EARTHWORM

Systematic position
Phylum: Annelida
Class: Oligochaeta
Genus: Pheretima
Species:- posthuma
Common name: Earthworm
[I] Habitat:
Earthworms are the annelids which are
cosmopolitan in distribution found almost all over the
world except the Arctic and Antarctic zones and rocky
mountains having scanty and poor soil. They inhabit
the upper surface of the soil which is less acidic but
comprises lots of organic matters. During rainy season,
they can be seen easily in gardens, agricultural fields as
their burrows becomes flooded.
[II] Habits:
Earthworms are poikilothermic animal i.e. cold
blooded invertebrates and shows following habits,
1. Fossorial animal:-
Earthworms are burrowing animals. They
generally dig their tunnels on the upper layer of damp soil
about 35-45cm deep but in search of moisture and during
cold and dry conditions they penetrate up to 3m deeper to
avoid drying. The tunnels of earthworm are made by two
ways; firstly by boring the soil by their anterior end and
secondly by swallowing the soil. The opening of the tunnel
is often covered with dry leaves, fecal matters and small
pebbles to stop the entry of water and centipedes (natural
enemies). The walls of the tunnel are plastered internally by
the faeces of their own or by the mucus secreted by their
cutaneous gland. The burrowing habit of earthworm protects
them from enemies and from unfavorable conditions.
2. Feeding:
Earthworms are omnivorous (also called
detritivorous). They feed upon plants and animal matters
directly. They ingest large amount of soil for the sake of food.
During ingestion, the buccal cavity is everted out and the soil
is drawn into the mouth by the sucking action of pharynx. The
indigestible food particles are egested but through anus in the
form of pellets of mud called worm castings.
3. Nocturnal animal: They are nocturnal animals so they are
called night crawlers. During day they lie in the burrows,
while during night they come out of their tunnels in search of
food and mate.
4. Behavior: They do not have special sense organs but they
respond to certain stimuli. They avoid strong light, chemical
vapors and mechanical vibrations such as pounding. Pounding
of rain drops causes earthworm to draw themselves out of
tunnel.
5. Breeding: Earthworms are hermaphrodite animal ( i.e.
monoecious or bisexual) as they contain both male and
female sex organs in the same individual. Breeding
season lasts for July to October .
6. Locomotion: Earthworms do not have specialized
locomotary organs. They show creeping movement
brought about by the contraction and relaxation of
circular and longitudinal body muscles and coelomic
fluid aided by the chitinous curved setae embedded in
the body wall.
7. Respiration: In earthworm oxygen and carbon dioxide
are exchanged through general body surface (body
wall). The body wall is thin, moist and vascularized
(richly supplied with blood vessels). If the skin is dried,
earthworm dies of asphyxia (lack of oxygen).
8. Circulation: Earthworms have closed circulatory
system as the blood flows within the closed blood
vessels. Blood is red in colour due to the presence
of hemoglobin (respiratory pigment). Thus the
blood is also called red ink. Only leucocytes
(WBC) are present in the blood of earthworm.
(Hemoglobin floats freely in the blood in a protein
complex called plasma).
9. Regeneration: Earthworm possess the power of
regeneration. The lost or injured part can be
regained. If an earthworm is cut into two, the front
part can regenerate a tail, but the posterior part
cannot form head, if 14 or more segments are lost.
However a head may be regenerated if only 4 or 6
segments are cut off at the anterior end.
[III] External features (Morphology) :
Earthworms are the segmented animals with no
skeleton. Their external features can be studied as mentioned
below:
1. Shape and size:
Earthworm is a long having bilaterally.
symmetrical body. It measures about 150mm in length and 3-
5 mm in diameter. It has tapering anterior end and more or
less blunt posterior end..
2. Colouration:
They are reddish brown or clay coloured due to the
presence of porphyrin pigments. The pigment porphyrin gives
them colour and protects them from harmful effects of bright
light. This pigment is formed due to consumption of decaying
cellulose by the animal. The dorsal part of the body is darker as
compared to the ventral part due to the presence of blood
vessel which extends from first to last segment.
3. Segmentation: Earthworm have 100-120 segments or
metameres which are distinct externally by a circular
groove called annuli. The external segmentation
corresponds internally as septa to divide body cavity
into compartments. This type of segmentation which is
both internal and external is called true or metameric
segmentation. The groove between two segments is
called intersegmental groove.
4. Peristomium: A distinct head with sense organs and
tentacles is absent in earthworm. The first segment of
the body is called peristomium in which lies terminal,
crescentric mouth. It is prolonged anteriorly into a
fleshy lobe, the prostomium which overhangs the
mouth dorsally. The prostomium is supplied with
nerves and helps in boring the soil, hence it is called
boring organ of earthworm.
5. Clitellum : In a sexually matured earthworm, a pinkish
girdle like thick band of glandular tissue known as
clitellum or cingulum is found towards the anterior end
in 14th, 15th and 16th segments. The glands of clitellium
secretes mucus and albumen provides nourishment to
the developing embryo and cocoon forming cells helps
in formation of egg case or cocoon for the eggs. On the
basis of clitellum the body of earthworm has been
divided into
a) Pre-clitellar region: 1st up to 13th segment
b) Clitellar region: 14th , 15th and 16th segment
c) Post clitellar region: 17th to the last.
