Physics Formulary

Table of contents
1 Units, orders of magnitude and physical constants 2
2 Mechanics 4
2.1 Kinetics of point-masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Dynamics of point-masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Hydrostatics, pressure, density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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2.4 Hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Mechanics of rigid bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 Work, energy, power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 Analogy translation - rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Oscillations 12
4 Waves 13
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5 Optics 15
6 Thermodynamics 17
7 Electromagnetism 20
7.1 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.2 Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3 DC-Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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7.4 AC-Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

9 Quantum physics 28
10 Special theory of relativity 29
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11 Tables 30

The Greek alphabet:

A α Alpha H η Eta N ν Nu T τ Tau

B β Beta Θ θ, ϑ Theta Ξ ξ Xi Y υ Upsilon
Γ γ Gamma I ι Iota O o Omicron Φ φ, ϕ Phi
∆ δ Delta K κ Kappa Π π Pi X χ Chi
E ² Epsilon Λ λ Lambda P ρ, % Rho Ψ ψ Psi
Z ζ Zeta M µ Mu Σ σ, ς Sigma Ω ω Omega
1 Units, orders of magnitude and constants
Units

symbol name unity

t, T time s second
r, ~r, x position m meter
∆r, ∆~r, ∆x, s displacement m meter
v, ~v , c speed, velocity, speed of light m
s
meter per second
m
p, p~ momentum kg s
kilogram · meter
per second

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a, ~a acceleration m
s2
meter per square second
m mass kg kilogram
F, F~ Force N Newton
A Area m 2
square meter
V Volume m 3
cubic meter
p pressure Pa Pascal
kg
ρ density m3
kilogram per cubic meter
W, E, U, K, Q Work, Energy, heat J Joule
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P Power W Watt
T, ϑ Temperature K, C ◦
Kelvin, Celsius

f f requency Hz Hertz = second−1

1
ω, ω~ angular velocity s
rad per second
τ, ~τ torque Nm Newton · meter
L, L ~ angular momentum kg m2
kilogram · square meter
s
per second
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I, Θ Inertia kg m2 kilogram · square meter

Q, q charge C Coulomb
V voltage V Volt
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I current A Ampere
R Resistance Ω Ohm
C Capacitance F Farad
L inductance H Henry
B magnetic eld T Tesla

c Adrian Wetzel
° 2
Orders of magnitude, multiplicators

name symbol multiplicator

name symbol multiplicator
deci d ·10−1 = ·0.1
Tera T ·1012
centi c ·10−2 = ·0.01
Giga G ·109
milli m ·10−3 = ·0.001
Mega M ·106
micro µ ·10−6
Kilo k ·103 = ·1000
nano n ·10−9
Hecto h ·102 = ·100
pico p ·10−12

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Physical constants
Gravitational constant G = 6.67 · 10−11 N m2 kg−2
Speed of light in vaccum c = 2.998 · 108 m s−1
Acceleration of gravity on Earth g = 9.8 m s−2

Electron rest mass me = 9.109 · 10−31 kg

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Proton rest mass mp = 1.6726 · 10−27 kg
Neutron rest mass mn = 1.6749 · 10−27 kg
Atomic mass unit u = 1.6605 · 10−27 kg
Elementary charge e = 1.602 · 10−19 C

Permeability of the vacuum µ0 = 4π · 10−7 V s A−1 m−1

Permittivity of the vacuum ²0 = µ01c2 = 8.854 · 10−12 A s V−1 m−1
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Solar constant S = 1360 Wm−2

Hubble's constant H0 = 70.8 ± 4.0 km s−1 Mpc−1
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normal pressure p0 = 1.013 · 105 N m−2 = 1.013 bar

normal temperature
normal volume of an ideal gas
Boltzmann's constant
Avogadro's constant
Molar gas constant
Planck's constant
Dirac's constant
Rydberg's constant
Bohr atomic radius
T0 = 273.15 K = 0 ◦ C
V0 = 22.414 · 10−3 m3 mol−1
kB = 1.38 · 10−23 J K−1
NA = 6.022 · 1023 mol−1
R = 8.31 J mol−1 K−1
h = 6.626 · 10−34 J s
h
~ = 2π = 1.055 · 10−34 J s
Ry = 1.097 · 107 m−1
aB = 5.29 · 10−11 m

c Adrian Wetzel
° 3
2 Mechanics
2.1 Kinetics of point-masses
I Position, velocity and acceleration:

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I Principle of Superposition: motions in x, y and z - direction are independent
of each other (coupled via the time t).
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I More-dimensional motion:

position:
  velocity:
  acceleration:
 
x(t) vx (t) ax (t)
~r(t) =  y(t)  ~v (t) =  vy (t)  ~a(t) = ay (t) 

z(t) vz (t) az (t)
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I Uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion:

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Particular equations for the uniformly accelerated motion (x0 = 0):

without t : without a : particularly: v0 = 0 (starting from rest)
2 2 2
x = v 2−va 0 x(t) = 12 (v + v0 ) t x(t) = 21 a t2 ; x = 2v a ; x(t) = 12 v t

c Adrian Wetzel
° 4
I Galileo Galilei:
• On Earth's surface, all bodies fall with the same acceleration, provided the air resistance
ist neglected. The acceleration of gravity on the Earth's surface is g = 9.8 sm2 .

• The position coordinates behave like the squares of the times: x ∝ t2 , precisely: x(t) =
1
2
g t2

I Projectile motion
¶ µ
0 • Uniform motion in x-direction and
Acceleration: ~a =
−g • uniformely accelerated motion in y -direction.

µ ¶
ER µ ¶
ST
v0x t v0 cos(α) t
~r(t) =
− 12 g t2 position ~r(t) =
v0 sin(α) t− 21 g t2
µ ¶ µ ¶
v0x v0 cos(α)
~v (t) =
−g t velocity ~v (t) =
v0 sin(α)−g t

−g
y(x) = 2 v 2 x2 trajectory g
y(x) = tan(α) x − 2 v cos2 (α) x2
0x parabola 0

v0 2 sin2 (α) v0 2 sin(2α)

ymax = 2g , xmax = g
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I Circular motion: position, velocity and acceleration

• Period T = time in s for one revolution.

• Frequency f = number of revolutions

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per time: f = T1
unit: 1 Hertz = 1 Hz = 1 v
s m a m
R
• Angular velocity v r
angle (radians!)
ω= time ω = ∆θ 2π
∆t = T = 2πf
Dq v
• Velocity of a point on the circumference
r m
v = circumference v = 2πr
T = ωr
time (period)
• Radial (centripetal) acceleration
2
aR = vr = r ω 2 aR ⊥ ~v ,
⇒ aR acts uniquely deecting, |v| = constant.
c Adrian Wetzel
° 5
2.2 Dynamics of point-masses
I Newton's laws:
I Principle of inertia:
P~
F~net = Fi = ~0 ⇒ ~v = constant ⇒ ~a = ~0

II Principle of action: force = mass · acceleration

F~net = m · ~a unit: [F ] = 1 Newton = 1 N = 1 kg sm2

III Principle of reaction:

For each acting force there is a counterforce
action = reaction

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I Mechanical forces:

• Universal force of gravitation: FG = G m1r·2m2

2
Gravitational constant G = 6.67 · 10−11 Nkgm2
r = distance between the centers of mass.

• Gravitational force: FG = m · g where g = 9.8 sm2 is

the acceleration of gravity on the Earth's surface.
Compare table on p. 34 for other planets.
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• Spring force: FS = k · ∆x where k = ∆F
∆x
is the spring
N
constant or spring stiness. Unit: [k ] = m

Springs in series: k1 = k1 + k1 parallel: ktot = k1 + k2

tot 1 2

2 2
• Radial force: FR = m · vr = m r ω 2 = 4πTm2
r
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FR = force necessary to keep a mass on a circular trajectory.

