85

CHAPTER 7
EVALUATION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

7.1 Introduction
There is a growing realization throughout the World for a more rational approach for
evaluation of pavement because of high cost of new road construction and limited financial
resources for maintenance of roads. The major objective of pavement evaluation system is to
assist highway engineer in making timely cost-effective decision related to the maintenance
and rehabilitation of pavements. In developing countries like India, large road networks built at
great expenses, have been inadequately maintained and used more heavily than expected. From
economy point of view, it is desirable that adequate maintenance operation be carried out
before the existing roads get appreciably deteriorated. The pavement evaluation system enables
timely planning and execution of appropriate maintenance programmes.
There are two main methods of conducting performance evaluation of flexible pavement
viz,
a. Structural evaluation and
b. Functional evaluation.

7.2 Structural Evaluation

This deals with the assessment of structural adequacy of the pavement for rehabilitation.
It is a quantitative evaluation and is of vital importance to highway engineers. Structural
adequacy is the primary response of pavement to transient loads and consists in deformation,
deflection, stresses, strain and permanent deformation at critical points in pavement layers.
Deflection criteria are widely used as a tool for structural evaluation.
7.2.1 Deflection studies using Benkelman Beam Test
The Benkelman beam method is one of the methods for measuring surface deflections
in field. A pavement is regarded as having insufficient strength if the deflection measured
under a test load exceeds a pre-determined value related to the traffic expected. In case
where the structure has to be strengthened, the observed deflection serves as the basis for
determining the thickness of the overlay to be applied.
 86

Benkelman Beam deflection measurements are preceded by a rating survey of the

road condition so as to divide it into homogeneous sections of approximately similar
serviceability.
Benkelman Beam Deflection studies are one of the non-destructive techniques for the
structural evaluation of flexible pavements. A well compacted pavement section or one which
has been well conditioned by traffic, deforms elastically under each wheel load application
such that when the load moves away, there is an elastic recovery or rebound deflection of the
deformed pavement surface. This is the basic principle of deflection method of pavement
evaluation.
The maximum deflection under a design wheel load depends on several factors such
as sub grade soil properties, moisture in t h e sub grade, p a v e m e n t thickness and its
composition, temperature of the pavement and loading particulars etc. Therefore the amount
of pavement deflection under a design wheel load or its rebound deflection on removal of this
load is a measure of the structural stability of the pavement system under the prevailing
condition of the test. Larger rebound deflection indicates weaker pavement structure.
The increased intensity of utility cuts on pavements will be one of the major
contributors towards the structural deterioration of pavements. Hence the Benkelman
Beam Deflection studies conducted on such affected roads highlights the deteriorated state of
the pavement structure.
7.2.1.1 Description of Benkelman Beam Equipment
The Benkelman Beam shown in Fig.7.1 has a movable beam attached through a fulcrum
to a fixed base which rests on the pavement surface. The beam apparatus is placed on the
road surface with the extreme end or tip of the beam resting and remaining on the
pavement surface at the point where the deflection is to be measured. Movement of the tip of
the beam is measured by a dial gauge, which is in contact with the other end of the beam.
The fulcrum of the beam is at a point one third of the distance between the tip and dial gauge.
This causes the movement recorded by the dial gauge to be one half of the actual pavement
deflection. Since pavement deflection depends on wheel loading, tyre characteristics, and wheel
and axle configuration, these factors are specified in the standard test. The test vehicle is
suitably ballasted to impose a load on the rear axle of 6350 kg and is fitted with dual
wheels.
 87

Essentially the device consists of:

a. Aluminum base section b. Aluminum probe beam – 2 sections c. Battery operated buzzer
d. Adjustable rear support e. Dial gauge (25 mm traveling distance, 0.01 mm graduation)
mounted with a 45° mirror and f. Spirit level

Fig. 7.1: Benkelman Beam Deflection Equipment

 88

Investigation of deflection on a stretch of road using Benkelman Beam Deflection

Equipment is shown in Fig.7.2.

