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The small work done in moving the test charge through a distance ‘dx’ is,
dW = F.dx
As the test charge is moved against electrostatic force, we get,
dW = Fdx cos 180
= −Fdx ( ∵ cos 180 = −1 )
The total work done in moving the test charge ‘q0’ from infinity to point P is,
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊
Hence, the work done in moving a unit test charge from infinity to point P is,
𝑊 𝐾𝑞
V = =
𝑞0 𝑟
1 𝑞
i.e, V = .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Similarly,
1 𝑞
VB =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1
𝑞 1 1
= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2
The small work done in moving unit positive charge from A to B is,
dW = F.dr F = q0E ;
= 𝑬. 𝑑𝒓 Here, q0 = + 1 C
∴F= E
𝑑𝑉
or, E = −
𝑑𝑟
or, dV = −E.dr
Electric potential in a region can be determined from the electric field by
integrating the above equation. Thus we can write,
𝑟
V = − ∫∞ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒓
If r >> a,
BP ≈ CP and AP ≈ DP
Equipotential surfaces
Any potential that has same electric potential at every point on it is called an
equipotential surface.
Eg: The surface of a charged conductor or charged shell,
Equatorial plane of an electric dipole.
Properties of equipotential surfaces
a. No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface
Suppose a test charge q 0 is moved from A to B on an equipotential surface.
Work done in moving q 0 from A to B is given by,
WAB = q0(VB – VA)
Here, VA = VB
⇒ VB – VA = 0
⇒ WAB = 0
Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the region between the two
charges.
iii. Equipotential surfaces of two equal positive charges
Equipotential surfaces are far apart in the regions in between the two
charges indicating a weak field in such regions.
iv. Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field
Here, the lines of force are parallel straight lines and equipotential surfaces
are parallel planes perpendicular to the lines of force.
It takes no work to bring the first charge q 1, because there is no field yet to
work against.
∴ W1 = 0
Electric potential due to charge q 1 at a point P2 at distance r 12 from P1 will be,
𝑞1 1 𝑞1
V1 = k =
𝑟12 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12
If charge q2 is moved in from infinity to point P 2, the work required is,
W2 = Potential x charge
= V1 x q2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
=
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12
The total work done,
W = W1 + W2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
= 0+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
This work is stored as the potential energy (U) of the system, i.e,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
U=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
Consider an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field E, with its dipole
moment p making an angle 𝜃 with the field.
The torque experienced by the dipole is,
𝝉=pxE
or, 𝜏 = pE sin 𝜃
If the dipole is rotated through a small angle d𝜃 against the torque acting on it, then
the small work done is
dW = 𝜏d𝜃 = pE sin 𝜃d𝜃
The total work done in rotating the dipole from an angle 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 is,
𝜃
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ∵ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + C
1
𝜃 𝜃
= pE[− cos 𝜃 ]𝜃21 = −pE[cos𝜃 ]𝜃21
= −pE(cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1)
Electrostatics of conductors
a. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
Inside a conductor (neutral or charged), the electric field is zero. This is true even
in the presence of an external field.
Reason – In the static situation, the free charge carriers are so distributed
themselves that the electric field is zero anywhere inside. That is, in the presence of
an external field, free electrons move in the opposite direction of the external field,
till the electric field set up by the induced charges becomes equal to the external
field.
f. Electrostatic shielding
Electric field is zero inside the cavity of a conductor of any shape.
Dielectrics
A dielectric is a substance which does not allow the flow of charges through
it but permits them to exert electrostatic forces on one another through it. A
dielectric is essentially an insulator which can be polarized through small localized
displacement of its charges. Dielectrics allow electric field to pass through them.
E.g.: Glass, wax, water, air, wood, rubber, stone, plastic, etc.
Non-polar molecules
A molecule in which the centre of mass of positive charges coincide with the
centre of mass of negative charges is called a non-polar molecule.
E.g.: H2, O2, N2, CH4, etc.
Note: Polar molecules have permanent dipole moment, while non-polar molecules
have no permanent dipole moment.
Dielectric strength
The maximum electric field that can exist in a dielectric without causing the
breakdown of its insulating property is called dielectric strength of the material.
Note: When a dielectric is placed in a very high electric field, the outer electrons
may get detached from their parent atoms. The dielectric then behaves like a
conductor. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.
One Farad (1 F)
Capacitance of a conductor is said to be one farad if 1 C of charge raises its
potential by one volt.
In the two outer regions net field is zero, while in the inner region net field is
given by,
𝜎
E =
𝜀0
The total charge on a plate of area A and surface charge density 𝜎 is,
𝑄
Q = 𝜎A (∵ 𝜎 = )
𝐴
In the inner region, far from the edges, the field is almost uniform. For a
uniform electric field,
𝜎
V = Ed = d
𝜀0
Uses of capacitor
a. To store charge.
b. To generate electromagnetic radiation.
c. To tune radio circuits.
d. To reduce voltage fluctuation in power supply.