⇒ Electrical and magnetic forces see p. 20 and 23. Planet masses see p. 34.

I Inclined plane, frictional force:

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• Gravitational force: F~G = F~⊥ + F~k , with |F~G | = FG = m·g

• Perpendicular component: F⊥ = FG · cos(α)

• Parallel component: Fk = FG · sin(α)

• Frictional force: Ff r = µ · F⊥

 µS = Static friction
µS > µ K > µ R
coecient of friction µ = µK = Kinetic friction
 ⇒ see table on p. 31.
µR = Rolling friction

c Adrian Wetzel
° 6
I Torque τ :
• Torque = force · lever arm, τ = F⊥ · r = F · r⊥
general: ~τ = ~r × F~ unit: [τ ] = N · m

• Law of the lever: F1 · r1 = F2 · r2

I Equilibrium (statics):
P~ P
Sum of all forces F~net = Fi = ~0 and sum of all torques ~τnet = ~τi = ~0
i i

I Momentum p~:
unit: [p] = kg · m

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Momentum = mass · velocity, p~ = m · ~v s
Without external forces, total momentum p~tot is conserved: F~ext = ~0 ⇒ p~tot = constant.
~:
I Angular momentum L
2
~ = m ~r × ~v ,
L ~ = m r v sin(α)
|L| unit: [L] = kg · ms
Rigid solids: L = I · ω rotational inertia I see p. 9.
~ is a conservational quantity: ~τext = ~0 ⇒ L
L ~ = constant.

I Law of conservation of angular momentum:

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Torque = change of angular moment with time:
~ ~
~τ = ∆
∆t
L
= dL ~0
dt = L (t)

Rigid solids: τ = I · ∆ω
∆t = I · α(t) rot. inertia I see p. 9.

I Generalisation of F = m a:
∆~
p d~
p
Force = change of momentum with time: F~ = ∆t = dt = p~ 0 (t) or
F~ = m(t) ~a + m0 (t) ~v (product rule) for time-dependent masses (rockets).
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I Collisions:
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c Adrian Wetzel
° 7
2.3 Hydrostatics, pressure, density
I Density = mass per volume ρ=m
V
kg g
unit: [ρ] = m3 or cm3 table p. 30 .

I Pressure = force per area p= F

A unit: [p] = 1 Pascal = 1 Pa = 1 mN2 ,
1 bar = 105 Pa

• Hydrostatic pressure: pressure of a column of height h:

p(h) = ρFl · g · h (for constant uid density ρFl )

• Buoyant force, Archimede's law:

Buoyant force = weight of the suppressed uid:

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FB = ρFl · g · VI with VI = immersed volume and
ρFl = density of the uid.
ρ
− p0 g h
• Barometric formula: Air pressure in altitude h above sea level: p(h) = p0 · e 0

kg
with p0 = 1.013 · 105 Pa and ρ0 = 1.293 m3 are the atmospheric pressure resp. density on

sea level (at T0 = 0 C) (normal conditions).

◦

2.4 Hydrodynamics
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I Continuity equation: ρ1 · A1 · v1 = ρ2 · A2 · v2
In words: (inuent mass = euent mass) per time.

I Bernoulli's law: p + 12 ρ v2 + ρ g h = constant or

p1 + 12 ρ v1 2 + ρ g h1 = p2 + 12 ρ v2 2 + ρ g h2
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∆Fk
I Shear stress and viscosity: τ = ∆v
∆A = η ∆y
unit [τ ] = mN2 (compare p. 10)
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η = Viscosity, unit: [η] = N s

m2 , table p. 30.

I Hagen Poiseuille's law: Mean ow velocity v in a

cylindrical tube of radius r and pressure dierence per length
∆p p2 − p1 ∆p 2

l = l : v = l · 8r η

Volume ∆V owing across ∆V ∆p r4

= π· l · 8η
a section per time ∆t : ∆t

c Adrian Wetzel
° 8
Stoke's friction force: For small v , resp. laminar ow (no turbulences)
Ffr = 6 π η r v η = viscosity see p. 8, table on p. 30.

Friction force for turbulent ow: For large v turbulences may occur.
Then: Ffr = 12 cW A ρ v 2
where A is the cross section area, ρ the density of the uid and
cW = constant depending on the shape of the front surface.

2.5 Mechanics of rigid bodies

I Law of center-of-mass: A rigid solid behaves in a way as if all external forces

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act to its center-of-mass.
Center-of-mass:
m ~r + m2 ~r2 + ...+ mn ~rn 1 P n
1 R
~rC = 1 1m +m = m k~
rk = m ~r dm
1 2 +...+mn mtot k=1 tot

mass-element dm = ρ dV = ρ dx dy dz (at ~r). The integral is

calculated as sum over the entire volume.

R R P
n
I Rotational inertia: I = r⊥ 2 dm = r⊥ 2 ρ dV ∼
= mk · rk 2
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k=1

where r⊥ (resp. rk ) is the perpendicular distance of mass-

element dm (resp. mk ) from the rotational axis. The integral
is calculated as sum over the entire volume.
Simplied: The rotational inertia measures  how much  mass
is located  how far  from the rotational axis.

Rotational inertia for particular solids:

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Cuboid Cylinder Hollow cylinder Sphere Steiner’s law:

c r
C C h C
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C h r C C
b
a r h h
2 2 r2 r1 C a A
2 2
IC = 12 m r IC = 12 m (r1 + r2 ) IC = 25 m r
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
IC = m(a + b ) IC = m ( r4 + 12
h
) IA = I C + m a

c Adrian Wetzel
° 9
I Elasticity of rigid solids:
• Stress = force per area (as pressure) σ = ∆F N
∆A = −p unit: [σ] = mN2

• Hooke's law: Deformation ∆l = l − l0 is proportional to the

stress σ : ∆l σ
l = Y =ε ε = strain.
Y = Young's modulus, unit [Y ] = mN2 , table p. 30.

• Transversal contraction: An elongated (∆l > 0) body

will decrease in diameter by ∆b = b − b0 < 0: ∆b ∆l
b = −µ l
µ = Poisson's number, table p. 30.

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• Compression: Compression is proportional to the applied stress:
∆V σ
V = K K = Bulk modulus , unit: [K] = mN2

E
Relation between E , µ and K : K = 3 (1−2µ) (homogeneous, isotropic and elastic)

2
• Energy density = energy per volume w = 2σE
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2.6 Work, energy, power

• Denition: Work = force · distance

W = F~ · ~r = F · r · cos(ϕ) (scalar product)
unit: [W ] = 1 Joule = 1 J = 1 N·m
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RrB ~
• Generalisation for curvilinear trajectories: WA→B = F (~r)d~r
rA

• Energy: stored work, ability of performing work.

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I Mechanical work, energy:

• Potential energy: • Spring energy:
Ugrav = mg y y = vertical altitude Uspring = 12 k x2 spring stiness k = ∆F
∆x
• Kinetic energy: • Rotational energy:
Ktrans = 12 m v 2 v = velocity Krot = 12 I ω 2 ω = angular velocity

RrB
³ ´
1 1
• Gravitational energy: UA→B = FG (r) dr = G m1 m2 rA − rB
rA

Work, necessary to bring m1 from position A (rA ) to position B (rB ).

c Adrian Wetzel
° 10
I Energy conservation: The total energy of a system is conserved with time:
Etot = constant ⇒ dEdttot = 0 .

