Topic 8 X Multiracial 

Society 

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the structure and scenario of the Malaysian society before
independence;
2. Explain the history of the formation of a multiracial society in this
country; and
3. Identify the factors resulting in the differences between races along
racial lines.

X INTRODUCTION
A multiracial society refers to a society that consists of various groups of races or
ethnicities but under one leadership. According to J.S. Furnival, a multiracial
society refers to a mixed society of various races. However, the mix in this sense
means interaction but not merging. Each group practises its respective religion
and customs, cultures, language, ideologies and lifestyles. This multiracial society
lives side-by-side, but separated in one political unit. Economically, there exists a
division of jobs according to race or ethnicities.
 TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY W 131

8.1 WHO COMPRISES THE MULTIRACIAL

SOCIETY IN MALAYSIA?
Do you know that there are around 60 ethnic groups, big and small, in Malaysia?
The Malays comprise 54% of the total population in the country, followed by the
Chinese who form 26% of the population. Meanwhile Indians make up 8%, and
the other pribumi races including those in Sabah and Sarawak form 12% of the
population.

8.2 PROCESS OF FORMING A MULTIRACIAL

SOCIETY IN MALAYSIA

8.2.1 Who Inhabited Malaya Before the Existence of a

Multiracial Society?
Do you know that before the existence of the three main communities (Malay,
Chinese and Indian), almost the entire population of Malaya consisted of Malays?
In the early 19th century, more than 90% of the population in the Peninsular of
Malaysia and Singapore were Malays. There was only a small number of Chinese
who had come to Malaya as traders and settled down in Malacca, Kuala
Terengganu, Johor River, Pahang River and Kelantan. Meanwhile, a small number
of Indians worked as labourers in coffee and sugarcane plantations in Penang and
Seberang Prai.

The immigration of Chinese and Indians on a large scale to Malaya started in the
middle of the 19th century. This phenomenon occurred as a result of British
colonial policy of bringing in those races, especially to move the economic sector.
The 19th century actually saw the British domination of the political and
economic structures in Malaya on a wider scale. Tin mining was the source of
wealth in Malaya, and was exploited to its fullest by the British. To support the
capitalist economic activities, the British brought in Chinese and Indian labourers
to not only work in tin mines, but in other economic sectors as well. This
phenomenon continued till the outbreak of World War II.

The significant effect of the liberal policies by the British was the forming of a
multiracial society and the various lifestyles and races. The mass immigration has
changed the original population structure in Malaysia.
132 X TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY

The multiracial society in Malaya caused the British to govern the people
separately. This policy is known as Âdivide and ruleÊ. This policy led to the decline
of Bumiputra participation, but also led to specialisation among the immigrants
and ensured the segregation of each race. Hence, the immigrants were allowed to
maintain their respective identities and cultures while direct relations with other
races, especially the Bumiputras, were frowned upon.

8.2.2 Who are the Malays?

The Malays are the original inhabitants of Malaya. The Malays today are in
greater numbers due to the entry of various Malay groups from other islands to
Malaya. Since the 19th century, there had been an influx of Indonesian Malays to
Malaya. This immigration occurred as a result of political, economic and social
standards that could ensure their comfort. These Indonesian communities also
came from various islands such as Java, Sumatera, Sulawesi and Riau.

Before colonialisation, the main economic activity of the coastal Malays was trade.
Trade was primarily carried out along the main rivers in the Malay States. Hence,
the traditional Malay kingdoms were focused on the banks and river mouths. For
the states on the East coast of the peninsular, the inhabitants were involved in
fishing and farming. For the women in Kelantan and Terengganu, many took part
in small trade activities. From this scenario, it is clear that the Malay economy in
the Malay States was based on trade as well as self-sufficing economies like
farming, livestock, fishing and collecting forest produce.

However, the economic domination by the Malays on the state economies

gradually changed and declined after the interference of the British in local
political affairs. The influx of labourers also altered the economic structure of the
Malay community.

