Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Application of waste materials as fillers in bituminous mixes

Jayvant Choudhary, Brind Kumar, Ankit Gupta ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University), Varanasi, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigates the suitability of seven different waste materials as fillers in place of conventional
Received 21 February 2018 material in dense graded bituminous macadam mix. Waste materials under consideration are glass
Revised 7 May 2018 powder, limestone dust, red mud, rice straw ash, brick dust, carbide lime and copper tailings. Ordinary
Accepted 5 June 2018
Portland cement was adopted as a conventional filler. Detailed physical, geometrical and chemical char-
acterization of fillers was carried out. Thereafter, bituminous mixes were prepared using waste materials
and their strength, volumetric properties and performance against various distresses (rutting, cracking
Keywords:
and moisture susceptibility) were assessed. At similar bitumen content, all waste modified mixes deliv-
Filler
Waste materials
ered satisfactory mechanical and volumetric performances as demanded by paving specifications. Mixes
Bituminous mixes with finer fillers (red mud and limestone dust) displayed superior stiffness and cracking resistance.
Moisture resistance Similarly mixes having filler with a predominance of calcium minerals (carbide lime and limestone dust)
Sustainability displayed superior adhesion and moisture resistance.
Waste management Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction cation of viscosity and consistency of bitumen-filler mastic (Huang

Ever increasing growth of various sectors has led to the contin-
ual usage of natural resources and generation of huge quantities of
solid wastes. Currently, world cities produced around 1.3 billion
tonnes of solid wastes annually, which is expected to increase to
2.2 billion tonnes by 2025 (Hoorweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).
Besides environmental concerns, inflation in the cost of virgin
material and the gradually declining amount of natural resources
have obliged the decision-makers to utilize waste/secondary mate-
rials as replacements to conventional construction materials. Glo-
bal pavement network primarily consists of flexible pavements,
which utilize bituminous mixes as their base and surface courses.
Bituminous mixes consist of aggregate, bitumen, filler and in some
cases additives too. Mineral filler is the finest aggregate in the bitu-
minous mix which mostly passes through a particular sieve (0.075
mm in India and 0.063 mm in Europe) (MORTH, 2013; EN 13043).
Materials such as stone dust, hydrated lime and ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) are traditionally used as fillers.
Filler plays a dual role in bituminous mixes; coarser particles of
filler acts as inert component and fills interstices between larger
aggregates in mixes, providing strength and impermeability to
the mix. However, finer particles of a filler having a particle size
smaller than bitumen film thickness have an active role in modifi-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Jayvant.chaudhary.civ13@itbhu.ac.in (J. Choudhary),
kumar_brind.civ@iitbhu.ac.in (B. Kumar), ankit.civ@iitbhu.ac.in (A. Gupta).
et al., 2007). Numerous studies have observed significant influence
of filler’s physical (specific gravity, particle shape, size, texture, size
distribution, porosity) and chemical (mineralogy, active clay con-
tent) properties over primary pavement distresses (rutting, fatigue,
low-temperature cracking, aging and moisture susceptibility)
(Huang et al., 2007; Kuity et al., 2014; Pasandin et al., 2016;
Wang et al., 2011). Hence, choice of appropriate filler and its
concentration in the bituminous mix is crucial since it influences
cost and performance of pavements from construction throughout
their entire service life (Cardone et al., 2015).
There is a growing interest in the scientific community in
replacing conventional materials with waste fillers. Various
researchers have investigated the performance of bituminous
mixes prepared with wastes fillers such as: coal fly ash (Chandra
and Choudhary, 2012); rice husk ash (Al-Hdabi, 2016; Arabani
et al., 2017); brick dust (Arabani et al., 2017; Kuity et al., 2014);
borogypsum (Kütük-Sert and Kütük, 2012); phosphogypsum
(Katamine, 2000); green liquor dregs (Pasandin et al., 2016),
among others. Wastes such as coal fly ash and borogypsum deliv-
ered good performance regarding strength and durability, whereas
phosphogypsum and green liquor dregs showed poor performance
against moisture due to their high porosity and mineralogical com-
position (Chandra and Choudhary, 2012; Katamine, 2000; Kütük-
Sert and Kütük, 2012; Pasandin et al., 2016). Although, rice husk
ash and brick dust delivered good strength, rutting and cracking
resistance, they received mixed reviews from investigators for
their performance against moisture (Al-Hdabi, 2016; Arabani

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.06.009
0956-053X/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
418 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425

Table 1
Evaluated properties of aggregates.