For systems without friction: Etot = Ugrav + Uspring + Ktrans + Krot = constant

I Kepler's laws:
I Planets move on elliptical orbits. The sun is located
in one of its focal points F1 .

II The area covered by the radius vector ~r per time

~ = m ~r × ~v = constant.
unit is constant: ⇔ L

III The ratio of the squares of the periods T of any two

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planets revolving about the sun is equal to the ratio
of the cubes of their semimajor axes a:
T12 a1 3
T22
= a2 3 for circular orbits: a ≈ r.

⇒ Astronomical data see p. 34.

I Power:
W
Denition: Power = work per time P = unit: [P ] = 1 Watt = 1 W = 1 Js
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t
⇒ Electric power see p. 20.

I Eciency:
usable energy usable power
Denition: Eciency coecient = supplied energy
=
supplied power

η = EEuse = PPuse
in in
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2.7 Analogy translation - rotation

Translation Rotation
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position / angle x(t) θ(t)

velocity / angular velocity v(t) ω(t)
acceleration / angular acceleration a(t) α(t) = ∆ω
∆t

mass / inertia m I
force / torque F (t) = m a(t) τ (t) = I α(t)
momentum / angular momentum p(t) = m v(t) L(t) = I ω(t)

work Wtrans = F · r · cos ϕ Wrot = τ · θ · cos ϕ

energy Ktrans = 12 m v 2 Krot = 12 I ω 2
power Ptrans = F · v · cos ϕ Prot = τ · ω · cos ϕ

c Adrian Wetzel
° 11
3 Oscillations
Oscillation = temporal periodic process.
I Harmonic oscillation: Restoring Force FR is proportional to the elongation y .
elongation: y(t) = A · cos(ω t + ϕ)
velocity: v(t) = y 0 (t) = − A ω sin(ω t + ϕ)
acceleration: a(t) = y 00 (t) = −A ω 2 cos(ω t + ϕ) = −ω 2 y(t)
A = amplitude (max. elongation)
∆ϕ
ω = angular velocity ω = ∆t = 2π
T = 2πf ϕ = phase

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I Pendulum: Period T = 2π
ω0

spring pendulum gravity pendulum physical pendulum

k m l q a
q small q q small
C

y(t) m y(t) y(t)

q pg q
k mga
Angular v. ω0 = m
ω0 ≈ l
ω0 ≈ I C + m a2
ST
Force law FR = −k · y FR ≈ − ml g y τR ≈ −m g a θ
d2 y d2 y d2 θ
Di. eq. dx2
+ k
m
y=0 dx2
+ gl y ≈ 0 dx2
+ mga
I C + m a2
θ≈0

I Damped harmonic oscillation:

Assumption: Damping force Ffr is propor- y
tional to the velocity v(t): Ffr = q
−b · v . A0 b t
- 2m
k A(t) = A0e y(t)
With the angular velocity ω0 = m of k
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m
the undamped oscillator, we nd:
µq ¶ t v
b b2
− 2m t 2
y(t) = A0 e · cos ω0 − 4m2 · t + ϕ oil h Ffr
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I Forced oscillation, resonance: A(w) undamped:

b=0
A damped harmonic oscillator is excited by w0 k resonance
b
curves << w0
a force F (t) = F0 · cos(ω t). After transcient y(t) m 2m
eects, the elongation can be described by: b
< w0
F(t) 2m
F0
y(t) = A(ω) · cos (ω t + φ(ω)) with: b
w k
2m » w0
amplitude phase w0 w
³ ´
F0 ω02 − ω 2 f(w)
A(ω) = q 2 φ(ω) = arctan ωb
m· (ω−ω0 )2 + ( ωmb ) m 0 w
- p2
quality factor: Q = mbω0
-p
c Adrian Wetzel
° 12
4 Waves
Wave = spatial propagation of an oscillation. Energy is transported, but no mass.
I Harmonic wave: temporal and spatial periodic process. Wave equation:

y(x, t) = A · sin(ω t ± k x + ϕ)
¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
y(x, t) = A · sin 2π Tt ± λx + ϕ
+ = wave propagating to the left (in −x direction).
 = wave propagating to the right (in +x direction).

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• Wave number k = 2λπ unit: [k] = m−1

where λ = wavelength in m (= spatial period)

• Propagation velocity c = Tλ = λ · f = ωk

I Propagation velocities of waves: (⇒ table p. 30.)

• Pressure and sound waves
ST
q q q
C
gases: c = ( CVp ) RMT uids: c = K
ρ solids: c = σ
ρ
symbols see p. 17 K = bulk modulus, p. 10 σ = tension, p. 10
m
air at 20◦ C : c = 340 s
ρ = density, p. 8 ρ = density, p. 8

• Electromagnetic wave:
q
vacuum (air):
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1
c= ²0 ²r µ0 µr ²r = 1 and µr = 1

I Standing wave: Superposition of two identical y

waves with opposite propagation direction:
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A y1(x, t)
yres (x, t) = A · sin (ω t − k x) + A · sin (ω t + k x) x
yres (x, t) = 2A · cos(k x)· sin(ω t)
c
| {z } A y2(x, t)
A(x) x
c
• Reexion of waves:
y anti- l
open end fixed end nodes 2 yres = y1 + y2
c c 2A
anti-node

node

c x
c
no phase shift phase shift of
nodes
j = p = 180°

c Adrian Wetzel
° 13
I Eigenfrequencies (condition for standing waves):
• String: fn = 2cL n L = n · λ2
order: n = 1, 2, 3, ...
rst harmonic (fundamental): n = 1

• Open or closed tube:

fn = 2cL n L = n · λ2 n = 1, 2, 3, ...

• One-sided open tube:

fn = 4cL (2n − 1) L = (2n − 1)· λ4

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I Beats - Interference in time: y
Superposition of two oscillations with similar y1(t) = A sin(w1 t)
A
frequencies f1 and f2 = f1 + ∆f . t
y2(t) = A sin(w2 t)
• Resultant oscillation: A
t
yres (t) = A · sin(ω1 t) + A · sin(ω2 t)
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ yres(t) = y1(t) + y2(t)
yres (t) = 2A · sin (ω1 + ∆ω2
) t · cos ∆ω
2
t 2A
t
• Frequency of beating wave (audible change
ST
beating wave
in sound intensity): fBeat = | f2 − f1 |

I Doppler eect:
³ ´
vS = velocity of the source, vR = velocity of the receiver. Then: fR = cc ± vR
∓ vS ·fS

source receiver source receiver

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vS vR c + vR
fS fR fR = fS × c -c v fS fR fR = fS × c
S
vS vR c-v
fS fR fR = fS × c +c v fS fR fR = fS × c R
S
M

I Sound intensity:
For an acoustic source of power P emitting a sperical wave, the intensity I(r) depends on
the distance r as following: I(r) = PA = 4πPr2 unit: [I] = mW
2

³ ´
sound level: L = 10 · log I
I0
unit: dB (= Decibel) Audible limit: I0 = 10−12 W
m2
.

c Adrian Wetzel
° 14
5 Optics
Light can be considered either as particles (photons) or as electromagnetic wave. In vacuum
(air) the velocity of light is constant at c0 = 3 · 108 ms .

I Index of refraction: n = c0
cM , whereas cM is the velocity of light in the material M.

sin(α)
I Law of refraction(Snellius): n2 c1
sin(β) = n1 = c2
Indices of refraction see p. 33.

• total reection: β = βmax = 90◦

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• Brewster angle: tan(αB ) = n
n
2
1

Reected and refracted beam are perpendicular.

Then, the light of both beams is polarized.