Fig. 7.2: Benkelman Beam Measurement

 89

The Benkelman Beam deflections were measured at 20 points in each kilometer,

staggered at 50 meter interval in both directions with truck having rear axle load of 8.17
tones and tyre pressure of 5.6 kg/cm2. The measurements were taken as per CGRA
procedure laid down in IRC: 81-1997. The test alignment is shown in Fig.7.3

7.0 m

END OF SEGMENT

900 0.9 900

0.9

800 800

700 700

600 600
CHAINAGE

CHAINAGE
500 500

400
400

300 300

200 200

100 100
100

100
50
START OF SEGMENT

0.9 0.9

(ALL DIMENSIONS IN METRES)

Fig. 7.3: Benkelman Beam Deflection Test Alignment Setup

 90

7.2.1.2Test method reference

TRRL Report 833, 834 and 835
RCA Technical Bulletin No. 33 March 1986

Table 7.1: Details of Test Vehicle

7.2.1.3 Procedure
Based on the pavement condition survey, the road length to be surveyed is divided
into homogeneous sections. The loading points on the pavement for deflection measurements
are located along the wheel paths on a line 0.9m from the pavement edge in the case of
pavements of total width more than 3.5m and the distance from the edge is reduced to 0.6m on
narrower pavements. A minimum of ten deflection observations is taken on each of the
selected stretch of pavement. The lane distances are given in Table.7.2.
 91

Table 7.2: Experimental Setup of Lane Distances

The truck was driven slowly parallel to the edge and stopped such that the left side rear
dual wheel is centrally placed over the first point for deflection measurement. The probe end
of the Benkelman beam is inserted between the gaps of the dual wheel and is placed exactly
over the deflection observation point. When the dial gauge reading is stationary the initial
dial gauge reading Do is noted. The truck is moved forward slowly through a distance of 2.7m
from the point and stopped. The intermediate dial gauge reading Di is noted when the rate of
recovery of the pavement is less than 0.025mm per minute. The truck is then driven forward
through a further distance of 9.0m and the final dial gauge reading Df is recorded as before. The
three deflection dial readings Do, Di, and Df form a set of readings at one deflection point under
consideration. Similarly the truck is moved to the next deflection point and the
procedure is repeated. The temperature of the pavement surface is recorded at intervals of one
hour during the study. The moisture content of the sub grade soil is also to be determined at
suitable intervals, the rebound deflection value D at any point is given by one of the
following two conditions

(i) If Di - Df ≤ 2.5 divisions of the dial gauge or 0.025mm, D = 2 (Do - Df) divisions of
0.01mm units = 0.02 (Do - Df) mm
(ii)If Di - Df ≥ 2.5 divisions of the dial gauge or 0.025mm, this indicates that correction is
needed for the vertical movement of the front legs.
Therefore D = 2 (Do - Df) + 2 K (Di - Df) divisions.
 92

The value of K is to be determined for every make of the Benkelman Beam and is given by
the relation:

K = (3d – 2e)/f
Where, d = distance between the bearing of the beam and the rear adjusting leg
e = distance between the dial gauge and rear adjusting leg
f = distance between the front and rear legs.

The value of K of Benkelman Beam generally available in India is found to be 2.91. Therefore,
the deflection value in case (ii) with leg correction is given by:
D = 0.02 (Do - Df) + 0.0582 (Di - Df) mm
The transverse section spacing is shown in Table.7.3.
Table 7.3: Traverse Section Spacing

7.2.1.4 Effect of Temperature on Deflection

Variation in temperature results in significant changes in the stiffness of bituminous

material and in the strength and stiffness of pavement layers. The stiffness may be reduced by a
factor of between 5 and 10 (depending on the duration of the applied load) as its
temperature is increased from 10°C to 30°C. The temperature of bituminous surfacing must
therefore be recorded during deflection testing so that appropriate adjustments can be made
during the analysis and design phases.
 93

7.2.1.5 Effect of Moisture on Deflection

In other countries a slight increase in pavement deflection has been noted during the
spring to early summer months, possibly resulting from higher moisture contents under the
pavement at these times. However, the seasonal effect of moisture is not a straight forward
rainfall/deflection relationship. It is affected by many factors including surface infiltration,
permeability of the pavement layers and sub grade, evaporation and drainage conditions at the
site. The evaporation and drainage factors limit the quantity of water available to infiltrate
the pavement and the sub grade, whilst permeability influences the rate of infiltration
and consequently the time lag between the incidence of rain and its effect on deflection. The
effect has yet to be quantified.
7.2.1.6 Applications
Deflection measurements may be obtained by means of Benkelman Beams,
Deflect graph, or Falling Weight Deflect meter. These devices use the similar Principle of
operation, but results obtained may not be identical in all cases. If devices other than
Benkelman Beam are used, conversion from any given measured deflection. Value to the
equivalent Beam deflection measured at a pavement Temperature of 20°C, 40 mm below the
surface is necessary.

