CHAPTER 2 : ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electric potential at a point

Electric potential at a point is defined as the work done to bring a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point against the electrostatic force.
𝑊
i.e, V=
𝑞

 Unit: J/C [ Joule / Coulomb] or V [ volt]

 Unlike electric field intensity E, electric potential V is a scalar quantity.
 Potential at infinity is Zero. i.e, 𝑉∞ = 0
Expression for electric potential at a point due to a point charge
Consider a positive point charge ‘q’ placed at the origin O. We wish to
calculate its electric potential at a point P at a distance ‘r’ from it.
Suppose a test charge ‘q 0’ is placed at point A at a distance ‘x’ from O.

By Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force acting on charge ‘q 0’ is,

𝐾𝑞𝑞0
F=
𝑥2

The small work done in moving the test charge through a distance ‘dx’ is,
dW = F.dx
As the test charge is moved against electrostatic force, we get,
dW = Fdx cos 180
= −Fdx ( ∵ cos 180 = −1 )
The total work done in moving the test charge ‘q0’ from infinity to point P is,
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 𝑟 𝑟
i.e, W = ∫∞ −𝐹𝑑𝑥 = − ∫∞ 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑟 𝐾𝑞𝑞0 𝑛+1
= − ∫∞ . 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 1
∫ 𝑥2dx = ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 1
= −𝐾𝑞𝑞0 ∫∞ . 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥−2+1
𝑟
=
−2+1
= −𝐾𝑞𝑞0 [−1
𝑥
]
∞ 𝑥−1
𝑟
=
−1
= 𝐾𝑞𝑞0 [1𝑥 ]
∞ 1
=−
1 1 𝑥
= 𝐾𝑞𝑞0 [ − ]
𝑟 ∞
𝐾𝑞𝑞0 1
W = (∵ =0)
𝑟 ∞

Hence, the work done in moving a unit test charge from infinity to point P is,
𝑊 𝐾𝑞
V = =
𝑞0 𝑟
1 𝑞
i.e, V = .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Variation of ‘V’ and ‘E’ with distance ‘r’

Electric potential difference

Potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the
work done to bring a unit positive charge from one point to another.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Potential difference between A and B is given by,
𝑊𝐴𝐵
VAB = VB – VA =
𝑞0

Potential at A is given by,

1 𝑞
VA =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

Similarly,
1 𝑞
VB =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1

Therefore, potential difference between A and B is,

1 𝑞 1 𝑞
VB – VA = −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

𝑞 1 1
= [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2

Relation between electric field intensity and potential

We know, the potential difference between A and B is the work done to move
+ 1 C charge from A to B.

The small work done in moving unit positive charge from A to B is,
dW = F.dr F = q0E ;
= 𝑬. 𝑑𝒓 Here, q0 = + 1 C
∴F= E

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 = −E dr
[negative sign shows that the work is done against the direction of field]
𝑑𝑊
i.e, dV = −E dr [∵ = 𝑑𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞0 = + 1 𝐶]
𝑞0

𝑑𝑉
or, E = −
𝑑𝑟

i.e, electric field intensity is the negative gradient of electric potential.

Significance: Electric potential decreases in the direction of electric field.
Potential difference as the line integral of electric field intensity
We’ve, the relation between E and V is,
𝑑𝑉
E = −
𝑑𝒓

or, dV = −E.dr
Electric potential in a region can be determined from the electric field by
integrating the above equation. Thus we can write,
𝑟
V = − ∫∞ 𝑬. 𝑑𝒓

Similarly, potential difference between two points in an electric field can be

written as,
𝐵
VAB = − ∫𝐴 𝑬. 𝑑𝒓
If V is the potential difference between two plates kept at a distance d apart,
then the electric field between them is,
𝑉
E= or V = Ed (For uniform electric field)
𝑑

One electron Volt (1 eV)

Electron volt is the smaller unit of energy. One electron volt is defined as the
energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated through a potential difference
of one volt.
We’ve, W = qV

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 If V = 1 V and q = 1 e = 1.6 x 10−19C, then:
W = 1e x 1 = 1.6 x 10−19 J
i.e, 1 eV = 1.6 x 10−19 J
Expression for potential due to an electric dipole
Consider an electric dipole having dipole moment, p = 2aq. We have to find
the electric potential at a point P, ‘r’ distance away from the midpoint of the dipole.

