External Anatomy

of Toad
Stephen C. Capilitan, MST
Ingerophrynus philippinicus

CITATION
• IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group 2018. Ingerophrynus philippinicus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018:
e.T54734A114915002. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T54734A114915002.en. Downloaded on 02 October 2019.
Cane toad
• The cane toad was first introduced deliberately into
the Philippines in 1930 as a biological control agent of pests in
sugarcane plantations, after the success of the experimental
introductions into Puerto Rico. It subsequently became the most
ubiquitous amphibian in the islands. It still retains the common
name of bakî or kamprag in the Visayan languages,
a corruption of 'American frog', referring to its origins. It is also
commonly known as "bullfrog" in Philippine English.
Introduction
• the body of a toad is divisible into head, trunk and limbs. Head and
trunk are not separated by a flexible neck; this condition is very
suitable for aquatic (aqua = water) life. The adult has no tail.
Introduction
• The toad is a bilaterally symmetrical animal; that is, if the animal is
cut through the middle of its length, the parts on the right half will be
similar to those on the left half. For the purpose of description, the
back of the animal is spoken of as the dorsal and the underneath as
the ventral surface; the part of the body which is foremost during
locomotion is the anterior end and the rear is the posterior end.
• The part of a limb which lies nearest to the trunk is proximal and the
opposite is distal. Each side of the body is said to be lateral and
structures on the middle line of the body are medial.
Each eye is provided with three
eyelids:
• (i) A thick and prominent upper eyelid;
• (ii) A rudimentary lower eyelid; and
• (iii) A transparent third eyelid or nictitating membrane which is
attached below to the lower eyelid and can be stretched up to cover
the eyeball. There are no eyelashes. The bulging eyes enable the
animal to see all rounds, and the nictitating membrane protects the
eyeball from dirt. Behind each eye there is a circular patch of tightly
stretched greyish membrane. This is the eardrum or tympanum for
the purpose of hearing.
• There is no pinna of the ear in the toad. A little behind the eardrum,
there is a round elevated structure called parotid or parotid gland.
These extend behind into the trunk and when the toad apprehends
any danger, the glands secrete a pungent sticky juice for repelling the
enemy. Parotid glands, therefore, are organs of offence and defense.
• The ventral surface of the head forms the floor of the mouth cavity.
Its rise and fall along with breathing can be observed in a living
specimen. The skin in this part of the body is loose and may, in male
toads, be inflated by a dark-coloured vocal sac. The female has no
vocal sac.
Trunk
• The trunk is short and flattened from above down wards. There is
nothing to indicate the boundary between the head and the trunk.
The dorsal surface is covered with in numerable rough warts which
indicate the position of the poison glands.
• The ventral surface is comparatively smooth and free from warts. The
posterior end of the trunk is broadly rounded. The vent cloaca
aperture lies dorsally at the posterior end, between the bases of the
two hind legs; it serves for the exit of faeces, urine and germ cells.
•
Trunk
• A toad, when disturbed, often passes water through the vent. There is
a widely spread rumour that handling of toads causes warts on
human hands; this is a false superstition.
Limbs
• Attached to the trunk are a pair of forelimbs and a pair of hind limbs.
The hind limbs are kept in a folded state when the animal is at rest.
i. Fore Limbs:
• The forelimbs are short and divisible into segments by movable joints.
The proximal part, by which it joins the trunk, is known as the arm or
brachium. To this is joined the forearm or ante-brachium.
• Distal to the forearm is an insignificant wrist or carpus followed by a
hand or manus. There are four digits or fingers corresponding to
those on our own hand; but the thumb is absent. The male toad
develops a cushion-like swelling, called thumb pad, at the bases of
the index and middle fingers.
ii. Hind Limbs:
• The hind limbs are longer and stronger than the forelimbs. Each hind limb
consists of a proximal segment called thigh or femur which is followed by the
shank or crus. Distal to the shank is a long ankle or tarsus, a foot or pes, and five
slender digits or toes of which the fourth toe is the longest. The toes are united
by a thin fold of skin called web.
• The limbs are very suitable for the purpose of hopping on land as well as for
swimming in water. A toad, when disturbed, jerks off its strong hind limbs, leaps
into the air, and finally lands on the ground at a considerable distance.
• This peculiar method of locomotion is known as hopping. When taking the hop,
the long ankles and feet are pressed against the ground and used as levers. The
animal swims by alternately bending and straightening its powerful hind limbs,
the webbed feet being used as paddles.
•
Integument:
• The skin is rough but moist. It does not bear scales, feathers, hairs or claws
and is, therefore, said to be naked. Toads are almost of the same colour as
the earth; the dorsal surface of the animal is greyish-black and the ventral
surface is yellowish-grey. They are thus very difficult to locate when not
moving.
• Toads have the power of changing the colour of their skin, so that they may
match with the background and thus become invisible to the enemy. This
phenomenon is known as protective colouration. The tree frog Hyla is
better than toad in this respect and can change its colour very quickly.
• The skin forms a cover for the entire body. It protects the underlying soft
parts from injury and excludes disease germs. It serves as an additional
respiratory organ by absorbing oxygen and giving out carbon dioxide. Toads
never drink water; they freely absorb water by their skin.
The skin is composed of two distinct layers:
• (i) An outer epidermis, and
• (ii) An inner dermis.
• The epidermis consists of several layers of epithelial cells. The superficial epidermal cells
are thin, scale-like and devoid of nuclei. They form a horny layer called stratum corneum
which is shed from time to time as one piece. This process is known as ecdysis or
moulting. The deeper epidermal cells are tall and polygonal. They form the stratum
germinativum which produces new cells to replace the old horny layer.
• The dermis is much thicker than the epidermis. It is composed of glands, pigment cells,
involuntary muscle cells, blood vessels and nerves, all enclosed and held together by
connective tissue.
• Scattered in the superficial part of the dermis arc spider-like pigment cells or
chromatophores which can change the colour of the animal by simply shifting their
position. The chromatophores arc either black or yellow, but never green. The glands
produce the rough warts on the outer surface.
There are two kinds of glands:
• (i) Poison glands and
• (ii) Mucuous glands.
• They manufacture useful fluids or secretions which pass out by
narrow ducts and moisten the surface of the skin. The poison glands
are larger and more; numerous. They secrete a thick whitish fluid
with burning taste which repels the enemy. The mucous glands
secrete a thin watery fluid which keeps the skin moist and shiny.
Body Wall and Body Cavity of Toad:
• The toad’s body is essentially a double tube. The outer tube is formed
by the body wall and the inner tube by the digestive canal. The two
tubes are separated from one another by the body cavity or coelom.