Property Specification Results Requirements

Used
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate (g/cm3) ASTM C127 2.731 –
Bulk specific gravity of fine aggregate (g/cm3) ASTM C128 2.637 –
Water Absorption of coarse aggregate (%) ASTM C127 0.452 2% (max)
Aggregate Impact Value (%) IS: 2386 (Part IV) 12.1% 24% (max)
Los Angeles Abrasion Value (%) IS: 2386 (Part IV) 16.2% 30% (max)
Combined Flakiness and Elongation Index IS: 2386 (Part I) 22.1% 35% (max)

Table 2
Adopted gradation of DBM (Grading II) mix.

Sieve Sizes (mm) 37.5 26.5 19 13.2 4.75 2.36 0.3 0.075
Lower-Upper Limits (%) 100 90–100 71–95 56–80 38–54 28–42 7–21 2–8
Adopted Gradation (%) 100 97 90 67 46 36 16 5

et al., 2017; Kuity et al., 2014). Despite such intensive studies, Table 3
actual use of waste materials as fillers on the field is very limited, Evaluated properties of VG 30 asphalt.

and only a few materials like fly ash and slag dust have been Characteristics Results Requirements/
acknowledged as alternative fillers in paving specifications around desirable
the globe (ASTM D 242-95; EP, 2009; MORTH, 2013). In India, fil- Absolute viscosity at 60 °C, (poise) 2972 2400–3600
lers are characterized using their particle size distribution and clay Penetration at 25 °C, 100 g, 5 s, (0.1 mm) 62 50–70
content only (MORTH, 2013). Although, these characteristics are Softening Point, (Ring & Ball Apparatus) (°C) 52.5 47 (min)
Ductility at 27 °C (pull of 5 cm/minute),(cm) >100 75 (min)
necessary for quality control, they are not sufficient to assess the
Specific gravity 1.021 0.98–1.04
expected field performance of bituminous mixes. Unlike conven-
tional materials, properties of wastes face significant variation
with sources and process of their generation. Hence detailed phys-
ical, geometrical and chemical characterization of waste materials was evaluated using retained Marshall stability ratio, active and
should be done before utilizing them in bituminous mixes. passive adhesions test values.

3. Materials and experimental investigation

2. Objectives and scope
The objectives of this study were (a) characterization of waste
materials and explore their suitability as filler in bituminous
mixes; and (b) comparison of mechanical and durability properties
of waste filler modified and conventional dense bituminous maca-
dam (DBM) mixes at constant optimum binder content (OBC) and
filler content. DBM mix is a type of well graded bituminous mix,
which offers good compressive strength. It is one of the most com-
monly used in binder course for Indian roads having heavy com-
mercial vehicular traffic.
Seven different waste materials; glass powder (GP), bauxite
residue or red mud (RM), brick dust (BD), copper tailings (CT),
dimension limestone slurry dust (LD), carbide lime (CL) and rice
straw ash (RSA) were studied. These are some of the major wastes
generated in large quantities from various sources around the
world and have diverse physical and chemical characteristics.
Firstly, various physical, morphological and chemical characteriza-
tion of all materials was done as per tests included in the Indian
standards (MORTH, 2013), along with tests that have been identi-
fied as reliable performance indicators as per various ongoing
researches. Secondly, DBM mix incorporating conventional OPC fil-
ler was designed, and its OBC is evaluated as per Marshall mix
design procedure. OBC of any mix varies with the type of filler,
however, in this study, bitumen content in each mix is kept equal
to the OBC of the conventional mix. This is done to study the effect
of filler, without altering the other parameters of mix. The conven-
tional filler was replaced with waste materials and stability, flow,
volumetric and performance parameters such as Marshall quotient
(MQ) and indirect tensile strength (ITS), were evaluated to com-
pare the performance of mixes against rutting and cracking respec-
tively. The resistance of prepared mixes against moisture damage
3.1. Materials
3.1.1. Aggregates
The crushed and sharp-edged granite aggregates were collected
locally and used in this investigation. The physical properties of
aggregates are stated in Table 1. DBM (Grading II) mix was
designed as per Indian specifications (MORTH, 2013). The chosen
gradation was specified in Table 2.
3.1.2. Bitumen
VG 30 (Viscosity Grade 30) bitumen was used in this study and
was collected locally. It is the most popularly used bitumen in
India, which is equivalent to 60/70 penetration grade bitumen.
Results of various properties evaluated as per IS: 73 (2013), were
stated in Table 3.
3.1.3. Filler
OPC was collected from a local supplier, and waste materials
were collected from the dump yards of their respective sources
in India, whose details are stated in Table 4. In this analysis, oven
dried filler with the fraction that is finer than 0.075 mm was used.
3.2. Characterization tests on filler
3.2.1. Specific gravity
Specific gravities of waste fillers and OPC were determined as
per ASTM D854 and IS 2720 Part 3 specifications respectively.
Specific gravity plays a key role in bituminous mix design, partic-
ularly in Indian specification where weight batching procedure is
used in place of volume batching (MORTH, 2013).
 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425 419