6. Pygidium (hind end) : The last segment of the body in
which anus is located is known as Pygidium or anal
segment
7. Setae: These are small S-shaped curved chitinous
structures which are transparent yellowish in colour.
These are the locomotary organs of earthworm. These
are found embedded in the body wall. In matured
earthworm, it is present in all the segments except 1st,
last and the clitellar segments. Each segment contains a
ring of 80-120 setae backwardly directed in the middle
part but are mainly confined to the ventral surface. This
type of arrangement is called perichaetine. Each seta is
about 0.26mm in length and 0.13 mm in width. It lies
in the setigerous (setal) sac, a small pit in the body
wall. Each seta has a swollen middle part, the nodulus.
About one third of its part projects out of setigerous sac
on the surface termed as neck and other two third
remains within the setigerous sac termed as base.
 Internally the setigerous sac is lined with
germinal epithelium made up of seta forming cells.
The base of the seta lies in close contact with these
cells. The setigerous sacs in the body wall are
operated by two sets of muscles, a pair of
protractor and a single retractor muscles.
Contraction of protractor muscles causes extension
of seta whereas contraction of retractor muscles
caused withdrawn of seta. The ventral seta helps in
crawling on the ground. Lateral seta helps the
worm during creeping in the burrow and also helps
to keep two copulating worms together by mutual
penetration of the body wall. Worn- out setae are
regenerated repeatedly.
[IV] External apertures (Pores)
It includes.
1) Mouth: It is a crescentic aperture located at the anterior end
in front of the first segment, peristomium where the hood-
like muscular structure prostomium overhangs and mouth
lies terminal to it.
2) Dorsal pores: A series of opening in the mid-dorsal line
behind 12th segment except the last segment is known as
dorsal pores. The coelom communicates with the exterior
through these dorsal pores to discharge coelomic fluid. The
fluid keeps the surface moist, protects the body from
harmful bacteria and helps in plastering the walls of the
burrows.
3) Nephridiopores: A large number of pores irregularly
scattered openings of integumentary nephridia are present all
over the body except first two segments called nephridio
pores. They communicate to the exterior and helps in
removal of nitrogenous wastes from the body.
4) Spermathecal pore: It is a small flask shaped structure which
lies on the ventral region, ventro-laterally in the 6th,7 th,8th
and 9th segments. They are 4 pairs in number. It helps to
store the sperm from other worms during copulation.
5) Genital apertures: A pair of crescentic apertures lies one on
either side of the ventral surface of the 18th segment which
are called male genital pores. Male reproductive fluid along
with spermatozoa are released through these pores. While a
single pore lying in the mid-ventral line of the 14th segment
is female genital pore through which ova are discharged.
6) Apertures of accessory glands: A small, saucer shaped
outgrowth called copulatory genital papillae are present, a
pair on each 17th and 19th segments latero-ventrally. Each
papilla has minute pores of accessory glands which secretes
sticky fluid that helps in adhesion during copulation.
Papillae also act as suckers helping in maintaining
copulating position of worms.
7) Anus: It is a small opening lying at the last segment or
anal segment (pygidium) of the body. It helps in
elimination of waste products.

[V] Body wall:

The skin or body wall of earthworm
is thin, soft, elastic, delicate and moist. It is composed
of following four layers.
1) Cuticle: It is the outermost thin, elastic, non-cellular
double layered protective membrane which is made up
of collagen fibers and polysaccharides with small
amount of gelatin. It externally covers the entire body.
Cuticle protects the body from physical and chemical
injuries and it is secreted by underlying epidermis.
Fig. T.S of body wall of earthworm
2) Epidermis (Hypodermis)
It lies below the cuticle. The epidermis is
thicker in the middle of each segment. It is single layered but
comprises multi cells. These cells are supporting cells, glandular
cells, basal cells and receptor cells.
The major part of the epidermis is
formed by supporting cells which secretes overlying cuticle. Gland
cells lies between supporting cells and are of two types. They are
mucus gland cells which secretes mucus preventing from
desiccation and also helps in locomotion and albumen gland cells
which secretes albumen which provides nutrition to the embryo.
The basal cells later differentiate to form other types of cells as per
requirement hence they are called replacing cells. The basal cells
also helps in healing the wounds. Sensory cells or epidermal
receptor cells have hair like processes at their outer ends which
react to various stimulus. Beneath the epidermis lies a thin
basement membrane.
.
3) Musculature (dermis):- It lies beneath the epidermis. It is composed
of two layers: outer thin circular muscles and inner thick
longitudinal muscles. Circular muscles are unstraited, long and
spindle shaped which runs around the body. Pigment cells,
connective tissue, nerve fibers and blood capillaries are found
among the circular muscles. Inner thick longitudinal muscles runs
along the length of the body which are in bundles and are separated
by the connective tissue and are strengthened by collagen fibers.
Contraction of circular muscle fibers decreases thickness and
increases length of the animal whereas contraction of longitudinal
muscles increases the thickness and decreases the length of the
animal. Two sets of muscle, the protractor and retractor muscles
are attached to basal part of each setal sac. By the contraction of
the protractor muscles, setae gets protruded and performs
locomotion while the contraction of the retractor muscles make the
setae withdrawn into the setal sac.