I Imaging with lenses:

convex lens
³ ´ R1
n
• Focal length f : f1 = (n − 1) · 1 1
R1 + R2
ST
M1 F F M2
convex lens: f > 0 R2
concave lens: f < 0 f f

• Concave mirror: f ≈ R
2 g b
convex lens
• Parallel beams of light travelling parallel to G F F optical axis
the lens axis intersect in the focal point F.
object
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• Beams crossing the center of the lens are not image B

deected.
f f

• Lens equation: f1 = 1b + g1 g
concave lens
M

real image: b > 0

virtual image: b < 0 G F B F

b<0
• Magnication: M = B b
G = g f f

c Adrian Wetzel
° 15
I Diraction: Deection of waves (light, water or sound waves) on an obstacle.
• Diraction on a single slit:
Condition for
intensity I(a) minimal intensity:
l n = 2 min
∆ = d · sin(α) = n · λ
slit
Order: n = 0, 1, 2, ...
incident plane wave

n = 1 min
yn
c a intensity distribution:
d n = 0 max.
sin2 ( φ2 )
I(α) = I0 · 2 with
( φ2 )

screen

ER
l D = optical path n = 1 min
difference φ(α) = 2π
λ · d sin(α)
a n = 2 min

• Diraction on a grid resp. double slit:

grid
ST
intensity I(a)
n = 2 max
l
n = 1 max Condition for
maximal intensity:
incident plane wave

yn
c a n=0
∆ = d · sin(α) = n · λ
l d
Order: n = 0, 1, 2, ...
screen

D = optical path
U

n = 1 max
difference
n = 2 max
a
M

c Adrian Wetzel
° 16
6 Thermodynamics
I Temperature T : = Measure for the mean kinetic energy Ktrans of the particles.
Unit: [T ] = 1 Kelvin = 1 K.
Celsius-Temperature ϑ = T − 273.15 K temperature dierence: ∆ϑ = ∆T = T1 − T0

I Linear thermal expansion ∆l = l1 − l0 = α l0 ∆T

α = coecient of thermal expansion: table p. 31.

ER
I Volume expansion: ∆V = V1 − V0 = γ V0 ∆T
γ∼
= 3α coecient of volume expansion: table p. 31.

gaseous
I Heat: Q (thermal energy)

heat of

isation
heat of

vapor-
fusion
solid

fluid
unit: [Q] = 1 Joule = 1 J.
TVP
I Heat transfer: ∆Q = m c ∆T

DQ = mc DT
DQ = mc DT

Qv = Lv m
Qf = Lf m
ST
c = specic heat capacity,
unit [c] = kgJK table p. 31.
TMP DQ = mc DT
m = mass in kg.

dynamics
Thermo-
Q
I Latent heat of fusion: Qf = Lf · m
J
Lf = specic latent heat of fusion, unit: [Lf ] = kg table p. 31.

I Latent heat of vaporisation: Qv = Lv · m

U

J
Lv = specic latent heat of vaporisation, unit: [Lv ] = kg table p. 31.

Dx remove this part, please

I Thermal conduction: ∆Q
∆t = −k A ∆x
∆T heat flow
M

T1 A DQ T0
k = thermal conductivity, unit: [k] = mWK table p. 31
x
I Diusion: ∆m ∆c
∆t = −D A ∆x (Fick's law) Dx
mass flow
2
unit: [D] = ms
c1 A Dm c0
D = diusion constant, c = concentration
x
q
I Mean kinetic energy: Ktrans = f2 kB T = 12 m vrms
2
with vrms = f· kB T
m
J
kB = 1.38 · 10−23 K = Boltzmann's constant.
½
monoatomic particles: f = 3 (3 trans.)
f = number of degrees of freedom:
diatomic particles: f = 5 (3 trans. & 2 rot.)

c Adrian Wetzel
° 17
I Stefan Boltzmann law: Radiant heat ux: ∆Q
∆t = ε · σ · A · T
4
with
ε = emissivity, ε = 1 for perfect blackbody
σ = 5.67 · 10−8 s m2J K4 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
A = surface area of emitting body of temperature T .

I Entropy: = Measure of the disorder of a system J

unit: [S] = K

∆Q
• Thermodynamic: ∆S = T

• Statistic: S = kB ln(P ) P = number of states at constant total energy

and constant number of particles.

ER
1. Law of thermodynamics (energy conservation):
The change in the internal energy of a closed thermodynamic system is equal to the sum of the
amount of heat energy supplied and the work done on the system: ∆U = ∆Q + ∆W

RV2
Pressure-volume work: ∆W = −p ∆V if p = constant. General: ∆W12 = − p(V ) dV
V1
ST
2. Law of thermodynamics (heat engines):
• Heat will never spontaneously ow from a colder to a warmer body.
THigh
• Heat can not be completely converted into mechanical work: QSupply
∆W = QSupply − QDump mech.
W work
QDump
• The maximum possible thermal eciency of a heat engine is called
T |Q |
Carnot cycle eciency ηC = 1 − T Low = 1 − |Q Dump |
High Supply
TLow
U

I Thermal eciency: η = WUseful

QSupply (see also p. 11)

I Ideal gas law: I p = pressure in Pa

M

I V = volume in m3
I T = temperature in K
I Universal gas constant:
see
R = kB · NA = 8.31 molJ K
p. 3
m
I n =M = number of mol
m = mass in kg
kg
M = molar mass in mol

c Adrian Wetzel
° 18
 ³ ´
I Van der Waals gas (real gas): p+ a n2
V2
(V − b n) = n R T

a, b = Van der Waals-constants, table p. 32.

I Adiabatic processes: No heat exchange: ∆Q = 0.

With Cp = molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure and CV = heat capacity
at constant volume we have:
C
Cp − CV = R and κ = C p , κ ≈ 1.4 for air. See table p. 32.
V

• Isobar: p = constant in the V − T chart. Adiabatic equation: T V κ−1 = const.

• Isotherm: T = constant in the p − V chart. Adiabatic equation: p V κ = const.

ER
• Isochor: V = constant in the p − T chart. Adiabatic equation: T κ p1−κ = const.

I Carnot process:
p QSupply
³ ´ 1
V2
1 → 2 : Isothermal expansion: QSupply = R THigh ln V1

2 → 3 : Adiabatic expansion: ∆U = CV (TLow − THigh ) 2

ST
³ ´ W THigh
V4
3 → 4 : Isothermal compression: QRest = R TLow ln

Thermodyn.
V3 4
3 TLow
4 → 1 : Adiabatic compression: ∆U = CV (THigh − TLow ) V

Gases
QDump
The maximum possible thermal eciency of a heat engine is called
T |Q |
Carnot cycle eciency ηC = 1 − T Low = 1 − |Q Dump |
U

High Supply

remove this part, please

M

c Adrian Wetzel
° 19
7 Electromagnetism
7.1 Electricity
I Electric charges Q:
• Electrons carry one negative elementary charge e = 1.602 · 10−19 C.
Unit: [Q] = 1 Coulomb = 1 C = {charge of 6.25 · 1018 electrons}.

• In solid conductors, only electrons are mobile.

I Coulomb's law:
Force FC between two charges q and Q at distance r:
1 |q·Q| C
FC = 4π² · ²0 = 8.854 · 10−12 Vm = electric constant.

ER
0 r2
like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

I Electric eld E :
FC 1 Q
electric eld = force per charge: E = q = 4π²0 · r2
Electric charges are the source of an electric eld. Electric eld
lines never intersect and are always perpendicular to the
conductor's surface.
ST
I Voltage, electric potential V :
Work W performed by the charge q :
W
voltage = work per charge: V = q unit: [V ] = 1 Volt = 1 V = 1 CJ
• Direct voltage: V = V0 = constant (battery). V [V] alternating voltage

• Alternating voltage: V (t) = V0 · sin(ω · t − ϕ) V0

amplitude = V0
(line voltage). VRMS =
V0
U

V0 = amplitude, ω = 2π T
= angular velocity, Ö2

ϕ = phase (see p. 12).

phase j

t [s]
V0
rms-voltage: Vrms = √
2
= value of the equivalent
direct voltage, that produces the same power dissi- -V0
angular 2p
w=
pation. period T
M

velocity T

I Current I :
Charge ∆Q per time ∆t owing through the cross sectional area of an electrical conductor:

∆Q
current = charge per time: I = ∆t unit: [I] = 1 Ampere = 1 A = 1 Cs
• conventional direction of current: ⊕ → ª. cross sectional area

• physical direction of current:

electrons ow from ª → ⊕.

• DC = direct current, AC = alternating current.

+
c Adrian Wetzel
° 20
I Electrolysis, ionic current:
Mass m deposited on an electrode due to an ionic + I V -
current in an electrolyte:
- -

cathode
kg +
M = molar mass in mol

anode
- +
Q = I · t = total charge in C ze
M ·Q
m = z·N ·e z = ionic valence - +
A - +
NA = 6.022 · 1023 mol−1 = Avogadro's const. +
e = 1.602 · 10−19 C = elementary charge electrolyte
- anions + cathions
I Resistance R, Ohm's law:
V
Resistance = voltage per current: R = I unit: [R] = 1 Ohm = 1 Ω = 1 V

ER
A

Generalised denition: R = ∆V dV
∆I = dI = slope in the V -I -chart.
• Parallel resistors: parallel series
³ ´−1 R1
Rtot = R11 + R12 + . . . I I
+ R1 R2 + V2
• Serial resistors:
V V V1 R2
Rtot = R1 + R2 + . . . I I1 I2 I

• Kirchho's circuit laws: Current law Voltage law

ST
I = I1 + I2 V = V1 + V2

I Specic resistance ρ:
Resistance R of a wire of length l [in m] and cross-
section A [in mm2 ]: R = ρ Al
ρ = specic resistance = matter constant (table p. 32).
U

I Electric power P and work W :

power = voltage times current: P =V ·I unit: [P ] = 1 Watt = 1 W = 1V · A

2
• Other formulae: P = R · I 2 = VR
M

(see also p. 11)

• Active power: PA = VRMS · IRMS · cos(ϕ) where ϕ = ϕ2 − ϕ1 = phase shift between

V (t) and I(t).

Work = power times time: W =V ·I ·t unit: [W ] = 1 Joule = 1 W s

1 kWh = 3.6 · 106 J
⇒ Eciency see p. 11, 18
⇒ Reactance, Impedance, AC and DC-Circuits see p. 25.

c Adrian Wetzel
° 21
I Capacity C , Capacitors (charge accumulators):
Capacity = charge per voltage: C = VQ C
unit: [C] = 1 Farad = 1 F = 1 V .

• parallel-plate capacitor: C = ²0 ²r · A
d
C +Q
²0 = 8.85 · 10−12 Vm
²r = electric constant (table p. 33.) metal
²r = 1 for air (vacuum). plate A
+ + + +
V d
• Electric eld in a plate capacitor: E = Vd dielectric er -Q
- - -
• Energy stored in a capacitor: E = 12 C · V 2

ER
³ ´−1
• Capacitors in series: Ctot = 1
C1
+ 1
C2
+ ... parallel C C in series

(same charge Q on all capacitors) + C1 C2 + C1

V V C2
• Parallel capacitors: Ctot = C1 + C2 + . . .
(same voltage V on all capacitors)

⇒ Reactance, Impedance, AC and DC-Circuits see p. 25.

ST
U
M

c Adrian Wetzel
° 22
7.2 Magnetism
~:
I Magnetic led B
A magnetic eld causes a force on charges in motion and on
magnetic matter (mainly on ferromagnetic elements
Fe, Co and Ni). Unit: [B~ ] = 1 Tesla = 1 T = 1 Vs
m
• Magnetic eld lines are always closed.

• There are no magnetic monopoles.

• Source of a magnetic eld are currents (charges in motion).

ER
In the case of permanent magnets these are microscopic
circular currents within the material.

• Magnetic eld at distance r of a wire with current I :

B(r) = µ0 µr · 2πI r

Vs
• Permeability: µ0 = 4π · 10−7 Am
µr = relative permeability, table p. 32.
µr = 1 for vaccum (air).
ST
• Magnetic eld in the center of a circular current I
of radius r: B(r) = µ0 µr · 2Ir

• Magnetic eld in a coil of N loops of length l and

diameter d : B = µ0 µr · √ N I
2l + d2

I Lorentz force: Force F~L acting on a charge q in

U

~ -eld: F~L = q · ~v × B
motion with velocity ~v in a B ~

• F~L ⊥ B
~ and F~L ⊥ ~v

• Magnitude: FL = q · v · B · sin(α) , ~ .
α = ^(~v , B)
M

Magnetism

• Lorentz-equation: F~ = q · (E
~ + ~v × B)
~

I Biot-Savart force: Force F~B acting on a current

~ -eld: F~B = I · L
leading wire in a B ~ ×B
~

• F~B acts perpendicular to the direction of current L

~
~
as well as perpendicular to the magnetic eld B .

• Magnitude: FB = I · L · B · sin(α), ~ B)
α = ^(L, ~ .

c Adrian Wetzel
° 23
I Magnetic ux: magnetic eld times area.
Comprehensive: Number of magnetic eld lines
crossing the area delimited by a wire.
For a homogeneous magnetic eld:
~·B
ΦM = A ~ = A · B · cos(α) ~ B)
α = ^(A, ~

unit: [Φ] = 1 Weber = 1 Wb = 1 V · s.

Particularly: (area A) ⊥ (magnetic eld B )
⇒ A ~kB ~ ⇒ ΦM = A · B

ER
I Lenz's law:
The induced voltage Vind gives rise to a current whose magnetic eld opposes the original
change in ux.
I Faraday's law of induction:
• Induction voltage = negative change of the magnetic ux
with time (within a wire loop):
Vind = − ∆Φ M dΦM
∆t = − dt
ST
• Induced voltage in a coil:
Vind = −N ∆ΦM
∆t N = number of loops.

• Particularly: (area A) ⊥ (magnetic eld B ):

¡ ¢
Vind = −N A ∆B
∆t + B ∆A
∆t

I Inductors, inductance L, Self-inductance:

U

• Denition: L = N ·IΦM unit: 1 Henry = 1 H = 1 Vs

A

• Inductance of a Solenoid of length l and cross-section area A

2
L = µ0 µr · N l A
M

• Induced voltage VL due to change in current with time:

VL = −L · dI ∆I
dt = −L · ∆t

I Energy stored in a coil: EM = 12 L I 2

I Energy density of a magnetic eld: (energy density = energy per volume)

wM = 2µ1µ B 2 unit: [wM ] = mJ3
0 r

c Adrian Wetzel
° 24
I Transformer (voltage converter):
V n
Two magnetically coupled coils: V1 = n1
2 2

Energy-conservation of an ideal (lossless) transformer:

V1 · I1 = V2 · I2
⇒ Coils see p. 23.

7.3 DC-Circuits
I RC-Circuit: charging and discharging capacitor

ER
charging process discharging process
VR VC VR VC

R R
I I
V0 C V0 C
+ +

di. eq.: R dQ
dt
+ = V0Q
C
R dQ
dt
+ Q
C
=0
³ ´
ST
−t −t
charge: Q(t) = C V0 1 − e R C Q(t) = Q0 e R C
−t −t
current: I(t) = V0
eRC
R
I(t) = Q0
RC
eRC
³ −t
´ −t
voltage: VC (t) = V0 1 − e R C VC (t) = Q0
C
eRC

I RL-Circuit
U

connected battery disconnected battery

VR VL VR VL

R R
I L I L
V0 V0
M

+ +
Inductors,

di. eq.:
Circuits

L dI
dt
+ I R = V0 L dI
dt
+ IR=0
³ −R
´ −R
current: V0
I(t) = R 1 − e L
t
I(t) = V0
R
e L
t

−R −R
voltage: VL (t) = V0 e L
t
VL (t) = V0 e L
t

c Adrian Wetzel
° 25
I RLC-Circuit: damped harmonic oscillator
IQ
L I Q R=0 I Q R < Ö 4L 4L
R >Ö C
I(t) C
Q(t)
C Q0 Q0 Q I(t)
0
Q 0
++ ++
VC VL t t t
-- --
Q(t) Q(t)
VR I(t)
I(t)
R
2
Dierential equation: L ddtQ dQ
2 + R dt +
Q
C
=0

³ ´ q
−R
R2
Current: [I] R2 < 4L
C
⇒ I(t) = −Q0
ω
ω2 + 4 L2
e 2 L t sin (ω t) ω= 1
2L
4L
C
− R2
dQ(t)
I(t) = ³ ´ q

ER
dt 4L Q0 R2 −R
1 4L
[II] R2 > C
⇒ I(t) = ω
ω2 − 4 L2
e 2 L t sinh (ω t) ω= 2L
R2 − C

7.4 AC-Circuits
I Single devices R, L, C on AC-current source I(t) = I0 sin (ω t)
Resistance R Inductance L Capacitance C
ST
C
I(t) R VR I(t) L VL I(t) VC

V(t) V(t) V(t)

t t t
I(t) I(t) I(t)
Voltage: V (t) = V0 sin (ω t) V (t) = V0 sin (ω t + π2 ) V (t) = V0 sin (ω t − π2 )
V
Reactance: (XR = I 0 = R) XL = VI 0 = ω L XC = VI 0 = ω1C
U

0 0 0

Avg. power: P = R IRMS

2
= 12 R I02 P =0 P =0
M

c Adrian Wetzel
° 26
I RC and LC lters VIN (t) = V0 sin (ω t)
RC lowpass RC highpass LC lowpass LC highpass
R
VIN(t) VOUT(t) VIN(t) C VOUT(t) VIN(t) L VOUT(t) VIN(t) C VOUT(t)
C R C L

V0 OUT 1 V0 OUT ωRC V0 OUT 1 V0 OUT ω2 L C

V0 IN = ω R C+1 V0 IN = ω R C+1 V0 IN = ω 2 L C+1 V0 IN = ω 2 L C+1

V0 OUT V0 OUT V0 OUT V0 OUT

V0 IN V0 IN V0 IN V0 IN
1 1 1 1

ER
w w w w

I RLC-oscillator
RLC series circuit RLC parallel circuit
ST
V(t) I(t) = I0 cos(w t)
I(t) V(t) = V0 cos(w t) C L
V(t)

I(t) R
C L
R
q ¡ ¢ ³ ¡ ¢2 ´− 12
1 2
Impedance: Z(ω) = R2 + ω L − ωC
Z(ω) = 1
R2
+ 1
ωL
−ωC
U

Voltage: V (t) = V0 (ω) · cos (ω t − φ(ω))

Current: I(t) = I0 (ω) · cos (ω t − φ(ω))

V0
Amplitude: I0 (ω) = Z(ω) V0 (ω) = Z(ω) · I0
M

AC and DC

¡1 ¢ ¡ ¢
Phase: φ(ω) = arctan · (ω L − 1
) φ(ω) = arctan R · ( ω1L − ω C)
Circuits

R ωC

⇒ Resonance phenomenon is observable on RLC series and parallel circuit, the equivalent
to the mechanic resonance, see p. 12.
1 1
Condition for resonance: ω = ω0 = √LC resonance frequency: f0 =
2π
√
LC

c Adrian Wetzel
° 27
8 Quantum physics
I De Broglie relation: Equivalence of particle and wave: p = h
λ
p = m v = momentum, λ = wave length, h = 6.63 · 10−34 J s = Planck's constant.

I Energy of a photon: E = h · f = ~ · ω h
~ = 2π = 1.05 · 10−34 J s

I Heisenberg's uncertainty principle:

• Position and momentum cannot have precise values at the same time: ∆x · ∆p ≥ ~
∆x, ∆p = uncertainty in position resp. momentum.

• Energy and time cannot have precise values at the same time: ∆E · ∆t ≥ ~

ER
∆E , ∆t = uncertainty in energy resp. time.

−~2 d2 Ψ(x)
I Schrödinger equation: 2m · dx2 + V (x) · Ψ(x) = E · Ψ(x) (time independent)

I Bohr's atomic model:

• Radius of electron orbit:

² ~2
Hydrogen: Rn = π m
0 2
2 · n = aB · n
2
e qe
ST
aB = 5.29 · 10−11 m = Bohr radius.
4π²2 ~2
In general: Rn ≈ m q02 Z · n2
e e

Z = number of protons in nucleus.

• Binding energy:
m q4
Hydrogen: En = − 32 π 2e ²2e ~2 · n12 = E1 · n12
0
U

E1 = −13.6 eV = lowest level

m q4 Z 2
In general: En ≈ − 32 πe 2 e²2 ~2 · n12
0

n = 1, 2, 3, ... principal quantum nr.

M

• Frequency condition:
En < Em ⇒ absorption
h f = | En − Em |
En > Em ⇒ emission

• Work function (work of emission):

Minimum energy required to remove an
electron from a solid (atom).

Φ = h f − 12 m v 2 (table p. 32)

⇒ Elektromagnetic spectrum on p. 33.

c Adrian Wetzel
° 28
9 Special Theory of Relativity
I Inertial system (IS): Coordinate system, in which every object with mass keeps at rest
or in straight motion if there is no external force acting on it. In an intertial system, Newton's
second law (see p. 6) holds unlimitedly. The intertial system assumes independence of space
and time.

I Galilei-transformation:
Transition from one inertial system to another:
x0 = x − v t (motion in x-direction)
y0 = y

ER
z0 = z
t0 = t

Any physical law is called Galilei-invariant, if its form is independent of the choice
of the inertial system.

I Einstein's postulates:
• Fundamental physical laws have the same mathematical form in all inertial systems.
• In all inertial systems the velocity of light c = 3 · 108 ms is the same and is constant,
ST
independent of direction and motion of the inertial system. ,

I Lorentz-transformation: Relativistic
transition from one inertial system to another:
Velocity v in x-direction:
x0 = γ(x − v t)
y0 = y
γ =√1 β = vc .
z0 = z 1−β 2
U

t0 = γ ( t − vc2x )

• The 'space-time' distance is Lorentz-invariant:

x2 + y 2 + z 2 − c2 t2 = x20 + y02 + z02 − c2 t20
Consequences:
M

• Length contraction:
distances in motion become shorter: ∆l0 = γ1 ∆l

• Time dilation:
clocks in motion run slower: ∆t0 = γ ∆t
Quantum

I Mass, energy and momentum:

SRT

• Mass-energy relation: E = m c2
• Relativistic momentum: p = γ m v

• Relativistic energy: E = γ m c2

c Adrian Wetzel
° 29
10 Tables
Mechanic properties
Solids Material ρ Y σ µ c
kg
ρ = density in m3
in mN2 in N
m2
- in ms
Aluminum (Al) 2700 7.1 · 1010 7.1 · 107 0.34 5240
Y = Young's modulus Brass 8470 1.1 · 1011 2.9 · 108 0.35 3420
Copper (Cu) 8920 1.2 · 1011 2.2 · 108 0.35 3900
σ = stress Gold (Au) 19290 8.2 · 1010 - 0.42 3240
Iron (Fe) 7860 ≈ 2.19 · 1011 2.0 · 108 0.28 5170
µ = Poisson's number Lead (Pb) 11340 ≈ 1.4 · 1010 - 0.44 1250

ER
Nickel (Ni) 8900 2.14 · 1010 4.4 · 108 0.31 -
c = velocity Platinum (Pt) 21450 1.7 · 1011 1.4 · 108 0.39 -
of sound
Quartz (SiO2 ) 2200 9.4 · 1010 - 0.17 ≈ 5000
Silver (Ag) 10500 8 · 1010 1.6 · 108 0.37 -
Tin (Sn) 7290 4.0 · 109 - 0.33 -
Tungsten (W) 19300 4.1 · 1010 - 0.29 5460
Zinc (Zn) 7140 - - 0.25 -
Water (ice, H2 O) 917 ≈ 9.1 · 109 - 0.33 3250

Fluids Material
ST
ρ K η c
kg
in in mN2 in Ns
in ms
ρ = density m3 m2
Acetone (OC(CH3 )2 ) 791 - 3.06 · 10−4 1190
K = bulk Benzene (C6 H6 ) 879 11.25 · 1010 - 1326
modulus Ethanol (C2 H5 OH) 789 9.1 · 108 1.2 · 10−3 1170
Glycerol (C3 H5 (OH)3 ) 1261 26.6 · 1010 1.48 1923
η = viscosity (at 20◦ C) Oil ≈ 900 16 · 108
Petrol 850 - - -
c = velocity Mercury (Hg) 13546 253 · 1010 1.55 · 10−3 1430
U

of sound Water (H2 O) 998 2.2 · 1011 1 · 10−3 1483

Material ρ η c
Gases in kg
in Ns
in ms
m3 m2
ρ = density
M

Air 1.293 1.86 · 10−7 344

(at normal conditions) Argon (Ar) 1.784 2.29 · 10−7 -
Butane (CH(CH3 )3 ) 2.732 7.5 · 10−6 -
η = viscosity Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) 1.977 1.5 · 10−7 268
(at 0◦ C & p = 1bar) Freon 5.51 - -
Helium (He) 0.1785 - 1005
c = velocity Hydrogen (H) 0.0899 - 1310
of sound Methane (CH4 ) 0.717 1.12 · 10−7 445
Neon (Ne) 0.9 - -
Nitrogen (N2 ) 1.25 - 337
Oxygen (O2 ) 1.429 - 326

c Adrian Wetzel
° 30
Friction coecients:
Material µS (static) µK (kinetic) µR (rolling)
wood on wood 0.6 0.4 -
steel on steel 0.15 0.1 ≈ 0.002
rubber on tar (bitumen) 1.0 0.6 ≈ 0.02
steel on ice 0.027 0.014 -

Thermal data
Solids
α = coecient of linear thermal expansion
Lf = specic latent heat of fusion
c = specic heat capacity
k = thermal conductivity

ER
TMP = melting point (at normal pressure)

Material α c TMP Lf k
in K1 in J
kg K
in ◦ C J
in kg in W
mK
Aluminum (Al) 23.8 · 10−6 896 660.1 3.97 · 105 239
Brass 18 · 10−6 380 905 1.6 · 105 79
Copper (Cu) 16.8 · 10−6 383 1083 2.05 · 105 390
Gold (Au) 14.3 · 10−6 129 1063 0.64 · 105 312
Iron (Fe) 12.0 · 10−6 450 1535 2.77 · 105 80
Lead (Pb) 31.3 · 10−6 129 327.4 0.23 · 105 34.8
ST
Nickel (Ni) 12.8 · 10−6 448 1453 3.03 · 105 81
Platinum (Pt) 9.0 · 10−6 133 1769 1.11 · 105 70.1
Quartz (SiO2 ) 4.5 · 10−7 710 1610 1.36
Silver (Ag) 19.7 · 10−6 235 960.8 1.045 · 105 428
Tungsten (W) 4.3 · 10−6 134 3380 1.92 · 105 177
Tin (Sn) 27.0 · 10−6 227 231.9 0.596 · 105 64
Water (ice H2 O) 37.0 · 10−6 2100 0 3.338 · 105 2.2
Zinc (Zn) 26.3 · 10−6 385 419.5 1.11 · 105 112
U

Fluids
γ = coecient of volume expansion
Lf = specic latent heat of fusion
c = specic heat capacity
M

Lv = specic latent heat of vaporisation

TMP = melting point (at normal pressure)
k = thermal conductivity
TBP = boiling point (at normal pressure)

Material γ c TMP TBP Lf Lv k

in K1 in J
kg K
in ◦ C in ◦ C J
in kg J
in kg in W
mK
Acetone (OC(CH3 )2 ) 1.49 · 10−3 2160 -94.86 56.25 9.8 · 104 5.25 · 105 0.162
Benzene (C6 H6 ) 1.23 · 10−3 1725 5.53 80.1 1.28 · 105 3.94 · 105 0.148
Ethanol (C2 H5 OH) 1.1 · 10−3 2430 -114.5 78.33 1.08 · 105 8.4 · 105 0.165
Glycerol (C3 H5 (OH)3 ) 5.0 · 10−4 2390 18.4 290.5 2.01 · 105 8.54 · 105 0.285
Mercury (Hg) 1.84 · 10−4 139 -38.87 356.58 1.18 · 104 2.85 · 105 8.2
Water (H2 O) 2.07 · 10−4 4182 0 100 3.338 · 105 2.256 · 106 0.598
Tables

c Adrian Wetzel
° 31
Gases
cp = specic heat capacity at p = constant
Cp = molar heat capacity at p = constant
κ = CCVp
TMP = melting point (at normal pressure)
TBP = boiling point (at normal pressure)
Lf = specic latent heat of fusion
Lv = specic latent heat of vaporisation
a, b = Van-der-Waals constants

Material cp Cp κ TMP TBP a b

J J N m4 m3
in kg K
in mol K
- in ◦ C in ◦ C in mol2
in mol
Argon (Ar) 523 20.9 1.305 −77.7 −33.4 0.425 3.73 · 10−5
Freon 502 60.7 1.14 −158.2 −29.8 0.837 7.75 · 10−5
Helium (He) 5230 20.9 1.63 - −268.94 0.0034 2.36 · 10−5
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) 837 36.8 1.293 - −78.45 0.366 4.28 · 10−5

ER
Air 1005 29.1 1.402 - −191.4 0.135 3.65 · 10−5
Methane (CH4 ) 2219 35.6 1.402 - −191.4 0.229 4.28 · 10−5
Neon (Ne) 1031 20.8 1.64 -248.61 −246.06 0.0217 1.74 · 10−5
Oxygen (O2 ) 917 29.3 1.398 −218.79 −182.97 0.138 3.17 · 10−5
Nitrogen (N2 ) 1038 29.1 1.401 −210.0 −195.82 0.137 3.87 · 10−5
Water vapor (H2 O) 1863 33.6 1.33 0 100 0.553 3.04 · 10−5
Hydrogen (H) 14320 28.9 1.41 −259.2 −252.77 0.0248 2.66 · 10−5