Table 4
Details of utilized wastes.

Type of Waste Source of Process of Generation Source location

Production
Glass Powder (GP) Glass Industry Obtained as slurry generated during cutting and polishing operation of glass Bhopal
(23.25° N, 77.41° E)
Brick Dust (BD) Demolished Obtained after demolishing of existing structure Varanasi (25.31°N, 82.97° E)
Structure
Red Mud (RM) Aluminium Obtained as by-product generated during production of alumina by caustic Hindustan Aluminium
Industry leaching of bauxite in Bayer process Corporation
(HINDALCO), Renukoot
(24.22°N, 83.03°E)
Carbide Lime (CL) Acetylene Obtained as by-product during production of acetylene gas Varanasi
Industry (25.31° N, 82.97°E)
Rice Straw Ash (RSA) Agricultural After uncontrolled incineration of biomass remaining on fields after Varanasi
Field completion of rice harvesting (25.31°N, 82.97°E)
Copper Slag (CT) Copper Copper slag is produced during smelting and converting steps of copper Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL),
Industry production. Malanjkhand
(22.02°N, 80.71°E)
Limestone Slurry Dust Dimension Obtained as slurry generated during cutting and polishing operation of Jaipur
(LD) Stone Industry limestone slabs in dimension stone industry (26.91°N, 75.78°E)

3.2.2. Particle size distribution 3.2.6. Mineralogical and chemical composition

Particle size distribution was determined using hydrometer
analysis as per ASTM D-422. The particle size distribution curves
of materials were differentiated by fineness modulus (FM), Coeffi-
cient of uniformity (Cu) and average particle size (D50). Fineness
modulus was used to determine the relative fineness of each filler.
It was calculated by dividing the sum of percentages of filler coar-
ser than 75, 50, 30, 20, 10, 5, 3 and 1 mm by 100 (Wang et al., 2011).
Smaller the fineness modulus, finer the filler will be.
The Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) is a measurement of range of
particles present in the sample and is the ratio of D60 and D10,
where D60 and D10 are particle size corresponding to 60 and 10 per-
cent filler passing. Higher the value of Cu, wider is the range of par-
ticle sizes in the filler. Average particle size (D50) suggested the
sieve size from which 50 percent of particle passes. Smaller is
the D50 value; finer is the particle size.
XRD analysis of various fillers was performed at 1.5406 Å wave-
lengths with Cu Ka radiation via Rigaku benchtop XRD device, to
determine prevalent minerals in their composition.
3.2.7. Hydrophilic coefficient and pH value
The hydrophilic coefficient test of filler is conducted as per Chi-
nese standard JTG E42, to determine its relative affinity towards
bitumen, in comparison to that of water. The Hydrophilic coeffi-
cient is determined by taking the ratio of volumes after the sedi-
mentation of equal volumes of filler in water and kerosene for
72 h in an undisturbed condition.
pH values of filler are obtained by testing filler water solution.
In each case, filler solution was prepared by mixing filler and de-
ionized water at a ratio of 1:9 by weight and then set for two hours
before testing (Qian et al., 2012).

