 The moles of solute present in the solution.

 The volume of solution (in liters) containing the solute.

To calculate molarity we use the equation:

 Molality

Molality, m, tells us the number of moles of solute dissolved in exactly one kilogram of
solvent. (Note that molality is spelled with two "l"'s and represented by a lower case m.)

We need two pieces of information to calculate the molality of a solute in a solution:

 The moles of solute present in the solution.

 The mass of solvent (in kilograms) in the solution.

To calculate molality we use the equation:

 Mole Fraction

The mole fraction, X, of a component in a solution is the ratio of the number of moles
of that component to the total number of moles of all components in the solution.

To calculate mole fraction, we need to know:

  The number of moles of each component present in the solution.

The mole fraction of A, XA, in a solution consisting of A, B, C, ... is calculated using the
equation:

To calculate the mole fraction of B, XB, use:

Colloids

A colloid is one of the three primary types of mixtures, with the other two being
a solution and suspension. A colloid is a solution that has particles ranging between 1 and
1000 nanometers in diameter, yet is still able to remain evenly distributed throughout the
solution. These are also known as colloidal dispersions because the substances remain
dispersed and do not settle to the bottom of the container. In colloids, one substance is
evenly dispersed in another. The substance being dispersed is referred to as being in the
dispersed phase, while the substance in which it is dispersed is in the continuous phase.

Properties of Colloids

In order to be classified as a colloid, the substance in the dispersed phase must be

larger than the size of a molecule but smaller than what can be seen with the naked eye.
This can be more precisely quantified as one or more of the substance's dimensions must
be between 1 and 1000 nanometers. If the dimensions are smaller than this the substance
is considered a solution and if they are larger than the substance is a suspension.

A common method of classifying colloids is based on the phase of the dispersed substance
and what phase it is dispersed in. The types of colloids include sol, emulsion, foam, and
aerosol.
1. Sol is a colloidal suspension with solid particles in a liquid. 
2. Emulsion is between two liquids.
3. Foam is formed when many gas particles are trapped in a liquid or solid. 
4. Aerosol contains small particles of liquid or solid dispersed in a gas. 
 When the dispersion medium is water, the collodial system is often referred to as a
hydrocolloid. The particles in the dispersed phase can take place in different phases
depending on how much water is available. For example, Jello powder mixed in with water
creates a hydrocolloid. A common use for hydrocolloids is in the creation of medical
dressings.

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
URDANETA CITY, PANGASINAN
 PAULANE R. NAVALTA
BEED-I

ENGR. ROSALINA V. COLOBONG

INSTRUCTOR
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
URDANETA CITY CAMPUS
 SUBMITTED BY:
KRISTINE UNICA C. MOLINA
BEED-I

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. ROSALINA V. COLOBONG
INSTRUCTOR