Deflection Beam measurement is a very good measurement of the structural response of

a pavement to a given axle loading, moving at creep speed. Deflection parameters are used
as a guide to improve the strength and stiffness of a pavement, as a guide to the future
performance of a pavement, as a means of determining how much strengthening/stiffening of a
pavement is needed to satisfy specified design criteria, to monitor change in the structural
performance of a pavement resulting from variations in the environment or specific
maintenance activities. To locate deficiencies, and assist in determination of their causes, to
assess the uniformity of pavement strength during or shortly after construction, and to monitor
long term pavement performance, as one of the inputs which may be used to describe
pavement condition.
 94

7.2.1.7 Correction for Seasonal Variations

Correction for seasonal variation shall depend on type of sub grade soil, its field
moisture content (at the time of deflection survey) and average annual rainfall in the area.
Hence the moisture correction factors (or seasonal correction factors) shall be obtained from
the charts given in IRC: 81 – 1997 for given field moisture content, type of sub grade soil
and annual rainfall.
The limits of Benkelman Beam Deflection are given in Table 7.4.

Table7.4: The limits of BBD data is given based on the rebound deflection.

Rebound Deflection (mm) Strength of pavement

0.5-1 Reasonably strong
1-2 Moderate
2-3 Weak
>3 Very Weak (permanent Deformation)

Table 7.5 shows the values observed during Benkelman Beam Deflection Test carried out
on Vilachery Main Road.
 95

Table 7.5: BENKELMAN BEAM TEST- Vilacherry Main Road

Road Monitoring and research laboratory – Thiagarajar College of Engineering, Madurai- 15

Benkelman Beam Deflection Study
Project CPCB/TCE MoU Pavement Temperature: 47oC
Name
Road Name Vilacherry Main Road Moisture Content 3.3043
Date 18/08/2007
D0 Di Df Do- Di D0 – Di- Deflection Temperature Moisture Corrected Mean Std Characteristic
(d1) Df Df after Leg Correction Correction Deflection Dev Deflection in
(d2) Correction Factor Factor mm mm
100 81 75 19 25 06 0.85 0.12 1.31 0.96
100 62 60 38 40 02 0.92 0.12 1.31 1.05
100 90 86 10 24 04 0.71 0.12 1.31 0.81
100 57 54 43 46 03 1.10 0.12 1.31 1.29
100 75 73 25 27 02 0.66 0.12 1.31 0.71 0.94 0.47 1.41
100 90 87 10 13 03 0.43 0.12 1.31 0.41
100 72 68 28 32 04 0.87 0.12 1.31 1.02
100 74 69 20 31 05 0.91 0.12 1.31 1.04
100 60 58 40 42 02 0.96 0.12 1.31 1.10
100 72 68 28 32 04 0.87` 0.12 1.31 0.98

95
 96

Table 7.6 shows the consolidated rebound deflection values observed in the study areas
during various time periods. Fig. 7.4 shows the pictorial representation of consolidated
deflection values.

Table 7.6: Consolidated Rebound Deflection Values

Study Area May 2007 August 2007 November 2007 February 2008 May 2008
I 0.67 0.65 0.69 0.60 0.55
II Short road Short road Short road Short road Short road
III 0.75 0.80 0.82 0.79 0.075
IV 0.89 0.91 0.92 0.85 1.5
V 0.92 0.94 0.94 0.86 0.81
VI 0.88 0.93 0.91 0.84 0.81
VII 0.82 0.88 0.89 0.86 0.81
VIII 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.80
IX 1.93 1.63 1.56 1.55 0.81

Benkelman Beam Test

2.5
SITE - I

2 SITE - II

SITE - III

1.5
SITE - IV

SITE - V
1
SITE - VI

0.5 SITE - VII

SITE - VIII
0
May-07 Aug-07 Nov-07 Feb-08 May-08 SITE - IX

Fig. 7.4: Consolidated Rebound Deflection Values (mm)

 97

The Benkelman Beam Test was carried out to determine the rebound deflection of the
pavement.
The rebound deflection values of the plastic tar road are less than 1. This shows that
these stretches are reasonably strong.
7.2.2 Field Density by Sand Replacement Method
The studies on field density are normally carried out before laying and after laying to
ensure the correct process of laying. Fig.7.5 shows the field density measurement undertaken.
Our study of Field Density is to find out the change, if any, on the field density of
plastic tar road laid at different time interval. It is observed that the field densities are very near
to the ideal value and field density over the period of six months has increased in the
case of plastic - tar road and that of bituminous road is relatively less. This shows that there is
an increase in compaction due to the presence of polymer layer and this results in better
binding. The road has not developed any pothole, raveling etc. These observations are
supported by the Field Density data shown in Table 7.7 and in Fig. 7.6.

