What is Emission Computed Tomography ?

Until now: CT and x-ray imaging Injection of radioactive

measure attenuation of incident x-ray tracer
-

Emission tomography: X-rays

emitted by exogenous substance
(tracer) in body are measured Two issues:
1. How to determine directionality of x-rays ?
2. Absorption is undesirable

Typical tracers for emission tomography

What is a tracer ?
half-life and photon energies
Exogenously administered substance
[h] [keV]
(infused into blood vessel) that
99mTc 6 140
(a) alters image contrast (CT, MRI)
201Tl 73 70
(b) has a unique signal (γ emitting) 123I 13 159
-> Emission computed tomography 133Xe 0.08 81
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 What are the basic elements needed for γ-emitter imaging ?

Position logic electronics

Photomultipliers

γ-camera
Light guide
Scintillating crystal
Collimator

Septa

w. collimator board Thyroid scanner Whole body scintigraphy

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 5-2. How can directionality of x-rays be established ?
Collimation

Problem: Photon detection alone Consider one detector, assuming perfect

collimation Line of
does not give directionality
(and neglecting attenuation, see later) incidence
Solution: (LOI)
y
Signal S(y)

x
CT(x,y): tissue
Collimation establishes −∞ radioactivity
direction of x-ray Radon transform
∫
S ( y ) = CT ( x , y ) dx
⇒ Reconstruction as in CT
∞

Impact of collimation on resolution

Collimator
Thick (lead or tungsten) with thin holes septa
Select rays orthogonal to crystal

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 How does collimation affect resolution ?
It’s never perfect
D

Perfect collimation, i.e. resolution ?

Crystal scintillant (NaI)

d/a→ 0
Impossible to achieve
µcollimatort→ ∞ (Why?)

Source

w septa
a
D

Collimator resolution:
b d t Two objects have to be separated by distance >R
penetrating d (ae + b ) ae = a − 2 / µ
scattering R= (ae: imperfect septal
Septa penetration < 5%
ae absorption)
occurs when t=t5%:
6d / µ Price of collimation (resolution) ?
t5% ≈
a −3/ µ
Sensitivity ! 5-7
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 5-3. How to deal with attenuation of the emitted x-rays ?
result of x-ray absorption in tissue

Signal measured from a homogeneous

sphere (CT(x,y)=constant) Attenuation T n( D )
T= = e − µD
N0
1.depends on object dimension
and source location
(D=f(object))

Intensity distortion:
Cause ?

n( D) = N 0 e − µD

5 cm Consider point source:

10 cm
T=0.46 Attenuation depends on
D 15 cm
T=0.21 location of source in tissue

99mTc
T=0.10 2. Photon energy
in H2O
µ=f(Eν)
µ water (140keV ) = 0.16 cm −1
HVL = 0.693/μ ≅ 4.5cm 5-8
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 What are the basic steps in attenuation correction ?

µ(x,y):
Attenuation
Measured Corrected image
correction

A(x,y) of thorax
Attenuation correction procedure
A. Estimated object geometry and estimated µ(x,y)
or measured µ(x,y)
heart
B. Transmission loss : T(projection)=f(µ(object), projection)
lung
C. Attenuation correction A(x,y)=1/T(x,y)
A B
D. Corrected Ccorr(x,y)=A(x,y) C(x,y)

Problem is prior Attenuation

knowledge needed for A correction rarely
(i.e. µ(x,y)) applied!
C D
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 How to simplify attenuation correction ?
by measuring at 1800 using geometric mean

Problem: Spatial dependence of correction

S1 ·S2 =CT ( x , y ) e − µD / 2
D = x1 + x2
x1 x2
NB. This correction can be used in
emission tomography for focal uptake
Consider point source: (i.e. uptake limited to a specific region)

Signal (S1) Signal (S2)

