Activity 6

SOLUTIONS

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. It is characterized by its

components. The substance that determines the state of the solution is the solvent. Normally,
the solvent is the component present in the greatest quantity. All other substances in the
solution are called the solutes. Solutions may be classified into six types depending on the
original states (solid, liquid, or gas) of the solution components. Table 1 gives examples of
each of these types.

Table 1. Types of Solutions

SOLUTE SOLVENT STATE OF RESULTING EXAMPLES
SOLUTION
Gas Gas Gas Air
Gas Liquid Liquid Soda water (CO2 in water)
Gas Solid Solid H2 gas in Palladium
Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water
Solid Liquid Liquid NaCl in water
Solid Solid Solid Brass (Cu/Zn), Solder
(Sn/Pb)

Except for gaseous solutions, there is usually an upper limit to the amount of solute that will
dissolve in a given amount of solvent. When the limit has been reached, the solution can hold
no more solute and is said to be saturated. The concentration of a saturated solution is the
solubility of the substance in that particular solvent at a specified temperature.

Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Solubilty

1. Temperature. The solubility of solutes is dependent on temperature. When a solid

dissolves in a liquid, a change in the physical state of the solid analogous to melting
takes place. Heat is required to break the bonds holding the molecules in the solid
together. At the same time, heat is given off during the formation of new solute-solvent
bonds.

CASE I: Decrease in solubility with temperature

If the heat given off in the dissolving process is greater than the heat required to break
apart the solid, the net dissolving reaction is exothermic (energy given off). The
addition of more heat (increases temperature) inhibits the dissolving reaction since
excess heat is already being produced by the reaction (e.g. solubility of calcium oxide
decreases with the increase in temperature). This situation is not very common where
an increase in temperature produces a decrease in solubility.

CASE II: Increase in solubility with temperature

If the heat given off in the dissolving reaction is less than the heat required to break
apart the solid, the net dissolving reaction is endothermic (energy required). The
addition of more heat facilitates the dissolving reaction by providing energy to break
bonds in the solid. This is the most common situation where an increase in temperature
produces an increase in solubility for solids. The use of first-aid instant cold packs is an
application of this solubility principle. A salt such as ammonium nitrate is dissolved in
water after a sharp blow breaks the containers for each. The dissolving reaction is
endothermic (requires heat). Therefore the heat is drawn from the surroundings and
the pack feels cold.
 CASE III: Solubility of Gases vs Temperature
Gases are more soluble in cold solvent than in hot solvent. The reason for this gas
solubility relationship with temperature is very similar to the reason that vapour pressure
increases with temperature. Increased temperature causes an increase in kinetic energy.
The higher kinetic energy causes more motion in molecules, which break intermolecular
bonds and escape from solution. This gas solubility relationship can be remembered if
you think about what happens to a “soda pop” as it stands around for a while at room
temperature. The taste is very “flat” since more of the “tangy” carbon dioxide bubbles
have escaped.

2. Pressure. Liquids and solids exhibit practically no change of solubility with changes in
pressure. Gases as might be expected, increase in solubility with an increase in
pressure. If the pressure is increased, the gas molecules are “forced” into the solution
since this will best relieve the pressure that has been applied. The blood of deep-sea
divers becomes saturated with air under the comparatively high pressure characteristic
of the depths at which such divers work. If this pressure is relieved too rapidly, as by
too rapid an ascent to the surface, the air comes out of solution rapidly and forms
bubbles in the circulatory system of the afflicted diver. When nitrogen (N 2) gas forms
bubbles, it accumulates and saturates the muscles and blood, causing pain. This
condition, known as the “bends”, affects nerve impulses as well as blood circulation and
may be fatal. A solution to the problem involves the use of an artificial atmosphere of
helium and oxygen in place of air which is largely nitrogen and oxygen. Helium is much
less soluble in blood and body fluids than nitrogen.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution

It should be noted that the solubility of a substance and its rate of dissolution are entirely
independent processes. Just because a substance may dissolve at a faster rate does not mean
that it is necessarily more soluble than the substance that dissolves at a slower rate. The rate
of dissolution of a solid can be increased by the following factors:
1. Powdering a solute will increase the surface area that is exposed or in contact with the
solvent and thereby will increase the rate of dissolution (e.g. a gram of an iodized salt
dissolves faster in water than a gram of a rock salt).
2. Agitating (shaking or stirring) a system will bring more solvent into effective contact
with the solute in a shorter period of time and thereby increasing the rate of dissolution.
Moreover, stirring may actually break up the solute into smaller units and thereby
producing the same effects as that of “crushing” the solute.
3. Warming will increase the rate of dissolution of a solute. Most ionic solutes behave in
this way.