The electric potential at P due to +q charge is,

𝑘𝑞
V+q =
𝑟1

The electric potential at P due to −q charge is,

𝑘𝑞
𝑉−𝑞 = −
𝑟2

Therefore, the net electric potential at P is,

V = V+q + 𝑉−𝑞
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞 1 1
= − = kq[ − ]
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2

If r >> a,
BP ≈ CP and AP ≈ DP

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 ⇒ r1 = OP – OC In ∆ OCB,
𝑂𝐶 𝑂𝐶
= r − acos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑎
And, r2 = OP + OD ∴ OC = acos 𝜃
= r + acos 𝜃 In ∆ ODA,
1 1
∴ V = kq[ − ] cos 𝜃 =
𝑂𝐷
=
𝑂𝐷
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑂𝐴 𝑎
1 1
= kq[ − ] ∴ OD = acos 𝜃
𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃−(𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃)
= kq[ ]
(𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃)(𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃)

𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃−𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃)

= kq[ ] [ ∵(a−b)(a+b) = a2 – b2]
𝑟 2 −(𝑎 cos 𝜃)2
2𝑎 cos 𝜃
V = kq[ ]
𝑟 2 −𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃

Since r >> a, the term ‘𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃’ can be neglected.

Thus,
𝐾𝑞.2𝑎 cos 𝜃
V=
𝑟2
𝑝 cos 𝜃
=𝑘 [ ∵ 2aq = p, dipole moment ]
𝑟2
1 𝑝 cos 𝜃
i.e, V=
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟2

Case I: Potential at a point on the axial line

Along axial line, 𝜃 = 0
1 𝑝
∴ V= [ ∵ cos 0 = 1 ]
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟 2

Case I: Potential at a point on the equatorial line

Along equatorial line, 𝜃 = 90
∴ V= 0 [ ∵ cos 90 = 0 ]

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Potential due to a system of charges

Potential at P due to charge q 1 is,

𝑘𝑞1
V1 =
𝑟1𝑃
𝑘𝑞2
Similarly, V2 =
𝑟2𝑃
𝑘𝑞𝑛
Vn =
𝑟𝑛𝑃

∴ the net potential at P is,

V = V1 + V2 + . . . . . . . . . . + Vn
𝑘𝑞1 𝑘𝑞2 𝑘𝑞𝑛
= + +. . . . . . . . . +
𝑟1𝑃 𝑟2𝑃 𝑟𝑛𝑃

Electric potential due to a uniformly charged spherical shell

Case I: When the point P lies outside the shell
For a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric field outside the shell is
as if the entire charge is concentrated at the centre. Hence, electric potential at an
outside point is equal to that of a point charge located at the centre.
1 𝑞
∴ V= (for r > R)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Case II: When point P lies on the surface of the shell

Here r = R,
1 𝑞
∴ V= (for r = R)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Case III: When point P lies inside the shell
The electric field at any point inside the shell is Zero, hence, electric potential due to
a uniformly charged spherical shell is constant everywhere inside the shell and its
value is equal to that on the surface.
1 𝑞
i.e, V= (for r < R)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

Variation of potential due to charged shell with distance

Equipotential surfaces
Any potential that has same electric potential at every point on it is called an
equipotential surface.
Eg: The surface of a charged conductor or charged shell,
Equatorial plane of an electric dipole.
Properties of equipotential surfaces
a. No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface
Suppose a test charge q 0 is moved from A to B on an equipotential surface.
Work done in moving q 0 from A to B is given by,
WAB = q0(VB – VA)
Here, VA = VB
⇒ VB – VA = 0
⇒ WAB = 0

