7th International Conference on Debris-Flow Hazards Mitigation

Post-fire rockfall and debris-flow hazard zonation in the Eagle

Creek fire burn area, Columbia River Gorge, Oregon: A tool for
emergency managers and first responders
N.C. Calhouna,*, W.J. Burnsa, S. Hayb, D.M. Staleyc and J.W. Keanc
a
Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, 800 NE Oregon St, Portland, OR 97232, USA
b
Oregon Department of Transportation, 123 NW Flanders St, Portland, OR 97209, USA
c
Geological Hazards Science Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 1711 Illinois St, Golden, CO 80401, USA

Abstract

The Eagle Creek Fire burned 48,832 acres (196 km2) of steep, heavily forested terrain along the Columbia River Gorge, Oregon,
from September 2nd to November 30th, 2017. The Columbia River Gorge is a critical lifeline for Oregon and Washington, including
Interstate Highway 84 (I-84), State Route 14 (SR-14), commercial train lines, a shipping corridor, major pipelines, and hydroelectric
dams. The Gorge is also a major tourist destination and home to thousands of permanent residents. Before the Eagle Creek Fire,
there was significant landslide and debris-flow hazard in the Gorge due to the steep topography and high annual precipitation (>254
cm). More than 80 landslides have been recorded in the Gorge during the last ~100 years, with 58 of these recorded in the
exceptionally wet and stormy winters of 1996 and 1997. Several of these landslides damaged property, temporarily closed I-84, and
interrupted train and ship traffic. There is some uncertainty on the degree to which the fire will enhance debris-flow susceptibility,
because the climate, terrain and geology is different from the regions where most post-fire debris-flow research has been conducted.
A large portion of the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area, including popular hiking trails, remains closed 18 months after
the fire, and the Historic Columbia River Highway was closed for 14 months after the fire. In the aftermath of the Eagle Creek Fire,
emergency managers and first responders identified the critical need for a post-fire landslide response plan and hazard map. To help
meet this need, the Oregon Department of Transportation, the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, and the U.S.
Geological Survey created a landslide hazard map that combined knowledge of pre-fire landslide activity and post-fire debris-flow
susceptibility. We describe how this map was created and briefly touch on how this map was integrated into the post-fire response
planning.

Keywords: post-fire debris flows; Columbia River Gorge; landslide hazard maps; Oregon; Eagle Creek

1. Introduction

The effect of wildland fires on the landscape can last decades, and have a direct influence on soils, plants, animals,
and humans (e.g., Brown et al., 2000). An important secondary hazard created by wildfires is the increased
susceptibility of steep slopes to flooding and debris flow during rain storms. The risk of post-fire flooding and debris
flow is especially high along the wildland-urban interface, as seen in 2018 with the destructive Montecito debris flows
in southern California (WERT, 2018) and many other instances in the western United States (e.g., Cannon and
DeGraff, 2009). Over the last two decades, scientists have been studying the secondary impact of increased landslide
hazard following wildfires (e.g., Cannon et al., 2010; Staley et al., 2016). Most of these studies have been undertaken
in regions with relatively dry climates, which also experience intense bursts of precipitation, such as southern
California and the intermountain West. In dry-climate regions, wildfire typically reduces the infiltration capacity of
the soil, such that moderate intensity rainstorms can initiate debris flows through processes that result from runoff
_________

* Corresponding author e-mail address: nancy.calhoun@oregon.gov

 Calhoun et al. / 7th International Conference on Debris-Flow Hazards Mitigation (2019)

generation during moderately intense rainfall (Cannon, 2001, Kean et al., 2011, Kean et al., 2013). Post-fire debris-
flow generation in wetter climates like the Pacific Northwest is not well understood because the soils in the region
tend to have very high infiltration capacities that limit overland flow even after fire (Wondzell and King, 2003; Jackson
and Roering, 2009). By combining the known areas of debris-flow deposits with the highest hazard tributary segments
and basins, we account for the initiation, transport and depositional area of potential erosion-related debris flows in
the Columbia River Gorge in Oregon.

