Sociological Methods

Steps in Social Research Process

Define a problem: Select a topic for research

Review the literature: Familiarise yourself with existing research on topic

Formulate a hypothesis: What do you intend to test? What is the

relationship between variables? Its a tentative assumption, an untested
generalization. The purpose of the research is to test the hypothesis to see
if this statement of the relationship is accurate.

Select a research design: Use one or more research methods (the tools of
data collection)

Carry out the research: Collect your data, record information

Interpret your results: Work out the implications of the data you collect

Report the research findings: What is their significance? How do they

relate to previous findings

Communicate your findings: your findings are registered and discussed

in academic community – may lead to initiation of further research
 Sociological Methods
Experimental Design
 Excellent for controlled testing of causal processes

 Cause-effect Relationship
Dependent/ Independent Variable
 Effect of independent variable on dependent variable
 D V – subject to external stimuli
Example – common cold and medicine
Example – prejudice and exposure to African-American History
Control/Experimental Group
 Experimental Group – a group of subjects to whom an experimental stimulus
is administered
 Control Group – a group of subjects which remains constant and should
resemble the experimental group

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 Experimental Design
 Double-blind experiment
 An experiment design in which neither the subjects nor the
experimenters know which is the control group and which is the
experimental group
 To avoid experimenter’s bias and guard against pre-judging of results
 Example- medical research
 Importance of Control Group
 It allows the researcher to detect any effects of the experiment itself
 Merits of Experimental Design
 Controlled testing of variables, Only means to establish cause-effect
relation, yield quantitative data
 Demerits
 Artificiality, Inflexible, Limited group, inappropriate for complex social
problems
 Observation Method
Participant Observation
 Researchers deliberately involves themselves in the activity, group
or community
 Idea is to gain an insider’s view
 To obtain first-hand knowledge of a way of life
 Important to gain access to group
 Win trust and confidence and establishing a rapport
 Exceptional self-discipline required, should not be governed by
emotions
 Must develop technique to record data systematically and faithfully
 It is very flexible
 Small sample, objectivity is an issue, may not accurately represent
the group as a whole
 Example: Ethnographic studies, William Whyte’s study of Italian-
Americans, Verrier Elwin study of Indian tribes
 Case Study Method
 The in-depth examination of a single instance of some social
phenomenon, such as a village, a family, or a juvenile gang
 Detailed study of a single unit
 Intensive study backed by observation, interviews, study of related
documents, archival records, physical artifacts, data gathered from
official records and any other relevant information
 Researcher attempts to learn everything there is to know about a
particular group, community or incident
 Is also used for clinical and counseling purposes
Merits:
 Provides a holistic picture
 Understanding from multiple perspectives
 Helps in forming hypotheses, questions, interview method
 Demerits:
 investigator may develop deep acquaintance
 Generalisation from limited case is difficult
 Time and money consuming
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 Subjectivity is an issue
SAMPLING

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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 Sampling
Probability Sampling: A probability sampling scheme is one in which every
unit in the population has a chance of being selected in the sample, and
this probability can be accurately determined.

 Simple Random Sampling: A type of probability sampling in which the

units composing a population are assigned numbers. A set of random
numbers is then generated and the units having those numbers are
included in the sample.
 Systematic Sampling: It involves a random start and then proceeds with
the selection of everyk th element from then onwards. For exm: every
25th student in the college directory of students.
 Stratified Sampling: The grouping of the units composing a population
into homogenous groups (or strata) before sampling. Each stratum is
then sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which individual
elements can be randomly selected with simple random, systematic or
cluster sampling.
 Cluster Sampling: It is an example of 'two-stage sampling‘. First stage a
sample of areas is chosen; Second stage a sample of respondentswithin
those areas is selected. For example: One may select a sample of IITs
 Sampling
Non-Probability Samples: Any sampling method where some elements of
population haveno chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't
be accurately determined.

Convenience Sample: A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the

sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That
is, readily available, accessible and convenient.

Purposive Sample: The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think
would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area being researched

Quota Sample: The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgment used to select subjects or
units from each segment based on a specified proportion. In quota sampling the
selection of the sample is non-random.

Snowball Sample: The existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects
into the sample.
Sampling
 Questionnaire Method
 They are generally used to measure the individual’s viewpoint, particular personality
characteristics, perceptions, beliefs and motivations and future plans
 They are standardized tools. Indirect method of inquiry
Types of Questions: Close-ended & Open-ended
Merits:
 Large amount of data can be collected
 Sensitive, confidential issues tackled
 Less time & money involved
 Objectivity maintained
 Anonymity ensured
 Questionnaires exerts less pressure on the respondents to provide an immediate
response
Demerits:
 Less reliable
 Clarification of questions not possible
 Not possible with illiterates, children
 Less scope for completed answer

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 Interview Schedule
 It is a face-to-face situation between the interviewer and the interviewee
 A direct method of research
 In interview schedule questions are asked and filled in by an interviewer
Types of Interview Schedule
Structured, Unstructured and Semi-structured Interview schedule
Merits:
 Researcher is personally present
 Clarification of questions, lead questions, probe questions, contingency questions
possible
 More reliable
 Body language can be observed
 The interviewer gets the first hand understanding of the person and the
situation , which is lacking in questionnaire method
Demerits:
 Time consuming and cost ineffective
 Small sample is covered
 Sensitive issues can not be tackled easily
 Anonymity not ensured 11
 Life History Approach
 Consists of biographical material assembled
about particular individuals
 Usually method is based on recall by the
individuals themselves
 Yields rich information on development of beliefs
and attitudes over time
 The method relies on letters, contemporary
reports, newspaper descriptions
 Sociologists differ on the merit of the method
 Example of Life history method – The Polish
Peasant (1966) in Europe and America by W. I.
Thomas & Florian Znaniecki on experience of
 Comparative research
This method has a central importance in
Sociology
Making comparisons allows us to clarify what
is going on in a particular area of research
Example: Rate of divorce in UK
1960s: 30000 per year
1980s: 160000 per year
Such increase in number – does it reflect
specific features of British society?
Can be a comparison of UK and India to
identify social trends
 Historical Analysis
An essential method in sociological research

Makes use of time perspective to study particular problem

Sociologists investigate past events directly – through oral history –

example: holocaust survivor – research work can at best stretch 60-70
years

Historical study of earlier period: reliance on documents, written records

mostly kept in libraries or National archives

Example: Anthony Ashworth’s study of trench warfare during WWI (1980)

He made use of official histories of war including materials written on

different military divisions and battalions, official publications of the
time, notes and records kept informally by soldiers and personal
accounts of war experiences

Ashworth developed rich and detailed description of life in the trenches