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 b. Electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at every point
If the field were not normal, it would have a non-zero component along the
surface. So, to move a test charge against this component, a work would have to
be done. But there is no p.d between any two points on an equipotential surface
and hence no work is required to move a test charge on the surface. Hence, the
electric field must be normal to the equipotential surface at every point.
c. Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the regions of strong field and
farther apart in the regions of weak field
We’ve,
𝑑𝑉
E=−
𝑑𝑟
For the same change in value of dV i.e, when dV = constant, we have
1
E∝
𝑑𝑟
1
or, dr ∝
𝐸
Thus, the spacing between equipotential surfaces will be smaller in the
regions, where the electric field is stronger and vice versa.
d. No two equipotential surfaces can intersect each other
If they intersect, then there will be two values of electric potential at the point
of intersection, which is impossible.

Equipotential surfaces of various charge systems

i. Equipotential surfaces of a positive point charge

Equipotential surfaces due to a single point charge are concentric spheres

with their centres at the point charge.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 ii. Equipotential surfaces of two equal and opposite point charges (dipole)

Equipotential surfaces are closer together in the region between the two
charges.
iii. Equipotential surfaces of two equal positive charges

Equipotential surfaces are far apart in the regions in between the two
charges indicating a weak field in such regions.
iv. Equipotential surfaces for a uniform electric field

Here, the lines of force are parallel straight lines and equipotential surfaces
are parallel planes perpendicular to the lines of force.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Electric potential energy
It is the energy possessed by a system of charges by virtue of their positions.
When two like charges lie infinite distance apart, their potential energy is zero
because, no work has to be done in moving one charge at infinite distance from the
other. But when they are brought closer to one another, work has to be done
against the force of repulsion.
The electric potential energy of the system of point charges may be defined
as the amount of work done in assembling the charges at their locations by bringing
them in, from infinity.
Potential energy of a system of two point charges

It takes no work to bring the first charge q 1, because there is no field yet to
work against.
∴ W1 = 0
Electric potential due to charge q 1 at a point P2 at distance r 12 from P1 will be,
𝑞1 1 𝑞1
V1 = k =
𝑟12 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12
If charge q2 is moved in from infinity to point P 2, the work required is,
W2 = Potential x charge
= V1 x q2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
=
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12
The total work done,
W = W1 + W2
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
= 0+
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
This work is stored as the potential energy (U) of the system, i.e,
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
U=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Potential energy of a system of three point charges

Work done in bringing the first charge from infinity, W 1 = 0

1 𝑞1 𝑞 2
Work done in bringing the second charge q 2 is, W2 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
Now, the work done in bringing the third charge q 3 against the field of q 1 and q2 is,
W3 = Potential at point P 3 due to q1 and q2 x charge q3
1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
=(
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟13
+ 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟23
).q3
1 𝑞1 𝑞3 1 𝑞 2 𝑞3
= +
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟13 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟23
Hence the electrostatic potential energy of the system is,
U = Total work done to assemble the three charges
= W1 + W2 + W3
1 𝑞1 𝑞 2 1 𝑞1 𝑞3 1 𝑞 2 𝑞3
=0+ + +
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟13 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟23
1 𝑞1 𝑞 2 𝑞 1 𝑞3 𝑞2 𝑞3
i.e, U= [ + + ]
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12 𝑟13 𝑟23
Potential energy in an external field
Let V(r 1) and V(r 2) be the potentials at points P 1 and P2 due to an external field
E. The work done in bringing charge q 1 from infinity to the point P 1 will be,
W1 = V(r 1).q1
In bringing a second charge q 2, we need to do work against the external field
at that point and the field due to first charge at that point.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
∴ W2 = V(r 2). q2 +
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
1 𝑞1
where V(r 2) is the potential due to the external field at that point , is the
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12
potential due to charge q 1 at that point and r 12 is the distance between q 1 and q2.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 ∴ Total potential energy of the system,
U = W 1 + W2
1 𝑞 1 𝑞2
= V(r1).q1 + V(r 2). q2 +
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟12
Note:
 At the centre of two equal and opposite charge, V = 0 but E ≠ 0.
 At the centre of the line joining two equal and similar charge V ≠0 , E = 0.
 If left free to move,
Positive charge will always move from higher to lower potential points.
Negative charge will always move from lower to higher potential points.
(Because this motion will decrease potential energy of a system)
Potential energy of a dipole in an external field