Fig. 7.5: Field Density Measurement

 98

Table 7.7: Consolidated Field Density Values

Study Area May 2007 August 2007 November 2007 February 2008 May 2008

I 2.62 2.39 2.36 2.33 2.30

II 2.53 2.45 2.50 2.45 2.40
III 2.46 2.63 2.69 2.32 2.30
IV 2.28 2.40 2.45 2.55 2.50
V 2.89 2.30 2.30 2.30 2.25
VI 2.64 2.70 2.65 2.75 2.80
VII 2.75 2.45 2.40 2.56 2.50
VIII 2.86 2.36 2.35 2.82 2.79
IX 2.15 2.11 2.09 2.05 2.00

Field Density Values

3.5
SITE - I
3
SITE - II

2.5 SITE - III

2 SITE - IV

1.5 SITE - V

SITE - VI
1
SITE - VII
0.5
SITE - VIII
0
May-07 Aug-07 Nov-07 Feb-08 May-08 SITE - IX

Fig. 7.6: Consolidated Field Density Values

It is observed in general that the Densities of the plastic tar are not reducing drastically
when compared with the bituminous road. This shows that there is an increase in compaction
due to the presence of polymer layer and this result in better binding. The road has not
developed any pothole, raveling etc.
 99

7.3 Functional Evaluation of Flexible Pavement

It is primarily a qualitative evaluation which is concerned with serviceability
performance and deals mainly with overall behavior of a pavement and rates a pavement for its
riding quality to vehicular traffic. This aspect is of major concern to highway users and it is
therefore sometimes called as User Oriented Evaluation.
7.3.1 Roughness Test
Roughness is defined as “The deviation of a surface from a true planar surface with
characteristic dimensions that affect vehicle dynamics and ride Quality" (American society for
testing and materials specification E867-82A). The unevenness / roughness index is defined as
ratio of the cumulative vertical displacement to the distance traveled and is expressed in
mm/km. Road roughness is an important measure of road condition. It is the irregularity of
the road surface familiar to all road users. Road roughness emerges as a key property of
road condition to be considered in any economic evaluation of design and maintenance
standards for pavements.
Factors that contribute to the roughness are potholes, patches, unevenness and
cracking. Roughness in road increases the running time, vehicle operation cost, wear and
tear, accident rate and fuel consumption causing decrease in safety, comfort and
convenience, and speed of the vehicle.
The surface unevenness of highway pavements refers to the regularity of surface
finish both in longitudinal and transverse directions. Almost in all major highway works
executed, control of surface unevenness has been introduced as a mandatory requirement. The
existing standards and tolerances of surface unevenness are prescribed in IRC special
publication 16-2004.
Importance of Surface Unevenness
1. Surface evenness affects vehicle speed, comfort, vehicle operating cost and safety and
hence needs to be given careful consideration during initial construction and
subsequent maintenance.
2. The standard recommended for surface evenness enables the engineer to exercise
control over the quality of construction.
3. Standards have also been prepared for the road roughness of different types of
surfaces to enable an evaluation of the condition of the surface and prioritize and
establish further maintenance intervention levels.
 100

7.3.1.1 Merlin (Fig.7.7)

Merlin is the abbreviation for “Measurement of roughness using low cost
instruments”. The Merlin was designed by the Transport Research Laboratory for use in
developing countries.

Fig.7.7. Merlin
Initially the road section for which the roughness is to be measured is identified. The
starting point and the end point of the section are marked with a chalk. The Merlin is run
only on the wheel tracks for accurate value of roughness. The Merlin is stationed on the
starting point and it is initially adjusted such that the pointer of the Merlin is at centre of the
graph. For each measurement, the machine is rested on the road with the wheel in its
normal position and the rear foot, probe and stabilizer in contact with the road surface. The
position of the pointer on the chart is then marked by a cross in the next box in line with the
pointer and, to keep a count of the total number of measurements made, a counter is
present. The handles of the Merlin are then raised so that the probe, rear foot, and stabilizer are
clear of the road and the machine is wheeled forward to the next measuring position, where
the process is repeated. When the measurements are completed the graph is taken and the
roughness value is calculated. Investigation of roughness by Merlin is shown in Fig.7.8.
 101