As a result of one-sided trade, the economic performance of the Malays during the
colonial period stagnated and declined. Many losses were endured by the Malays.
Besides economic domination by foreign labourers, the British themselves
contributed to the decline of the Malays. In farming, for example, the British
created policies that ensured the Malays remained as self-sufficing farmers. The
Malays were also not encouraged to participate in the modern economic sector.
The British justification was that they did not want the customs and traditions of
the Malays to be affected by modernisation. The Malays were also alleged to be
reluctant to work under the supervision of others. Therefore they were said to
have preferred to work by themselves.
 TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY W 133

8.2.3 The Chinese Community

The mass immigration of Chinese occurred after the British took control of Penang
from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786, the takeover of Singapore from the Sultan of
Johor in 1819 and after the creation of the Straits Settlements in 1826. Most of these
Chinese communities originated from the Kwangtung and Tukuin provinces.
Many also came from the districts of Amoy, Sen-Yu, Hok-Chiu and Eng Chon. At
the early stages, the Chinese labourers were concentrated at early mining sites like
Lukut and Sungai Ujong. The immigration increased as mining activities boomed.
In the 19th and 20th century, the Chinese communities diverged on mining areas
in Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. Chinese entry into Malaya also was
channelled through the gambier and pepper plantations. The Chinese were
brought to Johor via the Kangchu System using authorisation letters called ÂSurat
SungaiÊ.

The British encouraged the entry of Chinese labourers by approving several

related laws. For example, in 1877 the Chinese Immigrants and the Crimpling
Ordinance were approved. The department of Protection of the Chinese was
established to protect Chinese labourers. The Chinese who migrated to Malaya
actually comprised various groups like the Hokkiens, Cantonese, Hakkas,
Teochews and Hailams.

8.2.4 The Indian Community

The migration of Indians to Malaya occurred on a large scale from 1840s onwards.
Most Indian labourers originated from the South India. The Indian labourers
started off as workers in coffee and sugarcane plantations in Seberang Perai. The
number of Indian labourers increased when rubber plantations sprouted all over
Malaya. Hence, the Indians focused on rubber plantation areas in Perak, Selangor
and Negeri Sembilan. Records show that from 1900 to 1910, around 48 000 Indian
labourers migrated to Malaya. This number increased greatly 10 years later,
between 1911 and 1920 when it was estimated that 908 000 Indian labourers
migrated to Malaya.

Records show that 90% of the immigrants were Tamils from Chennai, while the
rest were of Telegu and Malayam ethnicities. There were also Punjabis and
Ceylonese. The largest Indian ethnicity was the Tamils who formed 80% of the
total Indian population while Malayalees consisted 7% and Telegus 4%. Most
Tamils worked in rubber estates as labourers. There were also those that served in
government departments in the early 20th century. The Telegus also worked in
the estates, while the Punjabis initially served in the police force and railway
services as well as security guards.
134 X TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY

Indian labourers working in Malaya either migrated willingly or were forced to

migrate. The latter comprised prisoners or captives who worked in building
roads, railway tracks, bridges and government buildings. Those who came
willingly usually worked in the rubber, coffee and sugarcane plantations. The
most popular system utilised in bringing in Indian labourers was the Kangani
System. According to this system, a labourer who had worked in Malaya would
return to India in efforts to bring in new labourers to work with him in Malaya.
This person was termed Kangani. However, this system was abolished in 1938.
There was also a system called the Contract System where a labourer worked for a
stipulated period as stated in the contract.

8.2.5 Who are the Pribumi Inhabitants of Sarawak?

Sarawak has a certain population distribution due to the existence of various
indigenous tribes with unique identities. Sarawak had a land area of 48250 square
miles. Of the total Sarawak population, approximately 70% consists of
Bumiputras. The Ibans are the largest group followed by the Bidayuhs. The Ibans
inhabit all parts of Sarawak, especially along the river banks. The Bidayuhs are
more concentrated in the First Division, in the districts of Serian, Kuching, Bau
and Lundu.

In Sarawak, most Malays inhabit the lower parts of the river valleys, especially in
the First and Second Divisions, as well as in small parts of the Third, Fourth and
Fifth Divisions. Other than the Malays, there are many Melanau tribes inhabiting
the coastal areas, but they are more concentrated in the Third, Fourth and Fifth
Divisions. There are also the Kadayan and Bisayan tribes who inhabit the fringes
of the Fourth and Fifth Divisions.

The low plains are mostly inhabited by the Ibans (Sea Dayak) and Bidayuhs (Land
Dayaks). They are settled at the upper rivers as opposed to the Malays and
Melanau, but lower than the Kenyah, Kayan and Penan tribes.

The mountainous regions are inhabited by other tribes known as the Orang Ulu.
They comprise of minority ethnicities like the Kelabit, Murut and Penan tribes.
The total number of these tribes amounts to no more than 5% of the total Sarawak
population. Most of the inhabitants of the mountainous regions are permanently
settled, except for the Penans who still practise a nomadic lifestyle. They live in
the forests of the Fourth and Seventh Divisions.
 TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY W 135

8.2.6 Who are the Pribumi Inhabitants of Sabah?

In Sabah, the main groups are the Kadazan-Dusun, Murut and Bajau ethnicities
where the Kadazan-Dusun forms the largest ethnicity in Sabah. According to a
population census in 2000, the Kadazan-Dusun comprises 18.4% of the total
Malaysian population, followed by the Bajau at 17.3% and Malays at 15.3%.