Consider an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field E, with its dipole
moment p making an angle 𝜃 with the field.
The torque experienced by the dipole is,
𝝉=pxE
or, 𝜏 = pE sin 𝜃
If the dipole is rotated through a small angle d𝜃 against the torque acting on it, then
the small work done is
dW = 𝜏d𝜃 = pE sin 𝜃d𝜃
The total work done in rotating the dipole from an angle 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 is,
𝜃
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫𝜃 2 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ∵ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + C
1
𝜃 𝜃
= pE[− cos 𝜃 ]𝜃21 = −pE[cos𝜃 ]𝜃21
= −pE(cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1)

= pE(cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2)

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 This work done is stored as the potential energy U of the dipole. i.e,
U = pE(cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2)
If initially the dipole is oriented perpendicular to the direction of the field and
then brought to some orientation making an angle 𝜃 with the field, then
𝜃1= 90° and 𝜃2= 𝜃
we get, U = pE(cos 90 − cos 𝜃)
= − 𝑝𝐸cos 𝜃
or, U = −𝒑. 𝑬
Case I: Position of stable equilibrium [ when 𝜃 = 0 ]
U = − 𝑝𝐸cos0
= −𝑝𝐸 [ ∵ cos 0 = 1 ]
Case II: Position of Zero energy [ when 𝜃 = 90 ]
U = − 𝑝𝐸cos90
=0 [ ∵ cos 90 = 0 ]
Case III: Position of unstable equilibrium [ when 𝜃 = 180 ]
U = − 𝑝𝐸cos180
= 𝑝𝐸 [ ∵ cos 180 = −1 ]
Note: Potential energy gained in rotating from stable to unstable position is,
U = 2𝑝𝐸
If initially dipole is parallel to the field,
𝜃1= 0°and 𝜃2= 𝜃
we get, U = pE(cos 0 − cos 𝜃)
= 𝑝𝐸(1 − cos 𝜃)

Electrostatics of conductors
a. Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
Inside a conductor (neutral or charged), the electric field is zero. This is true even
in the presence of an external field.
Reason – In the static situation, the free charge carriers are so distributed
themselves that the electric field is zero anywhere inside. That is, in the presence of
an external field, free electrons move in the opposite direction of the external field,
till the electric field set up by the induced charges becomes equal to the external
field.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 b. At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal to the
surface at every point
Reason – If E were not normal to the surface, it would have some non-zero
component along the surface. Free charges on the surface of the conductor would
then experience force and move.

c. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in static situation

Reason – A neutral conductor has equal amounts of positive and negative charges.
When the conductor is charged, the excess charge can reside only on the surface in
the static situation.
As the field E inside is zero, the total flux through an inside Gaussian surface
must be zero. Then by Gauss’s theorem,
𝑞
𝜙E = ∮ 𝑬. 𝑑𝑺 =
𝜀0
As 𝜙E = 0, so q = 0

d. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and

has the same value (as inside) on its surface
Reason – Since E = 0 inside the conductor and has no tangential component on the
surface, no work is done in moving a small test charge within the conductor and on
its surface. That is, there is no potential difference between any two points inside
or on the surface of the conductor.
𝜎
e. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor, E = ̂
𝑛
𝜀0
where 𝜎 is the surface charge density and 𝑛̂ is the unit vector normal to the
surface in the outward direction.

f. Electrostatic shielding
Electric field is zero inside the cavity of a conductor of any shape.

Dielectrics
A dielectric is a substance which does not allow the flow of charges through
it but permits them to exert electrostatic forces on one another through it. A
dielectric is essentially an insulator which can be polarized through small localized
displacement of its charges. Dielectrics allow electric field to pass through them.
E.g.: Glass, wax, water, air, wood, rubber, stone, plastic, etc.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Polar molecules
A molecule in which the centre of mass of positive charges (protons) does not
coincide with the centre of mass of negative charges (electrons) is called a polar
molecule.
E.g.: HCl, H2O, NH3, etc.

