PH101-Engineering Physics

Waves and Optics - Diffraction

School of Sciences (Physics)

NIT Andhra Pradesh
 Nature of Light – ‘wave or a particle?’

• Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727), Corpuscles theory

• Christian Huygens (1629 - 1695), assumed light as a waves
Young
• Thomas Young (1773 - 1829) & Augustin Fresnel (1788 - 1829), Newton Huygens
supported with experimental evidence to Huygens's theory. They
explained the interference, diffraction. Fresnel established the
transverse nature of light.
• James Clerk Maxwell (1831 - 1879), electromagnetic theory, but
failed to explain the photoelectric effect (emission and absorption of
light). Fresnel Maxwell Planck
• Max Planck (1858 - 1947), Quantum theory of light in the year 1900.
• Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955), explained photoelectric effect in 1905.
• Niels Bohr (1885 - 1962), postulated in 1913 the model of an atom
which explains the emission and absorption of light. (Proposed
photons). Einstein Bohr
 Diffraction of light
• Definition: It is defined as the bending of waves around
the corners of an obstacle or through an aperture into the
region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle/aperture.

Source

• According to Huygen’s light waves incident

on the slit will spread out into the region beyond the
shadowed region.
 Fraunhofer vs Fresnel Diffraction
Fraunhofer Fresnel
1) Source and screen are at infinite distance. 1) Source and screen are at finite distance.
2) Plane wavefront is incident 2) Spherical and Cylindrical wavefront is incident
3) Diffracted wavefront is plane 3) Diffracted wavefront is Spherical or Cylindrical.
4) Two biconvex lenses are required. 4) No lenses are required.
5) The intensity maxima and minima are well defined 5) The intensity maxima and minima are not well defined
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit – Intensity
Distribution
Central Maximum:
Let us divide the slit into N small zones each of width Δy =

The relative path difference between two adjacent zones is

Q
Δ𝑦 sin 𝜃
Therefore, the relative phase shift can be written as
2𝛱 Δy
Δ𝜙 = Δ𝑦 sin 𝜃 Eqn.1
𝜆
θ
Suppose that a wavefront from the first point arrives at the point a
‘Q’ on the screen with an electric field given by
𝐸1 = 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡
The electric field from point2 will have a phase shift of Δ𝜙
So, the field is given by, 𝐸2 = 𝐸 sin(𝜔𝑡 + Δ𝜙)

Similarly, the electric field from point-N is given by, 𝐸𝑁 = 𝐸 sin(𝜔𝑡 + (𝑁 − 1)Δ𝜙)
Now, the total electric field at point ‘Q’ is the sum of the individual contributions
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝐸 𝐸 + ⋯+ 𝐸
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit – Intensity
Distribution
𝐸 = 𝐸 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡) + sin(𝜔𝑡 + Δ𝜙 + sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2Δ𝜙) … + sin 𝜔𝑡 + (𝑁 − 1)Δ𝜙 ]

From Euler s theorem, eiθ = cos 𝜃 + i sin 𝜃

Or we can write that Im(eiθ) = sinθ
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐸 [𝐼𝑚(e +e +e + ⋯+ e )]

⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐸 [𝐼𝑚(e (1 + e +e + ⋯+ e ))]

; since 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ 𝑥 = , 𝑥 <1
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐸 [𝐼𝑚(e ( ))]

−𝑒 [𝑒 −𝑒 ]
= 𝐸 Im e
−𝑒 [𝑒 −𝑒 ] Since
𝑒 .𝑒 = 1 and
𝜙
𝑒 [sin( )]
2 𝑒 .𝑒 =1
= 𝐸 Im e
Δ𝜙
[sin( 2 )]]
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit – Intensity
Distribution
[ ( )]
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐸 𝐼𝑚[e . ]
[ ( )]

[ ( )]
Therefore, E = 𝐸 𝐼𝑚[e ] Eqn.2
[ ( )]

We know that the intensity, I is proportional to the square of the resultant electric field, i.e., E2

E2 = <E x E*>
[ ( )]
Therefore, E = 𝐸 𝐼𝑚[e ]
[ ( )]

⇒ I = E2 = 𝐸 (1)
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit – Intensity
Distribution
Let α =
⇒I= E2 =𝐸

⇒ I = E2 = = 𝐸 N2
From equation1, we have Δ𝜙 = Δ𝑦 sin 𝜃
2α
⇒Δ𝜙/2 = (a/N) sin 𝜃 = ⇒ I = I0
α

In order to obtain the conditions for intensity maxima

⇒ I = E2 = 𝐸
and minima, let us take =0
2α
When 𝜃 → 0, Δ𝜙 is very small ⇒ d/dα (I0 )=0
α

⇒ I0 [ − 2 sin 𝛼 ] = 0
⇒ I = E2 = 𝐸 = 𝐸 N2

⇒ − =0
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit – Intensity
Distribution
⇒ − =0 Conditions for secondary maxima

⇒ [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − ]=0 Let, (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − )=0

⇒ 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝛼 − 𝛼 = 0
= 0 or (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − )=0
The roots of the above equation are the intersection
Conditions for secondary minima of 𝑦 = 𝛼 and 𝑦 = 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑦

let sinα = 0 𝑦=𝛼

⇒α= = ±𝑛𝛱
sinα = sin(nπ)
Roots 𝛼 = 1.43π, 2.46 π, …
⇒ α = ±𝑛𝛱 ⇒ sinθ = ± 𝑛𝜆/𝑎
⇒ sinθn = ± 𝑛𝜆/𝑎 π 2π 3π 𝛼
But α =