4) Coelomic epithelium or parietal peritoneum:-It is the innermost
layer of the body wall and lies below the second circular muscles.
It is composed of single layer of squamous cells and forms the
outer lining at the coelomic cavity. It secretes coelomic fluid.
Functions of the Body wall:
a) It provides a definite shape and protects the body from
physical and chemical injuries.
b) The mucus secreted by mucus gland cells keep the body
moist, protects the body from the desiccation, kills harmful
bacteria and helps in locomotion.
c) The moist body wall helps in respiration.
d) Musculature helps in movement of the body due to
contractility.
e) Parietal layer of coelomic epithelium secretes coelomic fluid.
f) It contains setal sac or setigerous sac lodging seta which helps
in locomotion.
g) Receptor cells are sensory in function and respond to touch
chemical and temperature.
h) Albumen secreted by clitellar glands helps in nutrition of
embryos developing inside cocoons.
Coelom
Body cavity or coelom is the space that lies
between the body wall and alimentary canal. It is formed by splitting of
mesodermal layer hence it is schizocoelic. It is filled with coelomic
fluid which acts as a hydraulic skeleton. Coelom is lined by coelomic
epithelium which consists of parietal layer of coelomic epithelium lying
on the inner surface of the body wall and visceral layer lying on the
outer surface of alimentary canal. Coelom communicates with the
exterior through reproductive, nephridial and dorsal pores. The coelom
of earthworm is divided into coelomic compartments by coelomic septa.
Because the volume of fluid in a coelomic compartment is essentially
constant. Contraction of the longitudinal body wall muscles causes a
segment to shorten and to become larger in diameter. The contraction of
circular muscles causes it to lengthen and becomes thinner. The
presence of septa means that widening and elongation occurs in
restricted areas; crawling motions are produced by alternating waves of
contraction by longitudinal and circular muscles. Forces are powerful
enough for rapid burrowing as well as locomotion. The components of
coelom are:
1) Peritoneum : Coelomic epithelium or peritoneum is internal
lining of coelom. It is distinguished into splanchnic or visceral
layer covering the alimentary canal and a somatic or parietal
layer lining the body wall. It secretes coelomic fluid.
2) Septa: These are transverse intersegmental partitions running
from gut wall to body wall dividing coelom into a series of
compartments.
3) Coelomic fluid: The coelomic cavity is filled with an alkaline
milky white fluid called coelomic fluid which further consists
of water, salts, proteins and coelomic corpuscles. Coelomic
corpuscles are of different types.
a) Amoebocytes or phagocytes: These are numerous, large sized
nucleated and amoeboid corpuscles containing large number
of ingested granules. So they are also called granulocytes.
These corpuscles help to kill the foreign microbes present in
the coelomic fluid.
b) Mucocytes: These are elongated cells with broad
fan like part of one end and narrow nucleated stalk
like at another end. They secrete mucus.
c) Circular cells (leucocytes): These are circular
nucleated cells with clear cytoplasm. They form
about 10% of the coelomic corpuscles. These cells
bring about internal transport.
d) Chloragogen cells (Yellow cells): These are small
star-shaped cells also called yellow cells. They
have excretory function. These are analogous to
liver of vertebrates. The chloragogen cells released
freely in the coelomic fluid that contains glycogen
and fat or waste materials are called eleocytes.
Functions of Coelomic fluid:
1) The coelomic fluid comes out through the dorsal
pores and keeps the skin moist for respiration and
kills the harmful bacteria and other parasites
present on body wall.
2) The chloragogen cells of the coelomic fluid helps
in excretion of metabolic wastes from the body.
3) Coelomic fluid helps in transportation of digested
food from one part to another part of body.
4) It serves as a hydraulic skeleton during
locomotion.
Digestive system of earthworm:
The digestive system of earthworm is
concerned with ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion of food. It consists of
alimentary canal and associated digestive glands.
[A] Alimentary canal:
It is a long, straight tube of
varying diameter which runs through the entire length
of the body from mouth to anus. It is externally lined
visceral epithelium of coelomic epithelium and
internally lined with enteric epithelium. The associated
digestive glands remain embedded in the enteric
epithelium of gut wall. The alimentary canal consists of
following organs:
1) Mouth : 1st segment or peristomium
2) Buccal cavity or chamber: 1st to middle of 3rd
segment.
3) Pharynx: middle of the 3rd to 4th segment.
4) Oesophagus: 5th to 7th segment
5) Gizzard: 8th or 8th to 9th segment
6) Stomach: 9th to 14th segment
7) Intestine: 15th to last segment
VIII.Pre- typhlosolar region: 15th to 26th segment
IX. Typhlosolar region: 27th segment to backward except
the last 23-25 segments
X. Post- typhlosolar region: last 23-25 segment except
anal segment
8) Anus : last segment or pygidium
1) Mouth: It is a crescentic aperture lying below the
prostomium in the first segment called
peristomium.
2) Buccal cavity: It is a thin walled sac like
protrusible structure extending up to the middle
of 3rd segment. Its epithelial lining is thrown into
longitudinal folds and is surrounded by the
muscular strands. The muscles help in protrusion
of buccal chamber during ingestion. The
epithelium of buccal chamber contain buccal or
gustatory receptors specialized for smell and taste
of food. Buccal cavity opens into pharynx.