8.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A MULTIRACIAL

SOCIETY
The main characteristics of a multiracial society in Malaysia are:
(a) Different religions and beliefs; and
(b) Different cultures and customs.

8.3.1 Religions and Beliefs

(a) The Malay Society
Each race has its respective religion and belief. As you are aware, Malays
practise the Islamic faith. Islam was brought to Malaya in the 14th or 15th
century. The Malay Malacca Sultanate was renowned as an imperial centre
that played an important role in the spread and establishment of Islam in the
region. Hence, from year to year, Islam remained the main belief of the
Malay community in Malaya. Overall, the teachings of Islam aim to:
(i) Produce humans who have the correct concept of belief, that is, belief
in the powers of Allah only;
(ii) Produce humans who have an organised and systematic lifestyle in
every aspect of their lives; and
(iii) Produce humans responsible as AllahÊs Caliphs on Earth, and thus to
know who they are and have a direction in life.

(b) The Chinese Society

The Chinese practise Buddhism, Christianity and more. Among the beliefs
practised by the Chinese is Taoism. Taoism is a system of belief and
philosophy. TaoismÊs influence is vast. This belief enriched Confucianism
and helped expand the teachings of Buddha, as well as provide spirit,
inspirations and morals to the Chinese. This belief leans towards a love of
nature and peace. Taoism originates from the word Tao which means ÂThe
WayÊ.
136 X TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY

Another faith popular among the Chinese is Confucianism. The founder of

this teaching was Kung Fu Tze (Confucius) who was born in 551 BC and
passed away at 72. He received his educations and once served as a
magistrate and a minister. He spent a lot of time looking through old
manuscripts and delivering noble teachings about life. He taught a lot of
social and moral philosophies as well as guidelines of conduct based on
abstract values such as care, love, peace, harmony, humanity, wisdom,
courage and loyalty.

Confucius also introduced an important system of morals known as the Five

Relationships (Wu Lun) which are relationships between:
(i) Ruler and people;
(ii) Husband and wife;
(iii) Father and child;
(iv) Siblings; and
(v) Friends.

(c) The Indian Society

Like the Chinese, the Indians also arrived at Malaya with the religions and
beliefs practised in their homeland. The most followed religion is Hinduism.
Hinduism is a religion that originated in the Indian subcontinent with its
foundations in the Vedic civilisation. It has no known founder, being itself a
conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions. Hinduism provides a vast
body of scriptures. These scriptures expound on a broad of range of
theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and
guidance on the practice of dharma (religious living).

There are several features in Hinduism, among which are:

(i) Belief in One Supreme Being

Each Hindu follows different methods of self-realisation and worship
different aspects of the one supreme God. Although there are many
different gods and goddesses, each represents or manifests one
Supreme Being.

(ii) Karma and the Concept of Reincarnation

The Hindu society believes their birth into a caste is influenced by their
conduct in the previous life. This is due to their belief in reincarnation.
Therefore, to ensure their reincarnation into a noble caste, their
behaviour during life has to be good and well-mannered. The element
that determines which caste they enter after reincarnation is called
 TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY W 137

Karma. Hence, the karmic rules have to be followed to ensure

happiness, peace and longevity.
(iii) Vedic Scriptures
The Vedic scriptures are guidelines in the Hindu Society. The
scriptures contain life stories, political practises, cultures, places, attire,
drinks and such. The scriptures also contain predictions of the arrival
of a prophet. Originally there were only three VedasăRig Veda, Sama
Veda and Yajur Veda. Later on, Atharva, Brahmanas, Aranyakas,
Upanisads and more were added.

(d) Sarawak Society

Overall, the Ibans do not practise a particular religion. They still hold on to
their animistic beliefs and these beliefs have now been influenced by Hindu-
Buddha practices. After the arrival of Western forces, Christianity was
brought in. This phenomenon led to the spread of Christianity among a
large number of Ibans. The Malays in Sarawak practise Islam, which forms
their village features like unity, polite mannerisms, responsibility towards
the welfare of the entire community and such. In every village, there are
mosques that functions as the centre for all religious activities besides
worship. Religious schools also functioned as centres for Islamic activities.

(e) Sabah Society

The Kadazan-Dusun society, the biggest society in Sabah, practises animistic
beliefs. A small part of the community has embraced Islam and Christianity.
However, in the rural areas, many are still pagans. The Kadazan-Dusun
believes the existence of heaven and earth. For the pagans, they believe that
the spirit of the dead will go to Mount Kinabalu.