Fig. 7.8: Roughness Measurement by Merlin

The total number of crosses made in the graph is calculated. From the total
number of crosses, cut-off from the top and bottom of the graph is 5%.The vertical distance
between the two cut-off points is measured. This value is taken as ‘D’. The roughness is
directly calculated using the roughness equation,
IRI = 0.593 + 0.0471D,
Where, IRI is the roughness in terms of the International Roughness Index in mm/km.
7.3.1.2 Bump Integrator
The roughness of pavement surface is commonly designated as unevenness index
value and is expressed in surface roughness measured by a bump integrator. Either towed
fifth wheel bump integrator or car mounted bump integrator can be used for measuring the
road roughness. These are response type road roughness measuring systems and are
extensively used in the country for the measurement of roughness.
Towed Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator (Fig.7.9)
The indigenous version of this device is the automatic road unevenness research
(ARUR). The equipment consists of a trailer towed by a vehicle. A standard pneumatic tyre
wheel inflated to a tyre pressure of 2.1 kg/sq.cm is mounted within the trailer chassis, with a
single leaf spring on either side of the wheel supporting the chassis. Two dashpots provide
viscous damping between chassis and axle. The frame is provided with a counter.
 102

Fig.7.9: Roughness Measurement by Bump Integrator

Weight at the front axle is to make the device practically free from the effects of the
vertical motion of the vehicle. A mechanical integrator makes cumulative measurement of the
unidirectional vertical movement of the wheel relative to the chassis. The distance traveled
is measured by a distance measuring unit. The test is conducted at a speed of 32+/-1
km/hr. Unevenness/ roughness index is defined as the ratio of the cumulative vertical
displacement to the distance traveled and is expressed in mm/km.
The equipment is driven over the road surface at a speed of 32+/-1 km/hr, keeping
steady motion and avoiding swerving. The observer will activate the main switch fitted on the
panel board at the beginning of the section and switch it off at the end of the section. The
readings of the revolution counter and integrating counters are noted and entered in the data
sheets. The Bump Integrator values are recorded when the wheel revolution counter records
460 units, which corresponds to one km. The brief description of the road surface is also noted
as the observer travels over the surface. The fifth wheel should preferably travel on wheel
path. For measurement of roughness, one measurement in each lane is recommended
for riding comforts evaluation
Newly constructed surfaces are expected to give roughness values corresponding to
‘Good’ category while the values under ‘average’ and ‘poor’ category indicate level-of-
service and intervention level for maintenance as given in Table 7.8. Surfaces with very low
 103

roughness values have less skid resistance and are not desirable from safety
consideration. Such surfacing should receive prompt attention for restoring frictional
resistance. The maximum permissible values of roughness in mm/km for a road surface as per
IRC: SP: 16-2004 is given in Table 7.8.
Table 7.8: Limits for roughness using BI
Condition of Road Surface
Type of surface
Good Average Poor
Surface Dressing <3500 3500-4500 >4500
Open Graded Premix Carpet <3000 3000-4000 >4000
Mix Seal Surfacing <3000 3000-4000 >4000
Semi Dense Bituminous Concrete <2500 2500-3500 >3500
Bituminous Concrete <2000 2000-3000 >3000
Cement Concrete <2200 2200-3000 >3000

(Source IRC: SP: 16-2004 Table 3)

The consolidated roughness values obtained by carrying out investigation on the roads
of study area using Bump Integrator are given in Table 7.9 and the variation of roughness
values is also shown in Fig.7.10.
 104

Table 7.9: Consolidated Roughness Values by Bump Integrator

Study area May 2007 August 2007 November 2007 February 2008 May 2008

I 3950 4000 3982 3785 3730

II 4200 4050 3982 3800 3750
III 3000 2800 2538 2456 2400
IV 2800 2560 2683 2700 2650
V 3500 3900 4307 3891 3850
VI 3288 3400 3332 3005 2950
VII 3100 3256 3150 3200 3160
VIII 3254 3562 3300 3100 3050
IX 5200 4700 4900 4753 4910

Roughness Values

SITE - I
6000
SITE - II
5000
SITE - III
4000
SITE - IV

3000 SITE - V

2000 SITE - VI

SITE - VII
1000

SITE - VIII
0
May-07 Aug-07 Nov-07 Feb-08 May-08 SITE - IX

Fig.7.10: Consolidated Roughness Values (mm/km)

MERLIN values are the representation of road quality (from the stage of fresh laid road
to till date of functioning). The values depends on factors like sub grade level, rolling, traffic
load etc. Yet the MERLIN values calculated at different periods correspond to values that
represent good quality road, refer Table (7.9). From the standard values it is observed that the
IRI of Site I to Site V have comparatively better value. Again bituminous road shows higher
value exhibiting poor quality of road.
 105