3) Pharynx: It is the pear-shaped muscular thick walled
structure extending up to 4th segment. Internally the
lumen of pharynx is reduced due to the presence of
thick glandular bulb from dorsal roof called pharyngeal
mass or bulb (salivary gland). It contains chromophil
cells secreting saliva. Chromophil cells producing
saliva contains mucin for lubricating the food and
proteolytic enzymes for the digestion of protein. The
lateral wall of the pharynx are unequally divided into
horizontal shelves. The upper dorsal chamber is known
as salivary chamber while lower ventral chamber is
known as conducting chamber which serves as passage
for food during ingestion.
Pharynx is attached to the body wall by radial dilator
muscles whose contraction dilates the pharyngeal
cavity thus working as a suction pump during feeding.
4) Oesophagus: Pharynx opens into a short narrow thin
walled and straight tube extending from 5th segment
to 7th segment called oesophagus. It is also called as
gullet. The oesophageal wall is folded internally and
is devoid of glands. It helps in conducting peristalsis.
5) Gizzard (Mastax)
It is an oval, hard, thick walled and
highly muscular (circular muscles) present in the 8th
or 8th -9th segment. It is internally lined by a tough
cuticle which helps in grinding the food into fine
states. Thus gizzard is also known as grinding
machine. It opens into stomach.
6) Stomach: It is a thin walled narrow tube
extending from 9th to 14th segment with a
sphincter at each end. It has a much folded
lining with glandular cells which secrete
proteolytic enzyme. Epithelial lining in
stomach of some species of Pheretima possess
calciferous glands which produces calcium and
carbon dioxide for neutralizing the food.
Calciferous gland are excretory in function
thus removes excessive ions of calcium and
carbonate in the form of calcite. Stomach leads
into intestine.
7) Intestine:- It is a long wide, thin walled tube extending from 15th
to last segment. Its internal lining is ciliated, vascular and glandular
and is folded to form villi, one of which becomes larger and well
developed dorsally called as typhlosole which runs mid-dorsally
from the 26th segment to the posterior. The glands of internal
lining of intestine secretes proteolytic, amylolytic and lipolytic
enzymes. In each segment beyond 26th, a pair of whitish lobulated
lymph glands are present on each side of blood vessel. The gland
produces phagocytes containing refractile granules and
chloragogen cells in various stages of degeneration. Cysts and
spores of a parasitic protozoa, Monocystis are also found in some
parts of these lymph glands. Typhlosole divides the intestine into
three regions.
i) Pre- typhlosolar region:- It is the anterior part of the intestine
extending from 15th segment to 26th segment. The mucosal wall
of the intestine consists of many internal folds called villi which is
thin walled, vascular and glandular. In the 26th segment, it
produces a pair of conical blind outgrowth called intestinal caeca
which produces amylolytic enzyme for the digestion of starch. It is
the main region for the chemical digestion of food.
ii) Typhlosolar region:- It is the middle part of the
intestine extending between 26th segment up to in front
of anal segment. It comprises a median dorsal and
longitudinal fold, the typhlosole. It is highly vascular
and glandular fold and increases the absorptive surface
of the intestine. Typhlosolar region is the main region
for absorption of food.
iii) Post typhlosolar region: It is the posterior part of
intestine extending in the last 23-25 segment. It is also
called as rectum. It has longitudinal folds but no
typhlosole. It contains small pellets of mud along with
undigested solid wastes. It opens outside through a
terminal anus.
8) Anus: It is a small vertical opening lying at the last or
anal segment of the body. It is provided with anal
sphincter and helps in egesting of indigestible food
from the body.
Associated digestive glands :-
The digestive glands of earthworm remains
embedded in the enteric epithelium. They are as follows.
1) Pharyngeal mass or bulb:- It is a muscular and glandular mass
present on the roof of the pharynx. It consists of chromophil cells
which secretes a salivary secretion in the lumen of the pharynx.
Saliva contains mucus and proteolytic enzyme. Mucous lubricates
the food and proteolytic enzyme digests protein.
2) Gastric gland or epithelium:
The glandular cells of the gastric epithelium of the
stomach secretes proteolytic enzyme for the digestion of protein. It
also contains calciferous gland whose secretion neutralizes the
acidity of ingested food.
3) Intestinal epithelium: The intestinal or enteric epithelium of intestine
contains amylolytic, proteolytic and lipolytic gland cells which
secretes amylase, proteases and lipase enzyme respectively. These
enzymes help in the digestion of starch, proteins and fats.
Histology at alim entary canal:-
The wall of the alimentary canal consists
of four layers. They are
1) Peritoneum:- It is the outermost layer having tall
and narrow cells. Some of these cells modify into
chloragogen or chloragocytes which contains
yellow granules, chloragosomes which store waste
from the blood and from coelomic fluid. After
these cells becomes filled they are either passed
out through dorsal pores or through excretory
organs. Their exact function is controversial and is
compared with the liver of vertebrates. They are
said to serve for storages of reserve food,
deamination of proteins and formation of urea
from ammonia, excretion etc.