CONCENTRATION

Concentration of a solution is a measure of the relative amount of the components in a solution.

It refers to the amount of solute in a given quantity of solution or solvent. It can be expressed
either qualitatively or quantitatively.

Qualitative Ways of Expressing Concentration

Dilute and Concentrated

The concentration of a solution can be expressed either qualitatively or quantitatively.
The terms dilute and concentrated are used to describe a solution qualitatively. A concentrated
solution is one that has a relatively large amount of dissolved solute. A dilute solution is one
that has a relatively small amount of dissolved solute.

Saturated, Unsaturated and Supersaturated

Solutions are characterized by the capacity of the solvent to dissolve a solute. A solution that
contains the maximum amount of solute in a given solvent at a specified temperature is called a
saturated solution. The concentration of this solution corresponds to the solubility of the solute.

When a solution contains less solute than that needed to form a saturated solution, it is said to
be unsaturated. Under suitable conditions, it is possible to form a solution that contains an
amount of solute that exceeds its solubility at room temperature. Such solution is called a
supersaturated solution. It can be prepared by saturating a solution at high temperature,
removing the excess solute, and then allowing the solution to cool undisturbed.

Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration

Percent solution
There are three types of percent solutions. All are parts of solute per 100 total parts of
solution. Based on the following definitions, one may calculate the concentration of a solution
or calculate how to make up a specific concentration.
1. Percent weight by weight (%w/w) or mass percentage is the percent mass of solute in a
total mass of the solution. Thus, a 10% (w/w) NaCl solution is made by weighing 10 g
NaCl and dissolving it in 90 g of solvent, making a total of 100g of solution.

mass of solute , g
% ( w/w ) of solute= x 100 Equation 1
mass of solution , g

mass of solute , g
% ( w/w ) of solute= x 100
mass of solute , g+mass of solvent , g
Note: Solutions of concentrated reagents such as 37% hydrochloric acid and 85% phosphoric
acid are percent solutions by mass. In general, percent solutions are by mass.

Exercise:
1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose in 0.100 kg of water. What is
the mass percentage of the solute in the solution?
2. How many grams of NaCl and water are required to make 100 g of a 20% (w/w)
NaCl solution?

2. Percent weight by volume (%w/v) is the percent weight of solute in a total volume of
solution. Thus, a 4% (w/v) NaCl solution is 4 g of NaCl in 100 mL of solution.

mass of solute , g
% ( w/ v ) of solute= x 100 Equation 2
volume of solution , mL

3. Percent volume by volume is the percent volume of solute in a total volume of solution.
Thus, a 10% (v/v) ethanol solution is 10 mL of ethanol in 100 mL of solution.

volume of solute , mL
% ( v /v ) of solute= x 100 Equation 3
volume of solution ,mL

Mole fraction
The mole fraction of a component of a solution is the ratio of the number of moles of that
component to the total number of moles of all substances present in the solution. It is given by

mole of solute
mole fractionof solute= Equation 4
total moles of solution

mole of solute
mole fractionof solute=
mole of solute +mole of solvent

mass of solute , g
mole of solute= Equation 5
molar mass of solute , g/ mol

Notes:
● Molar mass is the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance. It is numerically equal to
the formula weight in atomic mass unit.
● The sum of the mole fractions of all components of a mixture is always equal to 1.

Parts per million(ppm) and parts per billion(ppb) - for very dilute solutions

Molality
Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
mole solute
molality , m=
kilogram solvent
Equation 6

mass of solute
( )
molar mass of solute
molality , m=
kilogramof solvent

Exercise 3: A solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass (w/w). Calculate the
mole fractions of HCl and H 2O in the solution, and the molality of HCl in the solution. (Hint: It is
often helpful in problems involving mass percentages to assume a certain total mass. Assume
that there are exactly 100g solution. Thus, the solution contains 36 g HCl, and (100g-36g) =
64 g H2O.