7.3.2 Detailed Pavement Condition Survey

Detailed surface condition survey was carried out on the study stretches based on the
nature, extend, severity and position of the defects namely, surfacing defects like bleeding,
fretting, stripping etc., cracking, deformation, patching, potholes and edge failures. The
observations made on plain bituminous road during pavement conditions survey is given in
Table.7.10.
Table 7.10: Pavement Conditions Survey – Plain Bituminous Road Values
Name of the Road : TCE Campus – Honey Well Building to Guest House
Date of Test : 02.05.08
Chainage Pavement Deformation Drainage
(m)
Distress Type Position Length Breadth Area Width Height LHS RHS Condition Remarks
(m) (m) (m2) (m) E/NE E/NE G/F/P/VP
Fretting Utility cut
LHS 15 5 75

0 -50 Edge
RHS 5 0.15
Drop
Raveling Severe
RHS 3.5 3 10.5
Raveling
Pot holes LHS 0.5 0.2 1.0
Fretting
LHS&RHS 15 4.5 67.5
Fretting Fretting
50 – 100 LHS&RHS 15 3 45
throughout
Raveling
LHS 2.5 2 5
Potholes
LHS 0.2 0.1 0.02
100– 150
Stripping RHS 5 2.5 12.5
Fretting LHS 3 2 6
Edge
150 -200 RHS 10 0.1
Drop
Raveling LHS 2.5 2 5
Edge
200 –250 RHS 5 0.1
Drop
Edge
250 -300 RHS 10 0.1
Drop
Fretting LHS&RHS 15 3 45
Raveling Severe
300-350 LHS&RHS 10 2.5 25
raveling
Pot holes LHS&RHS 0.5 0.2 1.0

350-400 Stripping LHS&RHS 3 2.5 7.5 Fretting

throughout
Fretting LHS&RHS 50 5 75
Edge
RHS 5 0.15
400-450 Drop
Raveling RHS 3 2.5 7.5
Fretting RHS 10 4.5 45
Fretting LHS&RHS 10 4 40
Raveling Drainage blocked, water Severe
LHS&RHS 15 2 30
450-500 logging area raveling
Raveling LHS&RHS 10 3 30
Pot holes LHS 0.6 0.2 1.2
 106

Fig.7.11 shows the pavement condition of plain aggregate bituminous road.

Fig. 7.11: Pavement Condition Survey – Plain Aggregate Bituminous Road

The observations made on PCA bituminous road during pavement conditions survey is
given in Table 7.11.
 107

Table 7.11: Pavement Conditions Survey – PCA Bituminous Road Values

Name of the Road : Veerabathrar Road, Erode Date of Test : 03.05.08

Chainage Pavement Deformation Drainage

(m) Distress Type Position Length Breadth Area Width Height LHS RHS Condition Remarks
(m) (m) (m2) (m) E/NE E/NE G/F/P/VP
Fretting LHS 5 3 15
0 - 50
Raveling LHS 2.5 2 5

No
50 – 100 Distresses

No
100– 150 Distresses

Edge
150-200 LHS 5 0.1
Drop
No
200 –250
Distress
No
250 -300
Distress
300-350 No
Distress
350-400 Fretting LHS&RHS 7 4 28
450-500 Raveling RHS 6 4 24

Fig.7.12 shows the condition of PCA bituminous road.

Fig. 7.12: Pavement Condition Survey – PCA Bituminous Road

 108

From the above investigation, the amount of fretting and raveling of the road modified
with mix using PCA was found to be 0.64% and 0.45% respectively. There was no pothole or
stripping detected on the entire stretch of the road.98.91% of the road was found to be in good
condition. While in case of ordinary road, the amount of fretting and raveling was found to be
10.63% and 2.21%.the amount of potholes was found to be 0.01% edge drop is also found
throughtout,along the left hand side of the road. Only 87.07% of the road was found to be in
good condition. The road modified with PCA was hence found to perform better than Plain
bituminous road.
7.3.3 Skid Resistance Using Portable Skid Resistance Tester
The portable skid resistance tester was designed by Road Research Laboratory, U.K, to
provide a simple and rapid method for checking the skid resistance in local areas and entails
measuring the frictional resistance between a rubber slider (mounted on the end of a pendulum
arm – Fig.7.13) and the wetted road surface. In this case, the loss in energy of the pendulum
arm, after the slider has traversed the surface, is equated to the work done during the sliding
process. The instrument measures directly the coefficient of friction on graduation scale. The
measurements are recorded as 100 times the coefficient of friction. When the tester measures
the polishing characteristics of road aggregates, the measurement is called the polished stone
value (PSV). The test has been standardized in the UK under BS: 812-1967. The
specifications with regard to skid number are given in Table 7.12.
 109