⇒α= = ±𝑛𝛱
 =0

-3π
𝛼 =0⇒α=0
Central Maximum

-2π
-π
Central Maximum
α2
I0

Intensity
sin2α

π
First Secondary Minimum
Distribution

First Secondary Maximum

Second Secondary Minimum

2π

Second Secondary Maximum

3π

Third Secondary Minimum

α =
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit – Intensity
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit
Secondary minima:

L2

Q Secondary Maximum
L1
W A θ
Secondary Minimum
a θ P Central Maximum
θ
WI B Secondary Minimum
QI Secondary Maximum

AB = a, slit width
WWI; wavefront
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to Single-Slit
Width of the fringes:
+2λ/a
From the figure the radial
Secondary Maximum width of the central maximum is 2θ

We know that θ = ± λ/a (for first secondary minima)

Q +λ/a Secondary Minimum
⇒ the angular width is 2θ = 2 λ/a
A
The angular width is QQI
O θ D P Central Maximum
θ The linear and angular widths are related by
B
θ= (∵ angle = )
QI -λ/a Secondary Minimum

Secondary Maximum ⇒ 𝑃𝑄 = 𝜃𝐷 = 𝐷

-2λ/a Therefore, linear width QQI = PQ + PQI =

Similarly, we can find the linear width of secondary maxima and minima
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to n-slits
Let wavelets proceeding from all the points in a slit along
their direction are equivalent to a single wave of
α
Electric field amplitude E α starting from middle point Q
of the slit.
a
Here, α = asin 𝜃. b

θ
If there are N slits then we have N-diffracted waves. The path
difference between two consecutive slits is (a+b)sinθ.

Therefore, the phase difference is given by

𝛿= 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 2𝛽.
Hence the intensity in a direction OQ can be
found by finding the resultant of N vibrations each of amplitude
α
E α and a phase difference of 2𝛽.

α
The resultant amplitude on screen at point Q on screen becomes, ER = E ( )
α β
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to n-slits
The resultant intensity at ‘Q’ will be given by
2α
I = I0 α ( ) Eqn.1
Q
2α
The factor I0 α gives the distribution of the intensity a
b
due to a single slit while the factor ( ) gives the distribution
of intensity as a combined effect of all the slits. θ

Intensity Distribution – Principal Maxima

Eqn.1 takes a minimum value if sinβ = 0, then 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝛽 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

β = ±𝑛𝛱, n = 0,1,2,3,…

Then the term becomes indetermined.

According to L’Hospital’s rule, 𝛽 → 𝑚π = 𝛽 → 𝑛𝛱 =N

 Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to n-slits
2α
Then the intensity becomes, I = I0 ( α )N2

I0N2
Q
2α
( α
a
b

I0N2
sin 𝑁𝛽
( )
sin 𝛽
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to n-slits
2α
Then the intensity becomes, I = I0 ( α )N2

I0N2 Q

2α
a
b
(
α
θ

2α
I0 ( )( )
α
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to n-slits
Intensity Distribution – Minima positions
Eqn.1 takes a minimum value if SinNβ = 0 but sin 𝛽 ≠ 0.

⇒ 𝑁𝛽 = ±𝑚𝜋 Q
⇒ 𝑁( 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃) = ±𝑚𝜋
a
⇒ 𝑁 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆 b

θ
Where m takes all integral values except m = 0, N, 2N, …., nN
Because we get principal maxima for those values.
Hence, 𝑁 𝑎 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = ±𝑚𝜆, where m = 1,2,3,…,(N-1), (N+1),
…,(2N-1),(2N+1),…
These values gives minima positions which are adjacent to the principal
maxima.

To find the locations of the intensity minima, lets use the condition = 0 and rewriting the intensity equation, we get
2α
I = I0 α ( ) , if N is large, the intensity at the minima will be extremely low.
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction due to n-slits
Intensity Distribution
I

Q
N =10
a
b

I N =30
 Diffraction grating (N-slit diffraction) – key points
• The location of the maxima does not depend on the number of slits,
N.
• However, the maxima become sharper and more intense as N is
increased. The width of the maxima can be shown to be inversely
proportional to N.
• The location of the main peaks tells us what the various wavelengths
are by using asinθn = nλ (Grating Equation).
Comparison of Diffraction patterns due at various number
of slits

Reference (Image courtesy): Study.com

 Rayleigh’s criteria of resolution
• When the difference in wavelengths is smaller and such that the central maximum of the
wavelength coincides with the first minimum of the other as shown in figure, then the resultant
intensity curve is as shown by the thick curve.
• The curve shows a distinct dip in the middle of two central maxima. Thus, the two wavelengths
can be distinguished from one another according to Rayleigh they are said to be “Just Resolved”.

Δλ

Resolved Just Resolved Not Resolved

 Resolving power of a grating
• It is defined as the ability of a grating to form separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths
which are very close to each other.
• It is measured by where dλ is the smallest difference in two wavelengths which are just
resolvable by grating and λ is the mean wavelength of them.
P2
P1 P2
dθn

θn
a
b P1
 Resolving power of a grating
Principal maxima (a+b)sinθ = nλ
The first minimum in the direction θ+dθ is given by N(a+b)sin(θ+dθ) = (nN+1)λ
(since the first minimum adjacent to the nth principal maximum in the direction θ+dθ can be obtained by
substituting the value of ‘m’ as (nN+1))
∴ (a+b)sin(θ+dθ) = (n+1/N)λ (1)
Now the principal maximum of λ+dλ in the direction of θ+dθ is given by
(a+b)sin(θ+dθ) = n(λ+d λ) (2)

⇒1=

⇒ 𝑛 𝜆 + d𝑥 = 𝑛 + 𝜆

⇒ = 𝑛𝑁
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION