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TopographicSurveying PDF
TopographicSurveying PDF
Lecture 2
GE 12: General Surveying II
• The reference
framework should
consist of two or more
permanent control
points and/or
benchmarks located in
the vicinity of the
project.
• These project control
points can then be
used to perform
supplemental
topographic surveys of
the project.
Representation of Relief
• Spot Heights
• Hachures
• Contour Lines and Subaquaeous Contours
• Form Lines
• Layer Tints
• Shading
• Illuminated Contours
• Ridge and Stream Lining
• Block Diagram/Relief Models
Spot Heights
– Indicate the elevations at particular points.
- Location: physically documented benchmarks,
unmonumented but important locations (hilltops, bottoms
of depressions, and road intersections)
- Advantage: simple, very accurate for chosen point.
- Disadvantage: does not give the graphic effect of shape, nor
provide any indication of the elevations that exist at
locations between certain points.
- Use: to supplement contours.
Hachures
- Consists of rows of short, nearly parallel lines whose
spacing, weight and direction produce an effect
similar to shading.
- Characteristics of Lines (Lehmann System)
- thick and short on steep slopes
- thin and long on flat slopes
- drawn in the direction of the slope
- Use: when relief cannot be sufficiently expressed by
contours (especially for features like steep slopes,
embankments, and low hills in extremely flat areas).
Hachures
- Advantage: provides 3D effect, and represents the
surface very well especially in areas with considerable
undulation.
- Disadvantage:
- exact elevations or slopes cannot be determined.
- mass of lines conflict with other map details.
- process is difficult and time-consuming.
- requires workers to have considerable training and
practice.
Contour Lines
- A line joining points of equal elevation on the map.
- Reference Datum: Mean Sea Level.
- Color: brown; blue for areas below sea level or
glaciers.
- Advantage: accurate (depending on the survey
method, contour interval, and variability of surface),
and indicates elevations directly and quantitatively
- Disadvantage: not legible to the layman.
Subaquaeous Contours
– “Depth curves” used to portray the ground
underwater.
– Usually shown in blue lines to identify it to
other contour lines.
– Primarily used to show bottom contours of
lakes, seas, oceans and other bodies of
water.
Ridge and Stream Lining
• Among others.
Profiles
- Profiles are simply the cross-sectional view
through a particular piece of terrain.
- They provide a relatively quick and accurate
means of such useful information as:
- relative steepness of slope of terrain at given locations,
- form of hills,
- relationships of hilltops to depressions,
- intervisibility of points, and
- determination of hidden areas.
Profiles
- Also used in the planning of construction projects involving
earth movements like road, railroad, pipeline construction.
-
Field Methods for Locating Topographic
Details
– The total station is set up at a control point where distances and directions to
points of interest are observed, in order to calculate their positions and
elevations.
– Locate instrument at a good vantage point (e.g. hill or ridge) that overlooks a
large part, or all of the area to be surveyed.
– All topographic details and critical points are considered “sideshots”.
– This method is dependent on the scale of the map and size of the objects.
– Advantages: rapid, efficient, accurate
– Disadvantages: some features/objects may be displaced
(2) Radiation by Stadia
– The process is similar to radiation by total station
except that stadia determine horizontal distances to
pints and their elevations.
– Applies the principle of tacheometry (i.e. comparing
similar triangles) in obtaining topographic details.
(3) Coordinate Squares/Grid Method
• Test points/Checkpoints
– points readily identifiable on a map and on the ground, whose
position have been determined by higher-order survey.
• Other Approaches
– compare map features of one map to a map of the same
area but at a larger scale.
Standards for Accuracy of Maps
and Map Data
• With regards to horizontal accuracy, no more than 10% of
well-defined points shall be in error by more than 0.80 mm
(1:20,000 or larger).