TIME ZONE 1

SCHOOL OF ENERGY, GEOSCIENCE, INFRASTRUCTURE & SOCIETY

Petroleum Engineering

G10RS

Reservoir Flow Simulation

Semester 2 – 2016/17

Duration: 2 Hours

EXAMPLE EXAM 2
Heriot-Watt University Reservoir Flow Simulation G10RS– 2016/17

Section A – Answer All Questions

Question A1
Sometimes complex models are required for reservoir simulation. Discuss when
you might make a complex model and what sort of decisions could reservoir
simulation help with.
(4 marks)

Question A2
Write down the radial form of Darcy’s Law (single-phase).
(4 marks)

Question A3
Explain what the terms CPG and LGR mean, in the context of reservoir simulation
grids.

Question A4
The figure below shows the relative permeabilities and pressures of two cells in a
simulation grid for an oil-water system. Which relative permeabilities to oil and water
should be used for flow between these cells?
(4 marks)

Question A5
The stratigraphic method is one approach to history matching. Explain briefly what is
meant by this term.
(5 marks)

Question A6
Outline a method for simulation in fractured reservoirs.
(4 marks)

Section B – Answer 3 Questions only (although, note that all the questions have
been answered here)

Question B1
This question concerns material balance, multi-phase flow and fractional flow theory.

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a) Describe the different types of data required when using the material balance
equation for an oil reservoir at pressures above the bubble point, and with no gas
cap. (6 marks)

b) The figure below shows a 1D model with the x-axis tilted at an angle of  to the
horizontal.

(i) Write down Darcy’s Law for flow in the x-direction for this system. (2
marks)

(ii) Assuming there is no applied pressure gradient in the x-direction

calculate the Darcy velocity (ux), given the following data. (4 marks)

Parameter Value
Permeability (m2) 1.0 E-13
Viscosity (Pa.s) 1.0 E-03
Density (kg/m3) 700
Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) 9.81
Angle of tilt,  (degrees) 30

Note that all the quantities are in SI units, so the constant is 1, and you do
not need to perform any unit conversions. The result will be in m/s (so will
be small).

c) Two fractional flow curves are shown below. These are for water floods in 1D
horizontal models (A and B) with no capillary effects.

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(i) Define fractional flow. (2 marks)

(ii) Estimate the shock front heights for the two models. (4 marks)

(iii) Sketch the Buckley-Leverett saturation profile corresponding to each curve

(i.e. sketch Sw vs x). You should indicate the level of the connate water
saturation and the heights of the shock fronts on your sketch. (5 marks)

(iv) State which of these models A or B will have the highest recovery at
breakthrough, and explain why. (2)

Question B2
This question includes several topics on gridding and wells.

a) Draw two types of grid which may be used in reservoir modelling, and in each
case give an example of the type of simulation which can be performed with this
grid. Label each figure carefully. (8 marks)

b) Write down the equation for the productivity index of a well (well index), giving the
meanings of the symbols used. (4 marks)

c) Explain how this may be used to calculate the pressure drawdown in a well, given
the production rate. (5 marks)

d) Given the data in the table below, calculate the well index, assuming that the well
is vertical. (8 marks)

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Variable Value
Permeability (mD) 200
Formation thickness (ft) 50
Well bore radius (ft) 0.5
Grid cell size in x and y (ft) 200
Darcy’s Law Constant 1.127E-03
Pi () 3.14159

(Total of 25 marks)

Question B3
This question concerns pressure diffusion in a 1D single-phase system.

a) The figure below shows a 1D model. Assume that the pressure is initially Po
throughout the model, and then suddenly the pressure is increased to P 1 at the
left side. If the pressure is kept constant at the right side (by producing fluid),
sketch the evolution of the pressure in time, until the system reaches a steady
state. (4 marks)

b) The general form of the single-phase pressure equation in 1D, for a single-phase
system is:

    P    k  P  

P t x    x  

State four assumptions which can be made to simplify this equation.