2) Muscles: The two layers below the peritoneum is
the muscular layer which includes outer
longitudinal and inner circular muscle fiber layers.
These are weakly developed in intestine while they
are well developed in the pharynx and oesophagus.
In gizzard, the circular muscles forms a very thick
layer.
3) Enteric epithelium: It is an epithelial lining of
columnar cells which are ciliated in the roof of the
pharynx, glandular in stomach and absorptive and
glandular in intestine. It is internally thrown into
folds in oesophagus, stomach and intestine.
4) Cuticle: It is present only in the buccal cavity as a
thin lining and in the gizzard as a thick lining.
Physiology of Digestion:-
Earthworm is omnivorous which feeds upon both
plant as well as animal matters. The buccal chamber is everted out and the
food is taken in by the sucking action of the pharynx. In the pharynx, the
pharyngeal mass of the roof secretes saliva which contains mucin and
proteolytic enzyme which acts upon protein and convert it into proteoses
and peptones.
In the gizzard, the food materials are grinded up
into the fine state by the muscular action of its wall. In the stomach, the
proteins and the smaller peptides are converted into amino acid by the
proteolytic enzyme secreted by the gland cells of enteric epithelium. In
stomach, the acidity of food is neutralized by the secretions of calciferous
glands.
In the intestine, food is completely digested by the
action of proteolytic, amylolytic and lipolytic enzymes secreted by the
enteric epithelium of intestine. Hence the digested food are absorbed by the
typhlosole of the intestine while the undigested food materials are egested
out through anus.
Excretory System:
The process of elimination of nitrogenous
waste from the body is known as excretion. The excretory
organ of earthworm are nephridia. Nephridia are ectodermal in
origin. Nephridia are segmentally arranged microscopic, coiled
and complicated special tubules. These tubules are also called
meronephridia or micronephridia due to their microscopic size.
Nephridia in earthworm are present in all segments except first
two. On the basis of their location, the nephridia are of three
types.
1) Septal nephridia
2) Pharyngeal nephridia and
3) Integumentary nephridia.
1) Septal nephridia (Typical nephridia)
These are the largest and well
developed nephridia which are attached on both side of
intersegmental septum behind 15th segment. It mainly
consist of 3 parts.
a) Nephrostome:- It is expanded, rounded and funnel
shaped terminal part of the nephridium which opens
into the body cavity (coelom). It has an elliptical
median pore called ostium surrounded by ciliated cells
and is guarded by a larger upper lip and smaller lower
lip. The upper lip is formed of large central cell and 8
or 9 marginal cells whereas the lower lip is formed by
4 or 5 compact cells. The nephrostome is continued at
its back by a short, narrow ciliated bent tube called
neck and joins to the main body.
b) Body of nephridium: The neck leads into the main
body of nephridium. The main part of septal
nephridium is a coiled part divided into a short,
flattened and uncoiled straight lobe and a long, spirally
coiled twisted loop with a narrow apical part, which
joins the terminal duct.
The straight lobe is rounded
and free at its distal end but opens into the twisted loop
at its outer end. The twisted loop can be distinguished
into a Proximal limb and a distal limb, which remains
spirally twisted upon each other. The number of twists
varies from nine to thirteen. The distal limb is the
direct continuation of straight lobe. The proximal limb
is connected with the neck and opens into the terminal
duct. The free coiled part of twisted loop bends to an
angle to one side and is called as apical limb.
c) Terminal duct: The body of nephridium leads to a short terminal
duct with single ciliated tract. The terminal duct opens in the septal
excretory canal which opens in the supra-intestinal excretory canal
and then to intestine.
The waste excretory matters from the
coelomic fluid are collected by ciliary motion of nephridi- ostome
and pass out in the following route.
Nephrostome ― Main body ― Terminal duct ―
Septal excretory duct ― supra Intestinal excretory duct
―Intestine ― Outside Anus
2) Pharyngeal nephridia:-
They are three pairs, one on either side of the
alimentary canal in the segment 4th , 5th and 6th . The pharyngeal
nephridia are about the size of septal nephridia and have similar
structure but are devoid of nephrostome. The coelomic fluid
containing nitrogenous waste product are carried through the
alimentary canal and are discharged through anus. Hence they are
called entronephric nephridia. The duct of 4th and 5th open into the
pharynx while the 6th opens into the buccal cavity.
3) Integumentary nephridia:- These nephridia are
found attached to the inner surface of the body
wall from 3rd segment to the last. Each
segment contains 200-250 nephridia but in
cliteller segment (14-16) their number
increases to more 2000-2500 forming the
“forest of nephridia”. These nephridia are the
smallest about the half size of septal nephridia.
The terminal duct of each integumentary
nephridia opens independently on the body
surface through nephridiopores. So these
nephridia are also called exonephric nephridia.
Physiology of excretion:
Earthworm are mainly ureotelic as the
chief nitrogenous waste is urea. In earthworms these
nitrogenous wastes are formed due to catabolism of proteins
and are released into the coelomic fluid and also in the blood
for their removal. An earthworm excretes the nitrogenous
wastes in the form of urine which contains urea, water,
ammonia and creatinine. The nephridia extract excess of
water, solid particles and the nitrogenous waste from blood.