Non-polar molecules
A molecule in which the centre of mass of positive charges coincide with the
centre of mass of negative charges is called a non-polar molecule.
E.g.: H2, O2, N2, CH4, etc.

Note: Polar molecules have permanent dipole moment, while non-polar molecules
have no permanent dipole moment.

Behavior of a conductor and a dielectric in an external electric field

When a conductor is placed in an external electric field E0, the free charge
carriers (electrons) are redistributed in such a way that an equal and opposite
electric field (Ein) is set up inside the conductor. So, net electric field is zero inside
the conductor.
i.e, E0 + Ein = 0

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 But, when a dielectric is placed in an external field E0, the molecular dipoles
are arranged in such a way that an opposite electric field (Ein) is set up inside the
dielectric. But this electric field is always less than the external electric field. Thus,
the dielectric only reduces the external field.
i.e, E0 + Ein ≠ 0

Polarization of a non-polar dielectric in an external electric field

In the absence of external electric field, non-polar molecules have no
permanent dipole moment. In an external field, the positive and negative centres of
the non-polar molecules are displaced in the opposite direction. Thus, the molecule
develops an induced dipole moment. Then the dielectric is said to be polarized.
The induced dipole moments of different molecules add up giving a net dipole
moment to the dielectric in the direction of the external field.

Polarization of a polar dielectric in an external electric field

In a polar dielectric, each molecule has permanent dipole moment. In the
absence of external electric field, the dipoles are randomly oriented due to thermal
agitation in the material. So, the total dipole moment is zero. When an external field
is applied, the individual dipoles tend to align with the field. As a result, there is net
dipole moment in the direction of the field.
The extend of polarization depends on the relative strengths of two opposing
energies: the potential energy of the dipole in the external field which tends to align
the dipole with the field, and the thermal energy of agitation which tends to
randomize the alignment of the dipole.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Polarization
When a polar or non-polar dielectric is placed in an external electric field, it
develops a net dipole moment. This fact is called polarization of the dielectric.
The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric is known as polarization
(P) and its magnitude is usually referred to as the polarization density.
𝒑
i.e, P=
𝑉
For linear isotropic dielectrics,
P = χe E
Where χe is called electric susceptibility of the dielectric medium.

Reduction of electric field by the polarization of dielectric

Consider two parallel plates having charge densities +𝜎 and – 𝜎 and a
dielectric slab placed between them. Due to polarization of dielectric in the external
field E0, the charge densities of the plates P 1 and P2 are reduced to 𝜎 − 𝜎P and −(𝜎 −
𝜎P). We know that, electric field between the two sheets of opposite charge
𝜎
densities +𝜎 and – 𝜎 is E = . But because of the polarization of dielectric slab,
𝜀0
𝜎−𝜎𝑃
charge densities are reduced. So, electric field is reduced to E = .
𝜀0

Dielectric strength
The maximum electric field that can exist in a dielectric without causing the
breakdown of its insulating property is called dielectric strength of the material.
Note: When a dielectric is placed in a very high electric field, the outer electrons
may get detached from their parent atoms. The dielectric then behaves like a
conductor. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Capacitors
A capacitor is an arrangement of two conductors separated by an insulating
medium that is used to store electric charge and electric energy.

Capacitance or capacity (C)

The electrical capacitance of a conductor is the measure of its ability to hold
electric charge. When charge is given to a conductor its potential increases, then
Q∝V
or, Q = CV
The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the conductor. i.e,
𝑄
C=
𝑉
Unit: C/V (coulomb/volt) or F (Farad)
Note: Capacitance of a conductor may be defined as the charge required to increase
the potential by unit amount.

One Farad (1 F)
Capacitance of a conductor is said to be one farad if 1 C of charge raises its
potential by one volt.