Fig. 7.13: Skid Resistance Equipment

Table 7.12: Specifications of Skid Number

Guide to interpret Skid Resistance Values.
Road Research Laboratory, Great Britain
Min Value of Skid Number
Type of site
(surface wet)
Difficult site such as: Round about ,Bends with
radius less than 150 m on unrestricted roads,
Gradients ,1in 20 or steeper, of lengths greater than 65
100m, Approaches to traffic lights on unrestricted
roads
Motorways ,trunk roads, heavily trafficked roads in
urban areas (carrying more than 2000 vehicles per 55
day)

All other sites 45

 110

Fig. 7.14: Skid Resistance Measurement Setup

Testing procedure
This method provides a measure of frictional property, micro texture of surfaces, either
in the field or in the laboratory. The quantity measured with the portable tester has been
termed "Skid-resistance" and this correlates with the performance of a vehicle with
patterned types braking with locked wheels on a wet road at 50 km/hr. Test is done on basis of
Road Note 27 and ASTM E 303-83.
The tester was set on the road surface in the track chosen so that the slider swings in the
direction of the traffic. On surface bearing a regular pattern, such as ridged or brushed
concrete, tests should be made with the slider operating at 80° C to the ridges. The road surface
should be free from loose grit. The road surface and slider should be wetted. The pointer should
be brought to its stop position. The pendulum arm should be released by pressing button and
catching it on the return swing before the slider strikes the road surface. Reading should be
discarded if the slider as well the road surface is not wetted. The arm and pointer should be
returned to the release position and the slider should be kept clear of the road surface. The
mean of five successive readings should be recorded provided they do not differ by more than
three units. If the range is greater than three units, swings must be repeated until three
successive readings are constant. The skidding resistance of wet roads varies with time. The
magnitude of the variation depends on (a) road and traffic conditions (b) road surface
characteristics, and (c) weather. The effect of temperature on rubber resilience exerts a
 111

perceptible influence in all skidding resistance measurements, showing a fall in skidding

resistance as the temperature rises. In addition, the magnitude of the variation of skidding
resistance with temperature varies considerably from road to road because of the changes
in road surface texture. An average temperature correction is evaluated for a range of surface
textures. After applying the correction factor, the skid number for wet condition is derived
for all roads. The consolidated skid measurements observed on roads of study area are given in
Table 7.13.
Table 7.13: Consolidated Skid Number

Study area May 2007 August 2007 November 2007 February 2008 May 2008

I 47 48 40 45 42
II 45 45 45 42 40
III 48 42 45 45 42
IV 42 41 45 41 40
V 44 48 42 45 43
VI 43 46 46 41 40
VII 41 49 45 48 46
VIII 40 41 42 45 41
IX 77 79 70 76 80
Fig. 7.15 shows the skid resistance values observed on roads of study area
Skid Resistance Values

90 SITE - I

80 SITE - II

70
SITE - III
60
SITE - IV
50
SITE - V
40
SITE - VI
30
SITE - VII
20
SITE - VIII
10
SITE - IX
0
May-07 Aug-07 Nov-07 Feb-08 May-08

Fig. 7.15: Consolidated Skid Resistance Values

 112

The Skid resistance values of the five stretches of the plastic tar road shows that the
roads are good in wet condition.
7.3.4 Texture Depth by sand patch method
The ability of bituminous surfacing to provide the required skid resistance is
governed by its micro texture and macro texture. The macro texture of the surfacing, as
measured by its texture depth, contributes particularly to wet skidding resistance at high
speeds by providing drainage routes for water between tyre and road surfaces. The surface
condition should include a qualitative assessment of texture in the wheel paths so that it can be
used to trigger quantitative testing if required. The sand patch test is described in detail in BS
598 Part 105 (1990). The method is summarised below.
Test Method Reference
a) Method 7, BS 598 : Part 3 : 1985
b) Road Note 27 Appendix 1
The road surface texture can be measured by sand patch method. The method is
suitable for bituminous surface course and concrete pavement surface with texture depth
greater than 0.25 mm. Accurate sand patch testing cannot be carried out when road surface is
sticky or wet. For new road surface, it is recommended that sand patch test for
compliance checking should be carried out prior to opening to traffic including
construction traffic. The grading of sand for sand patch test is given in Table.7.14.
Table 7.14: Grading of Sand for Sand Patch Test
BS Test Sieve (mm) %by mass passing
0.6 100
0.3 90-100
0.15 0-15
Procedure
The surface to be measured is dried and, swept clean with a brush. The cylinder is filled
with sand and, care is taken not to compact it by compaction, the sand is struck off level
with the top of the cylinder. The sand is poured into a heap on the surface to be tested, and is
spread over the surface, the disc with its face kept flat in a rotary motion so that the sand is
spread into a circular patch. The patch should be of the largest diameter which would result in
the surface depressions just being filled with sand to a level of the peaks. The diameter of
sand patch is measured to the nearest 1 mm at four diameters every 45 degrees and the
 113