Electric, magnetic and optical data

ST
Electric conductors (metals)
ρ = specic resistance (at 20◦ C) µr = magnetic permeability
α = temperature coecient Φ = work function

Material ρ α µr Φ
in Ω · m in K1 - in eV
Aluminum (Al) 2.82 · 10−8 +3.9 · 10−3 1 + 2.1 · 10−5 (paramagnetic) 4.2
U

Brass 7 · 10−8 +2 · 10−3 -

Caesium (Cs) 1.87
Germanium (Ge) 0.14 - - -
Copper (Cu) 1.7 · 10−8 +3.9 · 10−3 1 − 6.4 · 10 (diamagnetic)
−6
4.84
Gold (Au) 2.2 · 10−8 +4 · 10−3 1 − 3.4 · 10−5 (diamagnetic) 4.83
M

Iron (Fe) 1 · 10−7 +5 · 10−3 ≈ 5800 (ferromagnetic) -

Lead (Pb) 2.2 · 10−7 +3.9 · 10−3 diamgnetic -
Potassium (K) - - - 2.15
Nickel (Ni) 7.8 · 10−8 +6 · 10−3 ≈ 1120 (ferromagnetic) 5.09
Platinum (Pt) 1 · 10−7 +3 · 10−3 1 + 2.8 · 10−4 (paramagnetic) 5.3
Silver (Ag) 1.59 · 10−8 +3.8 · 10−3 - 4.43
Tungsten (W) 5.3 · 10−8 +4.8 · 10−3 - 4.57
Zinc (Zn) 5.8 · 10−8 +3.7 · 10−3 - 4.34

c Adrian Wetzel
° 32
Elektric insulators, transparent materials
ρ = specic resistance (at 20◦ C)
n = index of refraction (towards vacuum)
²r = permittivity (dielectric constant)

Material ρ ²r n
in Ω · m - -
Air - 1.0006 1.000272
Benzene (C6 H6 ) - 2.3 1.49
Diamond (C) - 2.42
Ethanol (C2 H5 OH) - - 1.36
Glycerol (C3 H5 (OH)3 ) - 1.47
Ice (H2 O) - 1.31
Mica 5 · 1014 7 -

ER
Paran 3 · 1016 2.1 -
Plexiglas 1 · 1013 3.4 1.5
Quartz (SiO2 3 · 1014 4 1.46
Salt (NaCl) - 1.54
Silicium (Si, pure) 1.7 · 104 -
Teon 1 · 1013 2 -
Water (H2 O) - 80 1.33
ST
Electromagnetic spectrum
U
M

Tables

c Adrian Wetzel
° 33
Astronomical data
m = mass of the celestial body
r = radius of the celestial body TRot = Time for one revolution
TC = time of circulation g = acceleration of fall
a bzw. R = semimajor axes vF = escape velocity
resp. radius of circulation

Celestial m r TC a resp. R TRot g vF

body in kg in m in days in m in sm2 in kms

Mercury 3.31 · 1023 2.425 · 106 87.969 5.79 · 1010 58.65 d 3.63 4.2

Venus 4.87 · 1024 6.070 · 106 224.701 1.082 · 1011 243 d 8.60 10.3

ER
Earth 5.98 · 1024 6.378 · 106 365.256 1.496 · 1011 23.93 h 9.81 11.2

Mars 6.42 · 1023 3.395 · 106 686.98 2.279 · 1011 24.63 h 3.74 5.0

Jupiter 1.90 · 1027 7.13 · 107 4332.57 7.783 · 1011 9.48 h 25.9 61

Saturn 5.69 · 1026 6.01 · 107 10759.22 1.429 · 1012 10.23 h 11.3 37

Uranus 8.69 · 1025 2.56 · 107 30685.40 2.875 · 1012 17.2 h 9.0 22

Neptun 1.03 · 1026 2.43 · 107 60189 4.504 · 1012 15.8 h 11.5 24
ST
Moon 7.35 · 1022 1.74 · 106 27.32 3.844 · 108 1.622 2.38

Sun 1.99 · 1030 6.96 · 108 - - - 273.98 617.7

U
M

c Adrian Wetzel
° 34
Index
acceleration, 4, 5 entropy, 17
active power, 20
adiabatic process, 18 focal length, 15
alternating voltage, 19 force, 6, 23
Amontons, 18 frequency, 5
amplitude, 12 frictional force, 6
angular momentum, 7
Galilei-transformation, 26
angular velocity, 5, 12
Galileo Galilei, 5
atom, 25
gas constant, 18
barometric formula, 8 Gay-Lussac, 18
beating wave, 13 gravitational force, 6

ER
Bernoulli's law, 8
Hagen Poiseuille, 8
binding energy, 25
harmonic oscillation, 12
Biot-Savart force, 23
harmonic wave, 13
Bohr model, 25
heat, 17
Boltzmann-constant, 17
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 25
Boyle-Mariotte, 18
Hook's law, 10
brewster angle, 15
hydrodynmaics, 8
buoyant force, 8
hydrostatic pressure, 8
capacitor, 21
ideal Gas law, 18
ST
celsius, 17
impedance, 20, 21, 24
center-of-mass, 9
inclined plane, 6
centripetal acceleration, 5
inductor, coil, 24
charge, electric, 19
inertial system, 26
circular movement, 5
isobar, isotherm, isochor, 18
coil, inductor, 24
collisions, 7 kelvin, 17
compression, 10 Kepler's laws, 11
concave, 15 kinematics, 4
continuity equation, 8 kinetic energy, 10
U

convex, 15 Kirchho's circuit laws, 20

Coulomb's law, 19
current, 19 latent heat of fusion, vaporisation, 17
current law, 20 law of induction, 24
law of the lever, 7
damped harmonic oscillation, 12 Laws of thermodynamics, 18
M

density, 8 lens equation, 15

diraction, 16 Lenz's law., 24
direct voltage, 19 light, speed of, 26
Doppler eect, 14 linear thermal expansion, 17
longitudinal wave, 13
eective voltage, 19
Lorentz force, 23
eciency, 11
Lorentz-transformation, 26
eigenfrequencies, 14
Einstein's postulates, 26 magnetic ux, 24
electric eld, potential, 19 magnetism, 23
electrolysis, 20 magnication, 15
electromagnetic wave, 13 momentum, 7
elementary charge, 19 motion, 4
energy, 10, 25
energy conservation, 11 Newton's laws, 6
c Adrian Wetzel
° 35
Ohm's law, 20
optics, 15
oscillations, 12
oscillator, RLC, 22

parallel, 6, 20, 21
pendulum, 12
periodic time, 5, 12
phase, 12
photon, 25
position, 4
power, 11, 20
pressure, 8

quantum physics, 25

ER
radial force, 6
refraction law, 15
relativity, 26
resistance, 20
resonance, 12, 22
rotational inertia, 9

Schrödinger equation, 25
series, 6, 20, 21
shear stress, 8
ST
sound intensity, level, 14
specic resistance, 20
speed of light, 13, 26
speed of sound, 13
spring, 6
standing wave, 14
Steiner's law, 9
stress, 10

temperature, 17
U

thermal conduction, 17
thermal eciency, 18
thermodynamics, 17
torque, 7
total refraction, 15
M

transformer, 22
transverse wave, 13

Van der Waals gas, 18

velocity, 4
velocity of light, 15
viscosity, 8
voltage, 19
volume expansion, 17

waves, 13
work, 10, 20
work of emission (workfunction), 25

c Adrian Wetzel
° 36