3.3. Designing and testing of DBM mixes

3.2.3. Methylene Blue value analysis
The spot test specified in EN 933-9 standard is used to quantify
the amount of harmful clays of smectite (montmorillonite) groups,
iron hydroxides and organic matter present in soil particles. In this
test, a standard aqueous solution of dye, Methylene Blue (MB), is
added to the suspension of filler and water in various quantities,
until the adsorption of the dye ceases. The MBV expresses the
quantity of MB requires to cover the total surface of the clay pre-
sent in the filler. Hence, MBV is proportional to the amount of clay
content present in the filler.
3.2.4. German filler test
German filler test is an indirect method to measure inter-
granular porosity or Rigden voids in the mineral filler. This test
was performed as per procedure suggested in NCAT report No.
98-2 (Kandhal et al., 1998). In this test, a small quantity of filler
is added in continuous dosage to the 15 g of hydraulic oil, until fil-
ler oil mix loses its cohesion. The porous the filler, the smaller the
German filler value will be.
3.2.5. Particle shape and texture
A morphological study of various fillers was performed using
scanning electron microscope (SEM) as per ASTM E 986. This anal-
ysis was performed to make a qualitative evaluation of their geo-
metric characteristics.
3.3.1. Sample preparation and determination of Marshall and
volumetric properties
Marshall mix design method as specified in MS-2 (Asphalt
Institute, 1997) was used to determine OBC of conventional DBM
mixes. For this, samples of conventional DBM mixes (1200 g) were
prepared at specified gradation (Table 2) and at five different bitu-
men contents (4.0%, 4.5%, 5.0%, 5.5% and 6%). Apart from stone dust
filler that is originally present in aggregates, 2% of OPC is addition-
ally provided to conventional mix. The aggregate and fillers were
heated overnight at 150–175 °C. Then, aggregates, fillers, and bitu-
men were thoroughly mixed at 150–160 °C, and subsequently
compaction was done with automatic compactor (75 blows on
each side) to produce Marshall specimen with 4 in. diameter and
2.5 in. height. Marshall stability and flow of 15 samples (3 for each
bitumen content) were determined as per ASTM D 6927 specifica-
tion. Volumetric properties namely percentage air voids (VA), voids
in mineral aggregates (VMA) and voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
were measured as per MS-2 specifications. OBC is considered as
bitumen content corresponds to 4% VA of prepared samples
(Asphalt Institute, 1997; MORTH, 2013).
OBC of conventional OPC mix was found to be 4.60% with
respect to total weight of the bituminous mix. For all mixes, this
bitumen content is kept constant and conventional filler was
replaced with waste filler. For each filler type, three samples were
prepared, and average values of Marshall stability, flow, VA, VMA,
and VFB were compared.
420 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425

Table 5
Characterization properties of waste fillers.

GP RM CT RSA CL LD BD OPC
Specific gravity 2.370 3.120 2.721 2.172 2.343 2.650 2.567 3.135
MBV (g/kg) 1.25 2.875 1.50 1.50 0.75 3.75 6.25 3.00
German filler (g) 75 50 100 30 55 97 40 85
FM 4.66 3.60 4.28 2.55 4.40 3.03 5.17 4.96
Cu 4.92 12.37 7.19 8.87 4.75 12.71 5.63 4.39
D50 (m) 19 4.5 18 05 21 09 19 21
Hydrophilic Coefficient 0.81 0.85 0.85 0.98 0.80 0.80 0.83 –
pH 8.52 9.98 8.94 7.93 12.11 10.22 8.67 12.90
Particle shape & Angular Granulous particles Subangular Irregular and Granulous Granulous Subangular Granulous and sub
texture (SEM) particles with rough texture particle Accicular particles particles particles angular particles with
with with rough particles with with rough with rough with slight rough texture
smooth texture rough texture texture texture rough
texture texture
Mineralogical Quartz Hematite (Fe2O3), Quartz Quartz (SiO2), Portlandite Quartz Quartz Alite (Ca3SiO5), Belite
Composition (XRD) (SiO2) Quartz (SiO2), Rutile (SiO2) Calcite (Ca(OH)2), (SiO2), Calcite (SiO2), (Ca2SiO4), Calcite
(TiO2), Sillimanite (CaCO3) Calcite (CaCO3), Chromite (CaCO3), Quartz (SiO2),
(Al2SiO5), Calcite (CaCO3) Enstatite (Fe2+Cr2O4) Portlandite (Ca(OH)2)
(CaCO3) (Mg2Si2O6)