mean diameter (D) is calculated to the nearest 1mm. The texture depth is calculated to the
nearest .01mm from the following equation:
Texture depth in mm = 63660/D2
For surfacing having a texture depth of less than 1mm, the volume of sand is reduced to
25ml or less. The texture depth is then calculated using the following equation:
Texture depth in mm = volume of sand (ml) x 1000/area of patch (mm2)
The measurement of sand texture depth is shown in Fig.7.16.

Fig. 7.16: Sand Texture Depth Measurement

The consolidated texture depth values are given in Table 7.15.

 114

Table 7.15: Consolidated Texture Depth Values

Study area May 2007 August 2007 Nov 2007 February 2008 May 2008
I 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70
II 0.72 0.67 0.65 0.66 0.64
III 0.71 0.65 0.77 0.75 0.70
IV 0.63 0.78 0.78 0.74 0.70
V 0.66 0.62 0.55 0.50 0.50
VI 0.69 0.73 0.70 0.66 0.62
VII 0.70 0.72 0.69 0.63 0.62
VIII 0.72 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.63
IX 0.92 0.83 0.85 0.83 0.81

Sand Texture Depth Values

1
SITE - I
0.9
SITE - II
0.8
SITE - III
0.7

0.6 SITE - IV

0.5 SITE - V

0.4 SITE - VI

0.3 SITE - VII

0.2
SITE - VIII
0.1
SITE - IX
0
May-07 Aug-07 Nov-07 Feb-08 May-08

Fig. 7.17: Consolidated Sand Texture Depth Values (mm)

The surface texture studies of the nine stretches have been studied. Plastic roads have
good surface texture depth, since the values occurs very near to the permissible limit. In the
case of bituminous road, the change is high which is against the specifications.

As such, a detailed evaluation (structural and functional) was done on the stretches of
road of the study area and the results obtained are reported. Table 7.18 gives the summary of
results obtained during the evaluation of flexible pavement.
 115

Table 7.16: Summary of Results

Name of Pavement Average Rebound Field Unevenness Skid Texture
the Road Composition Daily Deflection Density (mm/km) number Depth
Traffic (mm) (mm)
Jumbulingam Overlaid on
Road, Chennai existing road,
Wearing course- 1300 0.55 2.30 3730 42 0.70
20mm MSW
Polymer coated
aggregate(PCA)
bituminous mix

Kumarapalayam Overlaid on
Road existing road,
Wearing course- 500 Short Road 2.40 3750 40 0.64
20mm MSW
PCA bituminous
mix

Veerabathrar Overlaid on
existing road,
Road, Erode Wearing course- 1500 0.75 2.30 2400 42 0.70
20mm MSW
PCA bituminous
mix

Vandiyur- Overlaid on
Melamadai existing road,
Road Wearing 1000 0.81 2.50 2650 40 0.70
Course-20mm
MSW PCA
bituminous mix

TCE, Men’s Sub base course-

Hostel Road, 150mm Red
Madurai gravel, Base 500 0.81 2.25 3850 43 0.50
course-75mm
WBM, Wearing
Course-20mm,
MSW PCA
bituminous mix.

TCE, Car Sub base course

Parking, existed Red
Madurai gravel was 700 0.81 2.80 2950 40 0.62
levelled, Base
course-100mm
WBM, Wearing
Course-20mm,
MSW PCA
bituminous mix.
 116

Vilachery Overlaid on
Main Road existing road,
Wearing 1000 0.81 2.50 3160 46 0.62
Course-20mm
MSW PCA
bituminous mix

TCE, Canteen Sub base course-

Road, Madurai 150mm Red
gravel, Base 600 0.80 2.79 3050 41 0.63
course-100mm
WBM, Wearing
Course-20mm,
MSW PCA
bituminous mix.

Plain Overlaid on
Bituminous existing road,
Road Bituminous 800 1.50 2.00 4910 80 0.81
Mecatam 50mm
thick, Wearing
Course-20mm
Semi dense
bituminous
mecatam.