S1 ( y ) =CT ( x1 , y ) e − µx1 S 2 ( y ) =CT ( x2 , y ) e − µx2

y Measure at 1800 simultaneously

and take the geometric mean
CT(x,y): tissue
x radioactivity
→ attenuation correction depends only
Solution: Geometric mean of the two 1800 on dimension of object along the
opposite signals: measured Radon transform

S1 ·S2 = CT ( x1 , y ) e − µx1CT ( x2 , y ) e − µx2

− µD
=CT ( x , y ) e − µ ( x1+ x2 ) =CT ( x , y ) e (D = x1 + x2)
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 5-4. What is the principle of x-ray detection ?
Collimation, followed by scintillation and amplification

Scintillator crystal Photomultiplier

e.g. Tl-doped
SodiumIodide (NaI) Tube

Light electrons El. Signal

γ-energy ∝ # scintillation photons ∝ Signal

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 What is Scintillation ?
Sequence of events in scintillation crystal
1. Atom ionized by Compton interaction →
Electron-hole pair
2. Hole ionizes activator, electron falls into
activator
3. Activator is deactivated by emission of
Photons (10-7 sec)
Conduction band

Activation band (Doped)

Efficiency of scintillators
Gap
energy of scintillation light Tqa
Activator ground state
η≡ ∝
energy deposited We − h
Valence band
T = energy transfer efficiency from excited ion to
luminescence centre
qA= quantum efficiency of luminescence centre
We-h = energy required to create one electron-hole
pair

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 What elements characterize scintillation materials ?
Overview of some crystals

Refr.
Zeff Yield
ph/keV Index

73 2.15 13%

51 1.85 100%
59
66 79%

Requirements for scintillator

Most of the energy of the x-ray is lost
High yield
as heat (to lattice), see
Good linearity
e.g. NaI(140keV)=40∙140
Small time constant τ =5600 photons at λ≅400nm <20keV
Transparent for scintillation light λ
E400nm[keV]=hc/λ = 1.2/λ [nm] or <120eV/keV
good mechanical properties =1.2/400 keV=3eV
Refraction index close to 1.5 5-13
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 5-5. How is the scintillation light converted to an electrical signal ?
Photomultiplier tube (PMT) -Noiseless amplification

Photocathode
Dynode Anode

Pulse
Height
Analyzer

300V 450V 600V 750V 900V 1200V

How to increase
resolution
beyond PMT
1 cm dimensions ?

PMTs are bulky Scintillator crystal

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 How to improve the spatial resolution of PMT ?
(Anger, 1964)
γ
NaI-crystal
Scintillation light (40 cm x 40 cm)
Light-guide

Photomultiplier x=
∑ xI k k

∑I k

Looks familiar ?
xCM =
∑x m
k k

I2 I3
(see center of mass
1st year Physics) ∑m k

I1
Location,
Energy

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x1 x2 x3
 5-5. How to discriminate scattered photons ?
Tc-99m spherical phantom (w. holes)
Most scattering is by Compton
140 keV
Ei
Ef = Measure Ef
(1 − cos θ ) → identify severely
1 + Ei
me c 2 i scattered photons

theta/Ei 100 140

104 keV
20 99 138
45 95 130
90 84 110

Intensity
110 79 102
180 72 90 primary
scatter
total

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 What processes contribute to the Scintillation light spectrum ?
scintillation signal depends on x-ray energy

NaI (Tl) scintillation peak for Cs-37: 662 keV γ crystal

γ
γ γ γ

max. energy of the recoil electron

(i.e. 662 keV photon scattered by 1800)

Scintillation light intensity

energy of 662 keV photon

scattered by 1800

photons that lose all energy

• light from Compton events (i.e. Compton events + final
photoelectric event)
• secondary photons escaped
from crystal

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 SPECT summary
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
1. Measurement of single photon emitters
injected into subject

2. Collimation ensures x-ray directionality

(⇒ backprojection)
3. Absorption is undesirable
4. Photon energies comparable to CT
⇒ SPECT-CT ECG-triggered

Pancreatic tumor (mouse) 5-18

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