3.3.2. Rutting resistance
Marshall Quotient (MQ) is an indicator to measure mix’s resis-
tance to permanent deformation, shear stress and hence rutting
(Zoorob and Suparma, 2000). It is obtained by taking the ratio of
Marshall stability (kN) to flow (mm) at OBC. DBM mix with higher
MQ has higher stiffness and superior ability to spread the imposed
load with higher resistance to creep deformation. A total of 24
samples (three per filler) were prepared and with subsequent com-
parison to mean MQ.
3.3.3. Cracking resistance
The indirect tensile strength (ITS) of compacted DBM mix is
associated with its resistance against cracking and was determined
as per ASTM D 6931. This test is carried out at 25 °C in which, a
Marshall specimen was loaded diametrically in compression using
steel strips at a constant rate of 50.8 mm/min. A total of 24 samples
(three per filler) was prepared and mean ITS values were com-
pared. The maximum tensile strength generated was calculated as:
2000Pmax
ITS ¼
pDT
where ITS is indirect tensile strength, kPa, Pmax is peak load, N, D is
diameter of the specimen, mm and T is thickness of specimen, mm.
3.3.4. Moisture susceptibility
Utilization of improper filler in the mix may lead to premature
failure of the mastic-aggregate bond, especially in the presence of
moisture. The moisture susceptibility of both mixes was deter-
mined by retained Marshall stability (RMS) test performed as per
ASTM D-1075. A total of 48 Marshall specimens (6 per filler) were
prepared and were divided into two sets. The first set of specimens
(unconditioned) were immersed in a water bath for (30–40 min) at
60 °C and their Marshall stability was determined. Second set (con-
ditioned) were immersed in water bath for 24 h at 60 °C, and their
Marshall stability was also determined. Retained Marshall stability
(RMS) was calculated as:
MScond
RMS ¼  100
MSuncond
where RMS is retained Marshall stability, %, MScond is Marshall sta-
bility of conditioned specimen, kN, MSuncond is Marshall stability of
unconditioned specimen, kN.
3.3.5. Active and passive adhesion
Loss of adhesion between aggregate-bitumen interfaces is the
driving mechanism for moisture damage and can be distinguished
into active adhesion and passive adhesion.
Active adhesion is the ability of bitumen to completely coat the
aggregate during mixing operation of manufacturing of bituminous
mixes. The mixing times of both stone dust and red mud modified
mixes were measured to study the influence of various fillers over
active adhesion. Aggregates, fillers, and bitumen were heated at
170 °C and then manually mixed. The measurement of total time
(in seconds) elapsed was measured between the moment of addi-
tion of bitumen and the moment at which 100% coating is
achieved.
Passive adhesion is the ability of bitumen to stick on the aggre-
gate surface under the influence of external factors such as water
and traffic (Tarrer and Wagh, 1991). Passive adhesion analysis
was done as per ASTM D 3625 specification. In this test bitumen
coating retained over a loose mix is estimated when the mix is
placed in boiling water for 10 min. Mix with higher retained coat-
ing has higher passive adhesion.
4. Results and discussion
ð1Þ
4.1. Characterization of fillers
The test results for characterization of various fillers are stated
in Table 5 and Figs. 1–3. The results suggested that a wide range of
fillers with variable physical and chemical properties are included
in this study.
Specific gravities of all fillers vary significantly and are in
between 2.172 and 3.120. However, there is no well defined per-
mitted range that is specified in Indian specification, to choose
the most appropriate filler. RSA (2.172) has the lowest specific
gravity which may be due to its high porosity. RM (3.120) has
the highest specific gravity which is due to the presence of oxides
of Al and Fe in its composition.
Particle size distribution curves are presented in Fig. 1. Fillers
having small-sized particles displayed strong chemical interaction
with the bitumen as well as higher stiffening power (Melotti et al.,
ð2Þ 2013). LD, RSA, and RM were found to be the finest of fillers as
determined from their lower FM and D50 values. OPC, BD, CL, and
GP were the coarsest fillers and had almost similar FM and D50 val-
ues. LD (12.71) and RM (12.37) were found to be well-graded fillers
since they have highest Cu values, whereas, OPC (4.39), CL (4.75)
and GP (4.92) were found to be uniformly graded. It must also be
noted that material with a higher percentage of uniformly sized
particles is difficult to compact properly in the field.
Harmful clay present in filler can expand in the presence of
water and forms a barrier to adhesion between filler and bitumen,
 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425 421