Molarity
Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
 mole solute
Molarity , M =
liter of solution
Equation 7

mass of solute
( )
molar mass of solute
Molarity , M =
liter of solution

Normality
Normality (N) is defined as the number of gram-equivalent weights of the solute per liter of
solution.
equivalent solute
Normality , N= Equation 8
liter of solution

mass of solute , g
equivalent solute= Equation 9
equivalent weight

An equivalent weight is defined separately for neutralization and reduction-oxidation reactions.

In general:
molar mass
Equivalent weight = Equation 10
a

where the value of “a” depends upon the type of reaction considered.

For neutralization reactions, equivalent weights are based on the fact that one H +(aq) ion reacts
with one OH- (aq) ion.
H+(aq) + OH – (aq) 🡪 H2O.
One equivalent weight of an acid is the amount of the acid that supplies one mole of H +(aq) ions,
and one equivalent weight of a base is the amount of the base that supplies one mole of OH – (aq)
ions. The value of “a” in Equation 10, therefore, is the number of moles of H +(aq) supplied by
one mole of an acid or the number of moles of OH –(aq) supplied by one mole of the base for the
reaction being considered. As an example, the value of “a” for HCl is one (1) while that of
H2SO4 is two (2).

For reduction-oxidation reactions, equivalent weights are based either on the number of moles
of electrons exchanged or on oxidation number changes. The number of moles of electrons
lost by an oxidation (or the increase in oxidation number) must equal to the number of moles of
electrons gained by the reduction (or the decrease in oxidation number). Hence, “a” in Equation
10 is the number of moles of electrons lost or gained by a mole of the reactant. The value of
“a” can be defined as the total change in oxidation number (either up or down) that the atoms
in a formula unit undergo.

For the half-reaction:

7+ 2+
MnO4 – + 8 H+ + 5 e –
🡪 Mn 2+ + 4 H2O the value of “a” is five (5)

For the half-reaction:

6+ 3+
Cr2O7 2 – + 14 H+ + 6 e –
🡪 2 Cr 3+
+ 7 H2 O the value of “a” is six (6)

The normality (N) of a solution and its molarity (M) are related:
 mass of solute (a)
Normality=
( molar mass of solute ) ( Liter of solution )

mole of solute
Normality= ( a)
liter of solution

Normality=Molarity(a) Equation 11

There is a disadvantage to basing a unit of concentration on the volume of solution, such as

molarity and normality. When the temperature changes, the volume of a solution expands or
contracts and, therefore, a concentration based on that volume changes. The molality of a
given solution does not vary with temperature because masses do not vary with temperature.

Exercise 4:
Given that the density of a solution of 5.0 g toluene (C 7H8) and 225 g of benzene is 0.876 g/mL,
calculate the molality and molarity of the solution. The molar mass of toluene is 92 g/mol.

Exercise 5:
What is the molarity and normality of a solution which is prepared by dissolving 75.0 g of
Ba(OH)2 in water and diluting it to 0.5 L? The molar mass of Ba(OH) 2 is 171 g/mol.

Preparation of Aqueous Solution

The following are the steps in the preparation of an aqueous solution:

1. Obtain an exact mass of the substance (solute) in a clean, dry beaker or any other
container. For more accurate weighing, use an analytical balance.
2. Dissolve the solute with a small amount of distilled or deionized water. If it would not
dissolve readily, heat and stir constantly the mixture until the solute dissolves.
3. Transfer the mixture to a clean volumetric flask.
4. Using a wash bottle containing distilled or deionized water, thoroughly wash the beaker
and add the washings to the volumetric flask.
5. Add more water until the flask is 2/3 full. Swirl the flask to mix.
6. Once the solution is at room temperature, dilute to the mark with water and invert the
flask at least twelve times to mix.
7. Transfer the solution to a clean reagent bottle and label the bottle properly.
Figure 1. Preparation of a solution of known concentration using a solid solute. (Image source:
www.chem.libretext.org)

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_CsM6br4PI

Dilution
Dilution is a commonly used practice in preparing a solution. Mixing orange juice, preparing
canned soup or preparing a proper concentration of pesticide in a spray tank are all dilutions.
In each case we are adding a solvent (usually water) to a solute to lower the solute
concentration. Dilution is therefore a process in which more solvent is added to reduce the
concentration of solute in the original solution.