The enteronephric nephridia (septal and pharyngeal
nephridia) discharges the excretory products into the
alimentary canal while the exonephric nephridia discharges
the excretory product outside through the body surface
through nephridiopores. The enteronephric nephridia also
serves as osmoregulation by reabsorbing water into the
intestine. Reabsorption of salt also occurs through the
nephridia and this process is called selective reabsorption.
 Chloragogen cells also functions as
excretory organ in earthworm. When these
chloragogen cells are filled with excretory
products, they are discharged either in blood or
coelomic fluid which are further taken up by
the septal nephridia or passed out directly
through the dorsal pores. Chloragogen cells
also excrete silicates consumed by the
earthworm along with food. Waste laden
chloragogen cells are engulfed or destroyed by
the amoebocytes of coelomic fluid and lymph
glands.
Reproductive System:
Earthworm reproduces sexually.
They are hermaphrodite animal (monoecious,
bisexual) i.e. both ovaries and testes are found in
the same individual. They are protandrous i.e.
testes mature earlier than the ovaries, therefore self
fertilization is impossible. Cross fertilization is
proceeded by copulation and cocoon formation.
Male reproductive System (organs) :-
The male reproductive organs comprises
of testes, testis sac, seminal vesicles, spermiducal
or spermatic funnels, vasa deferentia, prostrate
glands and accessory glands.
1) Testes: There are two pairs of testis present, one pair
in each 10th and 11th segments found attached with
the posterior surface of 9/10 and 10/11 inter
segmental septa. They are found ventro-laterally
beneath the alimentary canal on either side of the
nerve cord. Testis are enclosed in the testis sac. Each
testis consists of 4-8 finger like projections which
contains immature rounded cells called
spermatogonia. The spermato- gonia are shed into the
testis-sac and pass into the seminal vesicles where
they develop into tailed spermatozoa.
The mature spermatozoa from the
seminal vesicles move back to the testis sac and pass
through the sperm funnels, the vasa deferentia and
finally discharged through the male genital pore with
the secretion of prostrate glands during copulation.
2) Testis sacs:- Both the testes of each segment
are found enclosed in a thin-walled, wide,
bilobed and fluid filled testis sac. These two
testis sacs are found in 10th and 11th segments
ventro- laterally one behind the other below
the alimentary canal. These are coelomic
space, cut off from the general body cavity and
appears bilobed in front. They enclose a pair of
testis and a pair of ciliated spermatic funnels.
The testis sacs of the 11th segment are very
large which enclose the seminal vesicles of
that segment. Each testis sac communicates
with the seminal vesicles of its own side.
3) Seminal vesicles: Earthworm contains two pairs of large,
white sac-like seminal vesicles lying in the 11th and 12th
segments respectively. They are also called septal pouches as
they are formed as outgrowths of the septa. The testis sac of
the 10th segment communicates with the two seminal
vesicles of the 11th segment and testis sac of the 11th
segment communicates with the two seminal vesicles of 12th
segment. The posterior seminal vesicles are comparatively
larger than the anterior ones. The seminal vesicles of the 11th
segment remain enclosed in the posterior larger testis Sac,
while the seminal vesicles of the 12th segment are exposed
in the coelomic cavity. Seminal vesicles provide
nourishment to the spermatozoa.
4) Spermiducal or spermatic funnels : There are two pairs of
ciliated spermatic funnel that are present in the 10th and 11th
segment and are enclosed in testes sacs. Each spermatic
funnel leads into a fine tube, the vas deferens
5) Vasa deferentia: Each spermiducal funnel leads into a slender,
narrow tube internally ciliated vasa deferentia. They are two
pairs and are extended from 12th to 18th segment. In 18th
segment they join a thick prostatic and forms common
prostatic and spermatic duct. They open ventrally into the male
genital opening situated in the 18th segment.
6) Prostrate gland: The two large, solid, white, irregular and
glandular masses are the prostrate gland which extends from
16 th or 17th to 20th or 21st segment. Each gland consists of
big glandular part and small non- glandular part, the glandular
part is a racemose gland consisting of several lobes closely
fixed together. The non glandular portion consists of several
small ductules that unite to form a short, thick muscular and
curved prostatic duct in the 18th segment. The opening of the
male genital pore is actually a group of three apertures, a large
prostatic aperture and two small apertures of vasa deferentia.
7) Accessory glands:
Earthworm contains two pairs
of accessory glands, one pair in 17th segment
and another pair in 19th segment on the ventral
body wall on either side of the nerve cord.
They are rounded, white fluffy masses which
open to the exterior by a number of ducts on
two pairs of genital papilla, situated mid-
ventrally in the 17th and 19th segments.
Secretions of accessory glands probably helps
in uniting the two worms during copulation.
Female reproductive System:- (organs)
The female reproductive organs are ovaries, oviducal funnels,
oviducts and spermathecae.
1) Ovaries :- A pair of ovaries remain attached to the posterior part of septum
12/13 one on either side of the nerve cord. They are found in 13th segment.
Each ovary is a white mass-made up of several finger like processes. The
processes contain ova in various stages of development arranged in a linear
series. The immature ones are found towards proximal part and mature
ones are found towards the distal part.
