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The characteristic features and principal causes of porosity imperfections are described. Best
practice guidelines are given so welders can minimise porosity risk during fabrication.
Identi cation
Porosity is the presence of cavities in the weld metal caused by the freezing in of gas released
from the weld pool as it solidi es. The porosity can take several forms:
distributed
wormhole
crater pipes
Distributed porosity (Fig. 1) is normally found as ne pores throughout the weld bead. Surface
breaking pores (Fig. 2) usually indicate a large amount of distributed porosity
Cause
Porosity is caused by the absorption of nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen in the molten weld pool
which is then released on solidi cation to become trapped in the weld metal.
Nitrogen and oxygen absorption in the weld pool usually originates from poor gas shielding.
As little as 1% air entrainment in the shielding gas will cause distributed porosity and greater
than 1.5% results in gross surface breaking pores. Leaks in the gas line, too high a gas ow
rate, draughts and excessive turbulence in the weld pool are frequent causes of porosity.
Hydrogen can originate from a number of sources including moisture from inadequately dried
electrodes, uxes or the workpiece surface. Grease and oil on the surface of the workpiece or
Surface coatings like primer paints and surface treatments such as zinc coatings, may generate
copious amounts of fume during welding. The risk of trapping the evolved gas will be greater in
T joints than butt joints especially when llet welding on both sides (see Fig 2). Special mention
should be made of the so-called weldable (low zinc) primers. It should not be necessary to
remove the primers but if the primer thickness exceeds the manufacturer's recommendation,
porosity is likely to result especially when using welding processes other than MMA.
Prevention
Air entrainment
Hydrogen
Surface coatings
- check that the weldable primer is below the recommended maximum thickness
Elongated pores or wormholes
Wormholes
Characteristically, wormholes are elongated pores (Fig. 3) which produce a herring bone
Cause
Wormholes are indicative of a large amount of gas being formed which is then trapped in the
solidifying weld metal. Excessive gas will be formed from gross surface contamination or very
thick paint or primer coatings. Entrapment is more likely in crevices such as the gap beneath
the vertical member of a horizontal-vertical, T joint which is llet welded on both sides.
When welding T joints in primed plates it is essential that the coating thickness on the edge of
the vertical member is not above the manufacturer's recommended maximum, typically 20µm,
through over-spraying.
Prevention
Gas generation
- clean the workpiece surfaces at and adjacent to the location where the weld will be
made
- remove any surface contamination, in particular oil, grease, rust and residue from NDT
operations
- remove any surface coatings from the joint area to expose bright material
Crater pipe
A crater pipe forms during the nal solidi cation of the weld pool and is often associated with
some gas porosity.
Cause
This imperfection results from shrinkage on weld pool solidi cation. Consequently, conditions
which exaggerate the liquid to solid volume change will promote its formation.
Extinquishing the welding arc will result in the rapid solidi cation of the weld pool.
In TIG welding, autogenous techniques, or stopping the welding wire entering the weld pool
before extinquishing the welding arc, will e ect crater formation and may promote the pipe
imperfection.
Prevention
Crater pipe imperfection can be prevented by controlling the rate at which the welding arc is
Removal of stop
- use run-o tag to enable the welding arc to be extinquisehd outside the welded joint
- grind out the weld run stop crater before continuing with the next electrode or
Welder technique
- progressively reduce the welding current to reduce the weld pool size (use slope-down
or crater ll functions)
- add ller (TIG) to compensate for the weld pool shrinkage
Gases likely to cause porosity in the commonly used range of materials are listed in the Table.
If the imperfections are surface breaking, they can be detected using a penetrant or magnetic
sections.
Remedial action normally needs removal by localised gouging or grinding but if the porosity is
widespread, the entire weld should be removed. The joint should be re-prepared and re-
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