Pictorial representation of a capacitor

Principle of a parallel plate capacitor

When an uncharged, earthed conductor is brought near to a charged
conductor, the capacitance of the charged conductor can be increased. This is the
principle of parallel plate capacitor.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Consider a positively charged plate A. if another plate B with no charge is
brought near plate A. Then due to induction, the closer face of plate B acquires
negative charge and its farther face acquires a positive charge. The negative charge
on plate B tends to reduce the potential on plate A, while the positive charge tends
to increase the potential on A. As the negative charge of plate B is closer to plate A,
the net effect is that the potential of A decreases by a small amount and hence its
capacitance increases by a small amount.
Now if the positive face of plate B is earthed, its positive charge gets
neutralized due to the flow of electrons from the earth to the plate B. The negative
charge on B reduces the potential of A considerably and hence increases its
capacitance by a large amount.

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor

Consider a parallel plate air capacitor having plate area ‘A’ separated by a
small distance ‘d’. Let ‘𝜎’ be the surface charge density (+𝜎 and – 𝜎).

In the two outer regions net field is zero, while in the inner region net field is
given by,
𝜎
E =
𝜀0
The total charge on a plate of area A and surface charge density 𝜎 is,
𝑄
Q = 𝜎A (∵ 𝜎 = )
𝐴
In the inner region, far from the edges, the field is almost uniform. For a
uniform electric field,
𝜎
V = Ed = d
𝜀0

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 𝑄/𝐴
i.e, V = d
𝜀0
𝑄𝑑
=
𝐴𝜀 0
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
or =
𝑉 𝑑
𝜀0 𝐴
i.e, capacitance, C =
𝑑
If the space between the plates is filled with a medium of dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟 or
k, then
𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴
C=
𝑑
If there are ‘n’ parallel plates, then
𝜀0 (𝑛−1)𝐴
C=
𝑑
If a dielectric material of thickness ‘t’ is introduced between the plates, then
𝜀0 𝐴
C= 𝑡
(𝑑−𝑡) +
𝜀0

Advantages of introducing dielectric slab between the plates of a capacitor

a. The capacitance increases 𝜀𝑟 times.
b. Dielectric medium avoids sparking between the plates.

Uses of capacitor
a. To store charge.
b. To generate electromagnetic radiation.
c. To tune radio circuits.
d. To reduce voltage fluctuation in power supply.

Capacitance of a spherical conductor

The potential at any point on the surface of the spherical conductor is,
1 𝑄
V=
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑅
Capacitance of the spherical conductor situated in vacuum is
𝑄 𝑄
C= = 1 𝑄
𝑉
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
= 4𝜋𝜀0R

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

Page | 21
 Combination of capacitors

a. Capacitors in series
When the negative plate of one capacitor is connected to the positive plate of
the second, and the negative of the second to the positive of the third and so on,
the capacitors are said to be connected in series.
Consider three capacitors of capacitances C 1, C2 and C3 connected in series with
a voltage of V.

In series combination, the charge stored in each of the capacitors is the same
but the voltages across them are different.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
i.e, V1 = ; V2 = ; V3 =
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
For series circuit, the sum of these potential differences must be equal to the
applied potential difference.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
∴ V = V1 + V2 + V3 = + +
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑉 1 1 1
or = + + - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
𝑄 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
Let CS represent the effective capacitance in series combination, then
𝑄
CS =
𝑉
1 𝑉
or = - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
𝐶𝑆 𝑄

From (1) and (2),

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 b. Capacitors in parallel
When the positive plates of all capacitors are connected to one common point
and the negative plates to another common point, the capacitors are said to be
connected in parallel.