8.3.2 Cultures and Customs

The Malays
Malays speak Bahasa Melayu. Before the arrival of Westerners, Malays used Jawi
as a form of writing, influenced by Arab traders since the Malay Malacca
Sultanate. There are two customs that are practised by the Malays in Malaya, the
Adat Perpatih and Adat Temenggung. Adat Perpatih is practised by the Malay
community in Negeri Sembilan. This custom places emphasis on concepts on
democracy and cooperation.
138 X TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY

The Chinese
Among the cultures and customs of the Chinese are:

(a) Chinese Calendar

The Chinese calendar starts from the first day of the new moon and ends
after 29 or 30 days. Each year has twelve months and known by certain
animals. After a cycle of twelve years, the first zodiac is repeated. These
zodiacs are rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, goat, monkey, cock,
dog and pig.

(b) Desire to Have a Male Firstborn

The desire to have sons runs deep in the Chinese community because sons
retain the family name and will conduct the rituals for departed parents.

(c) Education
Since thousands of years ago, the Chinese had stressed on education. In 19th
and 20th century in Malaya, Chinese children comprised the highest number
of students compared to the Malays and Indians. The Chinese believe that,
no matter how poor a person is, he or she should be given equal
opportunities for education. It is hoped that education would be able to
advance a family and assist relatives in the future.

(d) Funeral Rituals

The Chinese often have processions when there are any death. The
procession is accompanied by music and bands, and usually incurs high
costs. Therefore a person celebrating 60th birthday is considered qualified to
enter the Âcoffin associationÊ and is therefore required to pay a monthly fee
to obtain a good coffin upon his or her death.

The Indians
The Indians also have their own cultures and traditions. These cultures were also
brought over from India and have now undergone assimilation with local
cultures. The Indian society is divided into certain social hierarchies. In the caste
system, the Hindus are divided into four social hierarchies, which are:
(a) Brahmin ă consists of nobles and religious leaders. This class is equated to
the status of the creatorÊs head.
(b) Ksyatria ă consists of warriors and is considered the hand of the creator.
(c) Vaisya ă consists of commoners who mostly work as traders or artisans and
equated to status of the thigh of the creator.
(d) Sudra ă consists of slaves equated to the status of the feet of the creator.
 TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY W 139

The Indians celebrate various festivals. Three main festivals are Deepavali,
Thaipusam and Thai Ponggal. There are also several festivals celebrated in certain
temples throughout Malaysia.

Sarawak Society
The Ibans practise a popular ancient culture called head hunting. A man will hunt
for an enemyÊs head to be shown to his potential in-laws or as a symbol of being a
warrior. This custom is now no longer practised. The Ibans practise a concept of
cooperation called Âutai basai gagamitÊ (there are no big problems that cannot be
solved). The Ibans stay in longhouses, which are inhabited by several families. A
longhouse is divided into several rooms and each room inhabited by the core of
the family. The kelabit longhouses do not have rooms for families, but just rooms
that separate the outside from the inside.

Sabah Society
The Kadazan-Dusun society in Sabah also has many cultures and customs. For
example, if there is a death, the funeral ceremony involves the entire community.
Bonfires are lit to chase away ghosts and evil spirits. There are also the concepts of
ÂmihadÊ (crying for the corpse), ÂmemojokÊ (bathing the corpse), ÂmengumanÊ
(decorations and clothing the corpse), ÂlobongÊ (grave) and ÂpenukupÊ (feast).

For births, the process of naming babies involves discussion with family members
and neighbours. The ÂmintuhunÊ custom is a custom of touching the babyÊs feet on
the ground.

Discuss racial unity as an important constant in determining political, economic

and social stability.

ACTIVITY 8.1
(a) In the context of racial relations in Malaysia, we only interact in the
offices, workplaces and markets but we do not share problems
across the boundaries of these places. What is your opinion?

(b) Discuss racial unity as an important constant in determining

political, economic and social stability.
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8.4 IMPACTS ON ETHNIC RELATIONS

The following are the impacts of multiracial society on ethnic relations.

8.4.1 Different Religions and Cultures

Each ethnic group has different religions and cultures. The Malays practise Islam
while a large number of Indians are Hindus. Most Chinese practise a mixture of
Buddhism, Lao-Tze and Confucianism. There are also many Chinese and Indians
who are Christians. Each main race has cultures, language, arts and values that
differ from one another.