1.1. Study Area

The Columbia River Gorge (CRG) is steep, heavily forested, and characterized by cliffs and flanking talus slopes,
ranging in elevation from ~5,000 ft (1525 m) asl at the high point to the Columbia River at about 12 ft (3.7 m) asl. The
study area is the extent of the Eagle Creek Fire (Fig. 1). The region receives >100 inches (>254 cm) of precipitation
annually with most falling as rain between October and May (PRISM, 2004). The Miocene-aged Eagle Creek
Formation, consisting of fluvial conglomerate and andesitic lahar deposits, is the oldest exposed geologic unit along
the Oregon side of the Columbia River Gorge. Cliff-forming Columbia River Basalt Group flow sequences of the
Grande Ronde, Wanapum, and Saddle Mountains Basalt, also Miocene in age, unconformably overlie the Eagle Creek
Formation (Tolan and Beeson, 1984).
The CRG is a critical multimodal lifeline for Oregon and Washington, including Interstate (I-84) and State Route
(SR-14), commercial train lines, and commercial shipping. There are also major hydroelectric dams and electric
transmission in this corridor (Fig. 1; Wang and Chaker, 2004). The study area, within the CRG, also has approximately
1,400 permanent residents (U.S. Census, 2010), living in approximately 810 buildings (Microsoft building footprint
data, 2018). The area is also a major tourist attraction for Portland and the Pacific Northwest, featuring the Columbia
River Gorge National Scenic Area.

Fig. 1. Study area in the Columbia River Gorge, with the Columbia River dividing Washington State to the north, encompassing the Eagle Creek
burn area and downslope infrastructure. I-84 and the rail lines here in the CRG are the primary access through the Cascade Range; the next
closest pass is 150 miles to the north via I-90 and ~500 miles to the south via I-80 in Sacramento, CA, through the Sierra Nevada. Note brown
box outlining Dodson-Warrendale fan, seen in Fig. 2.
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Landslides are a chronic hazard in the CRG. More than 80 landslides have occurred in the study area portion of the
CRG during the last ~100 years, with 58 of these recorded in the exceptionally wet and stormy winters of 1996 and
1997 (Burns et al., 1998; Burns and Lindsey, 2017; Burns and Watzig, 2017). Several of these landslides can be seen
in an aerial photo of the Dodson-Warrendale area from 2000 (Fig. 2a), and debris flows in this area have damaged
property and forced the closure of the rail lines, I-84, and shipping lanes. A 2001 event closed I-84 for 12 days (Wang
and Chaker, 2004). Due to the Eagle Creek Fire, related damage, and potential hazards related to rockfall and debris
flows, significant road segments were closed from September 2017-November 2018 and much of the recreational area
of the Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area remains closed as of February 2019.
The Eagle Creek Fire engulfed 48,832 acres (196 km2) within the Columbia River Gorge, beginning September 2nd,
swiftly growing to the west then east, driven by unfavorable, strong winds (Schnackenberg, 2017). The Eagle Creek
burn was deemed 100% contained by November 30th, 2017. Fig. 2b illustrates the variability of burn intensity and a
visual perspective of the Columbia River Gorge and the Dodson-Warrendale area.

1996
Events

Fig. 2. (a) Aerial photograph from year 2000 draped over topography from Google Earth, at an oblique angle looking south. Several debris-flow
tracks from the winter of 1996 are evident (Burns et al., 1998), with I-84 in the foreground. (b) An oblique photograph of the Dodson-Warrendale
fan taken September 26th, 2017, looking eastward. The variability of the burn intensity of Eagle Creek Fire is evident, with black- to yellow-
scorched trees interspersed with green. I-84 is the highway on the right side of the photograph. (Image provided by ODOT Photo/Video).

An estimated 45% of the area had high or moderate soil burn severity (Fig. 3; Schnackenberg, 2017). The map
shown in Fig. 3 was created immediately after the fire by a U.S. Forest Service Burn Area Emergency Response
(BAER) team using Landsat satellite imagery products, such as the Burned Area Reflectance Classification (BARC),
and field verification. The satellite imagery was analyzed by remote sensing specialists to estimate soil burn severity
comparing near-infrared and mid-infrared bands (Parsons et al., 2010). The satellite estimate of burn severity was then
field checked by the BAER team soil scientists (Parsons et al., 2010; Schnackenberg, 2017).
In the aftermath of the Eagle Creek Fire, local and regional scientists from the Oregon Department of Transportation
(ODOT), Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries (DOGAMI), and the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), alerted emergency managers and the public of the potential for increased rockfall and debris flows because
of the burn. Emergency managers and first responders then identified a critical need for a post-fire landslide response
plan and a generalized hazard map. In this paper, we describe how we created the post-fire rockfall and debris-flow
hazard map in the Eagle Creek burn area, and briefly touch on how this map was integrated into the post-fire response
planning.

2. Methods

In order to make a hazard map for the Eagle Creek burn area, we relied on the established methods of the USGS
post-fire debris flow model (Gartner et al., 2014; Staley, et al., 2016, 2017) and the existing landslide inventory created
for Multnomah County (Fig. 4, Burns and Lindsey, 2017), which includes historical landslide points and deposits, and
prehistoric landslide deposits, mapped at 1:8,000 scale. The landslide inventory includes shallow (<3 m) and deep (>3
m) deposits, rockfall talus and debris flow fans, of different ages and certainty levels, though we extracted debris flow
fans and rockfall talus polygons only. We also completed new preliminary landslide inventory mapping (rockfall talus
and debris-flow fans only) in the Hood River County portion of the study area. Observations from emergency managers
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and first responders identified a need for a combined hazard map that included both datasets in one map, generalized
enough for quick decision making and without the need for expert interpretation.