When doing dilution, decide the volume and concentration of the resulting solution. Use the
following equation to determine how much of the concentrated reagent is needed to prepare
the diluted solution:

C original solution x V original solution=C diluted solution x V diluted solution Equation 12

where C is concentration and V is volume.

Slowly add the calculated volume of concentrated reagent to a proper-sized volumetric flask
half filled with distilled or deionized water and swirl the flask to mix. Once the solution is at
room temperature, dilute to the mark with water and invert the flask at least 12 times to mix.

Figure 2. Preparation of a solution of known concentration by diluting a stock solution. (Image

source: www.chem.libretext.org)

Exercise 6:
What volume of 10 M acetic acid is required to prepare 1.0 L of 0.50 M acetic acid?

Procedure

I. Preparation of 50 mL 10% (w/v) NaOH solution

1. Calculate the mass of solid sodium hydroxide needed to prepare 50 mL of 10% sodium
hydroxide solution.
 2. Weigh the calculated mass of solid sodium hydroxide in a clean and dry small beaker.
3. Add about 15 mL of distilled water to the beaker containing sodium hydroxide and stir to
dissolve the solid.
4. Transfer the solution to a clean 50-mL volumetric flask
5. Rinse the beaker at least three times with distilled water. Add all the washings to the
volumetric flask.
6. Dilute the solution with distilled water to the mark.
7. Mix the solution thoroughly by inverting the flask at least twelve times.
8. Transfer the solution to a clean reagent bottle and label the bottle properly.

II. Preparation of 50 mL HCl solution (1M concentration)

1. Calculate the volume of 6 M HCl needed to prepare 50 mL of HCl solution of desired

concentration.
2. With a pipet, measure exactly the calculated volume of 6 M HCl solution and slowly add
to a 50-mL volumetric flask half filled with distilled water.
3. Dilute the solution with distilled water to the mark and invert the flask at least twelve
times to mix.
4. Transfer the solution to a clean reagent bottle and label the bottle properly.

Reference

Astillo, M.L.A., Autor, J.R., Baltazar, G.J.D., Buncales, E.O., Cabigon, L.G., Coludo, F.E., De Los
Reyes, D.R.R., Enot, M.M., Famador, E.B., Lastimosa, N.C., Lastimosa, Nellie C., Nuenay, M.R.B.
and Navaja, L.M.A.,. 2004. General Chemistry Laboratory Manual. 6 th edition.

Beran, JA. 2014. Laboratory Manual for Principles of General Chemistry, 10 th Edition. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Preparation of Solutions
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Prince_Georges_Community_College/Chemistry_2000%3A_
Chemistry_for_Engineers_(Sinex)/Unit_4%3A_Nomenclature_and_Reactions/Chapter_12%3A_A
queous_Reactions/Chapter_12.1%3A_Preparing_Solutions
 Activity 6
SOLUTIONS

Name: John Wilkins I. Torayno Section: BSED in Science 1B

Date: _November_30, 2020_ Score: _________

I. Preparation of 100 mL 10% (w/v) NaOH solution

Show calculations below:

To prepare 100 mL 10% (w/v) NaOH solution

mass of solute( g)
% solution= x 100
volume of solution(mL)

mass of solute ( g)
10 %= x 100
100 mL

Mass of solute required = 10 q

Hence, dissolve 10 g of NaOH in 100 mL of solution to prepare 10% NaOH w/v solution.

II. Preparation of 100 mL 1 M HCl solution

Show calculations below:

To prepare 100 mL 1 M HCl solution, we need to calculate the number of moles first.

100
solutionvolume=100 mL convert ¿ L =0.1 L
1000

Morality = 1M

Number of moles = molarity x volume

= 1 x 0.1

= 0.1 moles
Calculation of the grams of HCL

Weight = mole x molecular weight

= 0.1 x (36.46)

= 3.65 g

Dissolve 3.65 g of HCl and make it up to 100 Ml.