8.4.2 Divide and Rule Policy

The British policy of divide and rule affected ethnic relations in Malaysia. Have
we ever asked if this was intentionally done or was there a hidden agenda? Ethnic
segregation implemented by the British under the pretext of security and interests
actually served to isolate each group. The British intentionally set different status
and roles for the Malays, Chinese and Indians. For example, among the Malays,
the nobles were given lucrative positions in the civil service, while the commoners
were encouraged to continue living in the rural areas. The Chinese, on the other
hand, were encouraged to stay in the mining and town areas with the Indians in
the estates. Interactions between the races were limited to conversations in the
office and marketplace. Hence, each race lived among their own kind and did not
think of resisting the British. This British policy has stuck on till today and would
take a long time to change.

8.4.3 Separate Systems of Education

As independence approached, there was still no single national system of
education in Malaya. What existed were four different channels of educations-
British, Malay, Chinese and Indian. Each ethnic group would send children to
primary schools using their respective mother tongue. Hence, there were no
interactions among students of different ethnicities. The curriculum in these
schools also differed. The Malay schools stressed on reading, writing and
counting while the Chinese and Indian schools were based on curriculum from
their respective countries. This formed differing perspectives on the world in
general and enhanced the ethnic differences among the Malays, Chinese and
Indians. Since schools used their own ethnic languages, there was no single
medium of instruction in schools, which lasted until 1970 and resulted in a lack of
understanding and unity among the races. In todayÊs context, the setting up of
 TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY W 141

national type schools still continues, though the usage of mother tongue as the
medium of instruction remains a heated issue.

8.4.4 Different Economic Roles

As a result of British colonialism, each race was identified by its economic role.
The Malays usually lived in the rural areas and practised an economic system of
self-sustaining farming in villages. The Indians lived on rubber estates and
worked for generations as rubber tappers, while the Chinese worked in mines and
as traders in towns. This phenomenon has continued till today where race
identification by economic activity is still prevalent. Though there are Malays and
Indians in the professional sectors, they still cannot match the strength of the
Chinese in trade and businesses. Why does this occur? Should we blame the
colonialists?

8.4.5 Different Living Areas

The classification of races based on residence is also still prevalent. Though the
history of this type of racial identification has long passed, this still lingers in
todayÊs society. The Chinese mainly inhabit the towns and cities, while the Malays
still live on the fringes of cities and in villages. So do the Indians. This
phenomenon can be seen throughout Malaysia, including Sabah and Sarawak.

8.4.6 Different Economic Activities

At the early days of independence, the Malays, Chinese and Indians were
involved in different economic activities. Most Malays in the rural areas were
farmers, fishermen or rubber tappers. Most Chinese were involved in the business
and mining sectors while a large number of Indians were labourers in estates.
However, though Malaysia has progressed, division of races according to
economic activity is still evident where most Chinese are involved in business and
trade, while the Malay numbers in these sectors are still small. The Malays are still
active in sub-professional careers. As a result of different economic activities,
there exists a gap in income among the races, with the majority of poor being
Malays. This has given rise to economic competitions and dissatisfaction among
ethnicities that could jeopardise national unity.
142 X TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY

8.4.7 Ethnic Associations

The existence of various political, economic and social associations based on
ethnicities has also strengthened ethnic identities and suspicions. This is because
these associations only fight for the rights of the ethnicities represented. Race-
based political bodies often exploit differences like language, cultures and
economics among the various ethnicities for their own political interests. This
creates tension among the races in Malaysia. The communal political parties and
their actions also affect ethnic relations. Each race in Malaysia is represented by
their respective parties. It is most unfortunate if a particular race is so engrossed
with their political party that they lose sight of national unity.

8.4.8 Communal Newspapers

Publications of various languages for certain races have created
misunderstandings among different ethnicities.

8.4.9 Geographical Factor

Geography also has an effect on ethnic relations in Malaysia, especially among
races in the Peninsular and in Sabah and Sarawak. In this case, the problem of
interaction is the main factor preventing citizens in the Peninsular from being
close to the people from Sabah and Sarawak.

ACTIVITY 8.2

(a) Is the introduction of Ethnic Studies as a subject an easy step in

more effective ethnic relations? What are your views?

(b) In your opinion, what are the main factors that have strained ethnic
relations in Malaysia? Is it due to economic, political or social
factors?
 TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY W 143

• The existence of a multiracial society is a priceless gift.

• This adds to the diversity of cultures and languages.

• In fact, our diversity has made Malaysia famous around the world.

Colonialisation Multiracial society

Confucianism Self-sustaining economy
Ethnicities

Hasnah Binti Hussiin, & Mardiana Nordin. (2002). Pengajian Malaysia. (Edisi
Kedua). Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti, Sdn. Bhd.