In parallel combination, all the capacitors have a common potential difference V

but different charges given by
Q1 = C1V ; Q2 = C2V ; Q3 = C3V
Total charge stored in the combination is
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = C1V + C2V + C3V
or Q = (C1 + C2 + C3) V - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
If CP is the equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination, then
Q = CP V - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
From (1) and (2),
CP V = (C1 + C2 + C3) V
or C P = C 1 + C 2 + C3

Energy stored in a capacitor

The work done in charging the capacitor is stored as its electrical potential
energy. When a capacitor is connected along with a battery, work will be done by
the charge in charging it. This work is stored as its potential energy. This energy is
supplied by the battery at the expense of its stored chemical energy and can be
recovered by allowing the capacitor to discharge.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Consider a capacitor of capacitance ‘C’, it has given a voltage ‘V’. Let at any
instant the charge in the capacitor be ‘q’. Now the work done to increase the charge
by an amount ‘dq’ is given by
𝑊
dW = Vdq [∵ V = ]
𝑞
𝑞
= dq [∵ q = CV]
𝐶
Therefore, the total work done in charging the capacitor from 0 to Q is,
W = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0𝑄 𝑉 𝑑𝑞
𝑄𝑞
= ∫0 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
1 𝑄
= ∫0 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝐶
1 𝑞2 𝑄
= [ ]
𝐶 2 0
1 𝑄2
= ( − 0)
𝐶 2
𝑄2
=
2𝐶
This work is stored as the electrical potential energy U of the capacitor.
𝑄2
i.e, U =
2𝐶
∵ Q = CV, we get
𝑄2 1 1
U = = CV2 = QV
2𝐶 2 2

Energy density of an electric field

When a capacitor is charged, energy get stored in the electric field between its
plates. Energy stored per unit volume of the electric field is defined as the energy
density of the electric field.
We have,
𝑄2
U=
2𝐶
Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is given by.
𝜀0 𝐴
C= (air core)
𝑑
If 𝜎 is the surface charge density on the capacitor plates, then the electric field
between the capacitor plates will be
𝜎
E= or 𝜎 = 𝜀 0E
𝜀0

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 Charge on either plate of capacitor is
Q = 𝜎A = 𝜀0EA
∴ Energy stored in the capacitor is
𝑄2 (𝜀0 𝐸𝐴) 2 1
U= =
𝜀 𝐴 = 𝜀0 E2Ad
2𝐶 2 0 2
𝑑
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
∴ Energy density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑈 1
i.e, u= = 𝜀 E 2
𝐴𝑑 2 0

Expression for the lost energy due to sharing of capacitors

Let two capacitors having capacitances C1 and C2 having charged to potentials
V1 and V2 connected in parallel (V1 ≠ V2). Due to difference in potential, the charge
begins to flow till their potential become equal. Let V be the common potential and
let Q1 and Q2 be their initial charge.
From the law of conservation of charge, we have
Initial charge = Final charge
C1V1 + C2V2 = C1V + C2V
𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
or V=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Potential energy before connection is
1 1
Ui = C1 𝑉12 + C2 𝑉22
2 2
Potential energy after connection is
1 1 1
Uf = C1 V2 + C2 V2 = (C1 + C1) V2
2 2 2
1 𝐶 𝑉 +𝐶 𝑉 2
= (C1 + C1)[ 1 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2 ]
2 1 2
1 ( 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2)2
=
2 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
Loss in energy,
∆𝑈 = Ui – Uf
1 2
1 2
1 ( 𝐶1 𝑉1+ 𝐶2 𝑉2)2
= C 1 𝑉1 + C 2 𝑉2 −
2 2 2 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
1
= [𝐶12 𝑉12+ C1 C2 𝑉12+ C1 C2 𝑉22+ 𝐶22 𝑉22 − 𝐶12 𝑉12 − 𝐶22 𝑉22 − 2C1C2V1V2]
2(𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
1 𝐶1 .𝐶2
= [𝑉12 + 𝑉22 – 2V1V2]
2 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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 2
1 𝐶1 .𝐶2 (𝑉1 −𝑉2 )
=
2 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
This is always positive whether 𝑉1 > 𝑉2 or 𝑉1 < 𝑉2. So when two charged conductors
are connected, charges flow from higher potential side to lower potential side till the
potential of the two conductors get equalized. In doing so, there is always some loss of
potential energy in the form of heat due to the flow of charges in connecting wires.

NOTES BY: NIVIL MATHEW (n4nivilmathew@gmail.com)

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