2) Oviducal funnel:- Behind each in the 13th
segment there lies a pair of ciliated oviducal
funnel. Each funnel leads behind into a short,
conical and ciliated tube the oviduct.
3) Oviduct: The two oviducts which are short
conical ciliated tube, one arising from each
oviducal funnel runs posteriorly and converge
to meet in the ventral body wall below the
nerve cord in the 14th segment where lies the
female genital aperture. They conduct ova out
of the female genital pore.
4) Spermathecae: Four pairs of spermathecae are present
ventro-laterally, each pair in the segment 6th , 7th , 8th
and 9th. Each Spermathecae is a small, flask shaped
structure consisting broad pear shaped ampulla and the
short, blind outgrowth caeca or diverticulum. The
ampulla provides nourishment to the stored sperms.
The diverticulum serves for the storage of sperm
received from another worm during copulation. The
neck of all the spermathecae are attached to the septa
between 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 segments. The spermathe
- cae opens to the exterior by separate spermathecal
pore which lies ventro-laterally in the groove's between
5/6, 6/7, 7/8, and 8/9 segments. Spermathecae receives
and stores spermatozoa temporarily of other worm at
the time of copulation.
Copulation-
The mutual exchange of spermatozoa
takes place between the two earthworms which is
called as copulation. It occurs during the rainy season
and lasts about an hour.
During copulation, two worms come
out of their burrows and attach to each other by their
ventral side, each facing in opposite direction. The
position is in such a way that the male genital aperture
located in the 18th segment of one worm is just
opposite to the spermathecal pore of the other. Now the
genital papilla is inserted which helps to attach the two
worms together unless the copulation is completed.
Hence the mutual exchange of spermatic and prostatic
duct takes place and sperms are stored in the
spermathecae.
Cocoon formation:- Soon after the copulation, when the
ovaries mature, the fertilization takes place. Cocoons are
barrel shaped, lemon colored protective egg case measuring
about 2-2.5 mm in length and 1.5-2mm in diameter and are
deposited in a moist place formed from the gland cells of
clitellum. These are also called Ootheca. Three different sets
of glandular cells in clitellum becomes active providing
mucus, albumen and viscous secretion for cocoon. The cocoon
secreting glands of clitellar segments secrete a viscid or
gelatinous substance forming a broad membranous band or
girdle around the clitellum. The girdle hardens gradually on
exposure to the air into a tough but elastic tube, which
becomes the cocoon or egg capsule. The albumen glands
produce albumen in which eggs are deposited in the cocoon.
The worm withdraws itself backwards from the girdle and the
slime tube and cocoon are slipped forward.
During this the cocoon receives ova from the
female genital pore and sperms through the
spermathecal pores. Finally the cocoon is thrown
off from the anterior end and its both ends are
closed due to elasticity of it's walls. Several
cocoons are formed after each copulation because
the spermatozoa stored in the spermathecae do not
pass out all at one time. The fertilization takes
place inside cocoon. But as a rule, only one
fertilized eggs proceeds to develop into a new
individual and the rest degenerate. In 8-10 weeks,
the embryo hatches from the cocoon as a small
earthworm.
Fig. Cocoon formation in earthworm
Nervous System:
The system which controls and co-ordinates the
various activities and movements of the body parts is known
as nervous system. It is well developed and segmentally
arranged in earthworms. It is divided into three parts:
I) Central nervous system
II) Peripheral nervous System
Ⅲ) Autonomic nervous System
I) Central nervous system:-
The central nervous system comprises an anterior
nerve ring (brain ring) and a posterior nerve cord.
i) Nerve ring: It comprises paired cerebral ganglia or Supra-
pharyngeal ganglia, circumpharyngeal connectives and sub-
pharyngeal ganglia. The nerve ring is found in 3rd and 4th
segment around the pharynx. A pair of white pear-shaped
cerebral ganglia is fused together to form a brain dorsally in the
3rd segment of the body. It lies in the groove separating the
buccal chamber from the pharynx. A pair of thick short circum-
pharyngeal connectives or peripharyngeal connectives arise
one on each lateral side. They encircle the pharynx and
ventrally meet with a pair of fused sub pharyngeal ganglia
lying in the fourth segment beneath the pharynx. Thus a
complete nerve ring (nerve collar) is formed around the
pharynx.
ii) Ventral nerve Cord: The ventral nerve cord arises from the sub
pharyngeal ganglia and runs posteriorly along the mid-ventral
line up to the posterior end. It consists of two longitudinal cord
fused together. In each segment from the fifth to the last the
nerve cord shows a swelling, the segmental ganglion. Each
segmental ganglion is formed by the fusion of a pair of ganglia,
one belonging to each cord of the double ventral nerve cord.
 The nerve cord consists at nerve fibers
and nerve cells, the fibers forms the core of the cord. The
nerve cells or neurons are present on the sides and below the
cores of nerve fibers all along the length. Nerve cells occur
more in the ganglia. Nerve cells and nerve fibers lie
embedded in a mass of connective tissue called neuroglia.
Four giant fibers (one median, one sub median and two
laterals) are found dorsal to the nerve cord along the entire
length. They are tubular, filled with homogenous plasma-
like matter and surrounded by epineurium. These giant
fibers are responsible for rapid conduction of impulses
throughout the nerve cord. They conduct impulses to the
longitudinal muscles of the body wall which contract almost
simultaneously.