Fig. 3. Soil burn severity map and extent of the Eagle Creek burn (Schnackenberg, 2017), modified to include our study area polygon and 1-m
lidar hillshade. See Fig. 1 for study area location.

Fig.4. Rockfall and debris-flow fan deposits extracted from Burns and Lindsey (2017) in Multnomah County, with newly delineated rockfall and
debris-flow fans in western Hood River County. The black outlines denote historical debris-flow deposits, meaning movement occurred in the
last 150 years. See Fig. 1 for study area location.

The post-fire landslide hazard map combines lidar-derived 1-m cell size bare earth DEM as base data from the
Oregon Lidar Consortium (DOGAMI, 2009), published landslide inventory (Fig. 4, Burns and Lindsey, 2017), post-
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fire debris-flow hazard assessment data (Fig. 5; USGS, 2017) and unpublished remote sensing-based mapping of
rockfall and debris-flow fan areas in western Hood River County (Fig. 4), digitized by the author specifically for this
hazard map.
We used the combined hazard attribute in the USGS post-fire debris-flow hazard assessment, which includes both
probability and volume. The USGS models use basin morphology, burn severity, soil properties and rainfall
characteristics to estimate the statistical likelihood (Staley et al., 2016) and potential volume (Garter et al., 2014) of
debris flows in response to a storm of a given rainfall intensity. We used the combined hazard for the most intense
design storm in the USGS hazard assessment, which had a 15-minute peak rainfall intensity of 40 mm/hr,
corresponding to a 5-year recurrence interval based on the methods of Arkell and Richards (1986).
The USGS combined hazard map does not, however, identify zones of potential debris-flow inundation, because
an operational tool for rapid post-fire runout prediction does not exist. To estimate zones of potential debris-
flow inundation, we used a combination of (1) geomorphic evidence of deposition based on the landslide, rockfall,
and fan mapping described above, and (2) enlarged (buffered) versions of the "watch stream" segments that are
included in the USGS hazard assessments. "Watch streams" are defined as large trunk streams (drainage area >8 km2),
which may experience extensive flooding and the effects of debris flow in the drainage network upstream of the watch
stream. We merged these datasets into the final post-fire landslide hazard zones defined as low, moderate, and high
susceptibility within a geographic information system (GIS).

Fig. 5. Debris-flow estimates of combined hazards of both the stream segments and basin scales, from the USGS post-fire debris flow model, for
a given peak 15-minute rainfall intensity of 40 mm/hr. Data accessed via the USGS Post-Fire Debris Flow Hazards under the Landslide Hazards
Program (USGS, 2017). See Fig. 1 for study area location.

The inputs to the three hazard zones are as follows:

High Zone
• Rockfall and debris-flow fan deposits: Extracted from landslide inventory maps (Burns and Lindsey, 2017);
deep- and shallow-landslide polygons excluded from hazard map input.
• Buffered Moderate and High Hazard Stream Segments: Combined hazard attribute of stream segments,
with associated buffer: high with 100 ft (30 m) buffer and moderate with 75 ft (23 m) buffer. We selected
different buffer distances for moderate and high hazard stream segments based on measured channel widths
for streams in this area. The high hazard stream segment buffer of 100 ft (33 m) was determined from
measured mean stream width in the upper, smaller tributaries.
• High Hazard Basins: Combined hazard attribute for basin-scale analysis: all high hazard basins included
(with no buffer).
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• Buffered Watch Streams: Watch stream segments were buffered 200 ft (65 m) for entire length, based on
measured channel widths for large trunk streams in this area.
• Manual Revisions: Revisions of merged datasets to include isolated areas not included but surrounded
entirely or mostly by other high hazard data inputs and small-scale linework alterations, to better align with
1-meter resolution topography.
Moderate Zone
• We buffered the high-hazard zone by 200 ft (65 m).
Low Zone
• Areas within the study area boundaries that were not included in moderate or high zones.
The post-fire rockfall and debris-flow hazard map (Fig. 6) is intended to be used by the emergency managers and
first responders for the affected area as a tool for choosing operation centers, safe rally points for officers, and similar
needs. We do not expect an event where the entire high-hazard zone has landslides at the same time throughout the
zone. Instead, the map identifies the most likely areas where landslides may occur and areas where landslides are very
unlikely.