c) How reasonable do you think each of these assumptions is? (4 marks)

d) Now show how to simplify the equation above to derive the linear pressure
diffusion equation, showing clearly where you are making the assumptions. (13
marks)
(Total of 25 marks)

Question B4
This question concerns the discretisation of the single-phase linear pressure
equation in 1D.

a) The explicit discretisation for the single-phase pressure equation in 1D is:

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Heriot-Watt University Reservoir Flow Simulation G10RS– 2016/17

t
2  i 1
Pi n1  Pi n  P n  Pi n1  2Pi n 
x

A model has 10 grid cells, and before time t = 0 the pressure is constant throughout
the model and equals 100 bars, i.e. Pi0  100 bars. At time t = 0, the pressure is
suddenly raised to 110 bars in cell 1. If x = 0.1m and t = 0.002s, calculate the
pressures at the 2nd and 3rd grid points after the first two time steps. Show your
working.

Note: You may copy this table into your answer book, do not fill it in on the exam
paper. (9 marks)

t\x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.00 110 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
0.02 110 100
0.04 110 100

b) A simplified version of the pressure equation for single-phase flow in 1D is:

P  2 P
 ,
t x 2

where the hydraulic diffusivity has been taken as 1.

Discretise this equation using the implicit method. (7 marks)

c) A set of linear equations may be written as A.x  b .

(i) Write out the equations in full for 3 unknowns. (3 marks)

(ii) Re-write the equations in a form suitable for the iterative method of solution.
Remember to include the iteration number. (4 marks)

(iii) Write an expression for stopping the iterative procedure. (3 marks)

(Total of 25 marks)

Question B5
This question is about modelling, upscaling and upscaling errors

a) The graph below shows the semivariogram for a normal permeability distribution.

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(i) Explain what is meant by the following terms:

 sill
 range
 nugget
(3 marks)

(ii) Write down the values of these quantities in the example. (3 marks)

b) Prove that the effective permeability for flow along uniform parallel layers is the
arithmetic average. (12 marks)

Hint: Use the figure below and Darcy’s Law for flow in all the layers.

c) Upscaling is often inaccurate.

(i) What factors give rise to inaccuracies in single-phase upscaling? (4 marks)

(ii) Give three examples of types of reservoir where upscaling may be

problematic. (3 marks)
(Total of 25 marks)

Question B6
This question involves the Leverett-J function, the saturation-height function, drainage
and imbibition.

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a) (i) Write down the Leverett-J function. (2 marks)

(ii) The graph below shows the drainage capillary pressure curve for a core plug
of permeability 100 mD and porosity 0.2. The capillary entry pressure for this
plug (sample 1) is 1.5 bars.

Calculate the capillary entry pressure for two additional samples with
properties:
Sample 2: k = 10 mD,  = 0.1
Sample 3: k = 1000mD,  = 0.3.

Assume that these samples all have the same Leverett J-function and the
same fluids. (6 marks)

b) Write down (or derive) the equation for the capillary pressure above the free water
level (FWL).

A table of capillary pressure vs water saturation is given below. Given the data in the
table, calculate the approximate value for the water saturation at a height of 40 m
above the FWL. (Assume the rock is homogeneous, so that the same Pc curve applies
throughout the formation.) (6 marks)

Sw Pc (Pa)
0.200 3.2E+06 w (kg/m3) 1000
0.203 1.6E+06 o (kg/m3) 500
0.213 7.9E+05 g m/s2 9.81
0.250 4.0E+05
0.401 2.0E+05
1.000 1.0E+05

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c) The diagram shows a model of a 2D pore network. The numbers indicate the
relative sizes of the pore radii. In a drainage process, illustrate which pores will
form a percolating cluster across the model. Explain your answer. (6 marks)

d) What are the main differences between a drainage process and an imbibition
process? (4 marks)
(Total of 25 marks)

END OF SOLUTIONS

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