The double nerve cords are enclosed in a
common sheath called perineurium consisting of three layers
- the outer visceral peritoneum, middle longitudinal muscle
layer and inner thick fibrous layer of epineurium.
Fig. Dorsal view of nervous system of earthworm
II) Peripheral nervous system:
The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves coming
out from the CNS (Central Nervous System). All the nerves are mixed in
nature, containing both afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) nerve fibers.
It consists of following nerves.
1) 8-10 pairs of nerves arise from the cerebral ganglia and supply the
prostomium, buccal cavity and pharynx
ii) The circumpharyngeal connective also gives 2 pairs of nerves to the
peristomium and buccal cavity.
iii) From the sub-pharyngeal ganglia 3 pairs of nerves go to the 3rd and 4th
segment.
iv) The segmental ganglia of the nerve cord gives out 3 pairs of minute nerves
in each segment which supply the various parts of the segment.
Ⅲ) Sympathetic pathetic nervous system: An extensive nerve plexus lying
beneath the epidermis within the muscles of the body wall and on the
alimentary canal constitute the sympathetic nervous system. The nerve
plexuses are connected with the circum- pharyngeal connective.
Working of Nervous System:-
The nervous system controls and co-ordinates
all the activities. The nerves are mixed type, consisting of both
afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) fibers. The afferent fibers
start from a sensory cell or receptor organ of epidermis and
terminate in ventral nerve cord in fine branches. In the cord,
forming a synapse with the afferent branches arises. Similar
branches of efferent fibers which run outward and terminate in the
muscles. The sensory impulses (stimuli) in the afferent fibers from
the receptors to the ventral nerve cord are reflected back as motor
impulses along the efferent fibers to the muscles, resulting the
contraction. The circuit of stimuli or impulses forms a simple
reflex-arc. Often an adjustor neuron may be present between the
afferent and efferent neurons through which an impulse may be
conveyed to the opposite sides of the same or other segments, thus
bringing about the co-ordination of the body activities. Giant fibers
of the nerve cord conduct nerve impulses much more rapidly than
the ordinary nerve fibers and causes sudden movements of the
entire body when a part of the body is stimulated. The rate of
conduction in the giant fibers is about 1.5 m in one second while in
the ordinary fibers it is about 25mm in one second.
Receptors :
Generally, there are no specific sense organs,
yet earthworms react to almost all sorts of stimuli. The organs which
are related with the reception of stimuli are called receptors. In
earthworms, the sense organs have very simple structures to react
with external stimuli. They contain a single or a group of specialized
ectodermal cells. There are three types of receptors present in
earthworms. They are
A) Epidermal (tactile) receptors: These receptors are distributed all
over the epidermis as the body wall but are abundant on the lateral
and ventral surfaces of the body. Each receptor contains tall, slender
and columnar receptor cells covered by the cuticle. These cells bear
a small hair like processes at their outer end and are connected with
nerve fibers at their inner end. The receptor cells are surrounded by
supporting cells and basal cells. The receptor cells gives the sense of
touch, mechanical vibrations, chemical and thermal stimuli. These
are also called tactile receptors.
B) Buccal (gustatory) receptors: These are present in the
epithelium of buccal chamber. They are similar to the
epidermal receptors in structure except that they have broader
outer ends, deeply situated nuclei and well developed sensory
hairs. These are the receptors of taste and smell thus also
called gustatory and olfactory receptors.
c) Photoreceptors (dorsal receptors)
These are present on the dorsal surface of
the body and are abundant in the prostomium, first and second
segments. They are rare in posterior region and totally absent
in clitellar region. Each photoreceptor is unicellular and
contains a large nucleus and a clear L-shaped lens (phaosome)
in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm has a network of neurofibrils,
the retinella from which nerve fibers arise. The photoreceptors
detect the intensity and duration of light. Worms are
negatively phototrophic to strong light and positive to weak
light.
Fig. Receptors in earthworm A) epidermal receptors B) photoreceptors
C) Buccal receptors
Economic Importance:
Earthworms are of great economic
importance to man. According to Charles Darwin "All the
fertile areas of this planet have at least once passed through the
bodies of earthworms. They play an important role in
agriculture and are the best friends of farmers as they are
continuously ploughing and manuring the soil. However a
few species are harmful.
i) As bait and food: The earthworms are used as bait for fishing
all over the world. It becomes food for many types of birds,
snakes, frogs etc.
ii) In agriculture: Earthworms are good friend of farmers. Its
burrowing activities turn the soil inside out making the soil
porous to allow the deeper movement of air, water and root of
the plant. Its worm casting activity deposit the manure in the
soil making the soil fertile.
iii) As medicine: The earthworms are used to
prepare the medicines to cure the diseases like
diarrhea, asthma, piles, bladder stone, weakness
after pregnancy etc.
iv) In laboratory: The earthworms are used in
laboratories of many educational institutions to
study about anatomy and physiology of
invertebrate.
Sometimes the earthworm may be
harmful. Its burrowing activity may contribute in
soil erosion on the slopes. It may damage the root
of young plant It may act as intermediate hosts for
many types of helminthes parasite.