3. Results

The final post-fire debris-flow and rockfall hazard map for the Eagle Creek burn area highlights the widespread
high hazard, narrow bands of moderate hazard and isolated areas of low hazard near the Columbia River and atop the
flat plateau above the gorge (Fig. 6). Human modification of slopes, such as road construction and associated grading,
as well as mitigation efforts, such as rockfall fences and jersey barriers, are not considered in these maps, but may
affect the hazard.

Fig. 6. Post-fire rockfall and debris-flow hazard map created for local first responders and emergency managers. As is evident, much of the upper
basins are included in their entirety, because of the steep, confined channels and rockfall hazards along slopes. See Fig. 1 for study area location.
Note brown box outlining Dodson-Warrendale fan, seen in Fig. 7. See Fig. 1 for study area location.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The Eagle Creek Fire garnered local, regional, and national attention during the fall of 2017, with dramatic images
of tall Douglas Firs on steep slopes, engulfed in large flames. At several of the post-fire planning meetings hosted by
the U.S. Forest Service and others attention turned from the fire hazard to the looming wet season and the post-fire
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landslide hazard and associated risk. The goal of the post-fire landslide hazard map was to modify existing landslide
hazard data for the Columbia River Gorge into a usable, safety-driven hazard map.
Debris flows are an existing and recurrent hazard in the CRG. A closer view of historical debris-flow deposits from
the landslide inventory (Burns and Lindsey, 2017) are shown in Fig. 7 (see also Fig. 2). The unincorporated
communities of Dodson-Warrendale have experienced debris flows in the past, and, as is shown in the hazard map,
are at continued risk after the fire. The landslide inventory of debris-flow deposits (fans) and rockfall talus slopes
likely record thousands of years of debris flow and rockfall accumulation (Burns and Lindsey, 2017). Since the Eagle
Creek Fire, frequent rock raveling and isolated, small rockfall events have been observed. As of February 2019, there
have been no major debris flows since the fire; however, there have been seven small shallow landslides.

Fig. 7. A closer view of the hazard zonation, in an area with repeated historical debris flows (delineated in black lines) and exposed buildings in
the unincorporated communities of Dodson-Warrendale and Interstate Highway 84. See Fig. 6 for study area location (brown box).

Extensive research around the USA demonstrates that wildfires increase debris-flow susceptibility and magnitude
(e.g., Cannon et al., 2010). By combining the best available data, we include the area of likely origin, transport and
potential depositional areas for debris flows and rockfall in the burn area. USGS empirical models for debris-flow
likelihood (Staley et al., 2016) and volume (Gartner et al., 2014) are based on data mostly from semiarid regions of
southern California and the intermountain West. Most of the debris flows in the USGS database were triggered in the
first two years after the fire by runoff and associated erosion, not debris flows mobilized from shallow landslides.
Shallow landsliding may be the more likely mode of slope failure in the wetter Eagle Creek burn area, and the time
window of increased susceptibility may last up to 10 years (like the window of disturbance for an unburned but clear-
cut slope). Although the USGS models have not been developed or tested with data from the Pacific Northwest, we
consider our results to be valid in an ordinal sense (i.e., for identifying areas with high, moderate, and low
susceptibility), because the USGS models correctly identify areas with both steep slopes and moderate to high burn
severity, two factors that strongly affect slope stability regardless of the style of landslide initiation or duration of
vegetation recovery.
The Eagle Creek rockfall and debris-flow hazard map highlights the near-term, secondary impacts of potential
rockfall and debris flows in the Columbia River Gorge within the Eagle Creek burn area. The overlap of highly burned
soils, slope steepness, existing rockfall talus and debris flow-fans, result in widespread high hazard throughout the
footprint of the Eagle Creek burn. The central portion of the study area, along the steep cliffs of the Columbia River
Gorge, and in the upper steep watersheds, the high-hazard zone is nearly ubiquitous.
This hazard map was created in response to requests and questions from local first responders and emergency
managers, and attempts to create generalized, conservative high and moderate hazard areas to avoid in times of wet
 Calhoun et al. / 7th International Conference on Debris-Flow Hazards Mitigation (2019)

weather. This map highlights a few areas of low hazard that may be secure as a base for operations if a debris flow
occurred and rescue operations were to commence. The hazard map also alerts the city of Cascade Locks where
potential danger along water bodies and streams may be concentrated within city limits.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by the U.S. Geological Survey Landslide Hazard Program. We would like to
acknowledge the feedback and participation of the Multnomah County Sheriff’s Office, Portland OR National Weather
Service Forecast Office, as well as many other agencies that collaborated for the Eagle Creek Land Movement Table
Top Exercise and Workshop, led by Multnomah County Emergency Management. We also want to thank reviewers J.
McClaughry, K. Schmidt, and K. Mickelson for their helpful reviews that improved the manuscript. Any use of trade,
firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

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