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves of fillers.
thus weakening the mix. There is no specification for MBV for filler
in India, however, in European countries such as Portugal, the
maximum permissible limit is 10 g/kg. MBV values of all studied
materials were found to be below this limit, and they are expected
to perform satisfactorily. BD (6.25 g/kg) was found to have highest
MBV value which suggested its higher moisture retention. CL (0.75
g/kg) has the least MBV followed by GP (1.25 g/kg) and CT (1.50 g/
kg). Conventional OPC (3.0 g/kg) also has MBV on the lower side.
Materials having lower German filler value were reported to
have higher Rigden voids and thus higher porosity (Kandhal
et al., 1998). It must be noted that, bitumen added in the bitumi-
nous mix can be classified as fixed bitumen (that fills the voids
in dry compacted filler) and free bitumen (bitumen in excess of
fixed bitumen). Fillers with very high porosity (very low German
filler value) can excessively stiffen the mix by lowering the amount
of free bitumen which negatively affects the workability of the mix
(Faheem et al., 2012; Melloti et al., 2013). Fillers having lower
porosity can also form mixes with lower OBC (Chandra and

(a) Red Mud ( b ) B r ic k Du s t (c) Glass Powder

(d) Carbide Lime (e) Limestone Dust (f) Copper Slag

(g) Rice straw ash (h) OPC

Fig. 2. SEM images of the fillers used in this study.
422 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425

(a) Red Mud (b) Carbide Lime (c) Brick Dust

(d) Glass Powder (e) Limestone Dust (f) Rice Straw Ash

(g) Copper Tailings (h) OPC

Fig. 3. XRD diffractograms of the fillers used in this study.

Choudhary, 2012). There is no specified permissible range for Ger-
man filler values in Indian specification. German filler values of
studied fillers vary from 30 to 100 g, RSA (30 g), BD (40 g), RM
(50 g) and CL (55 g) emerged as the most porous materials. On
the other hand, CT (100 g), LD (97 g) and OPC (85 g) were found
to be the least porous fillers.
SEM images of various materials were stated in Fig. 2. GP, CT,
and BD were found to have angular particles, GP has relatively
smooth texture than its counterparts which may result in lower
bitumen absorption on its surface. OPC and CL have relatively lar-
ger particles with a rough texture. LD and RM have small particles
with rough texture which may result in higher bitumen absorp-
tion. The RSA is composed of irregular and acicular particles with
a rough texture. Since RSA was produced from uncontrolled com-
bustion of biomass at the agricultural field, it may result in incom-
plete combustion at a lower temperature, which may also result in
higher unburned carbon content. This may negatively affect both
fluidity and workability of bituminous mixes.
XRD diffractograms of studied materials are displayed in Fig. 3.
LD and CL had a predominance of calcite and portlandite in their
composition. These compounds are mostly found in hydrated lime
and OPC which are widely recognized anti-stripping agents. A small
amount of calcite was also observed in RM and RSA. Silica in the
form of quartz was also found in the composition of all fillers but
in varying quantities. Silica was mostly found in the form of quartz
in BD, GP, and CT. Presence of high amount of silica in fillers and
aggregates is commonly associated with poor moisture sensitivity
mix (Bagampadde, 2004). Silica also exists in the form of sillimanite
in combination with aluminum in red mud. Iron oxides and heavy
metal like titanium are also found in RM in the form of hematite
and rutile. No expansive clay mineral is found in any filler.
Hydrophobic fillers have a hydrophilic coefficient value lower
than 1, which signifies their higher affinity towards bitumen than
with water. Fillers should have a hydrophilic coefficient value that
lies in the range of 0.7 and 0.85 (Gezencvej, 1985). Apart from RSA,
all fillers have hydrophilic coefficient within the optimum range.
 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425 423

Table 6
Marshall and volumetric properties of DBM mixes.

Type of Filler Bulk Specific Gravity (Gb) VA (%) VMA (%) VFB (%) Marshall Stability (kN) Flow (mm) MQ (kN/mm)
OPC 2.342 4.00 13.96 71.35 13.52 3.20 4.27
Glass Powder 2.338 3.55 13.63 74.00 12.78 3.20 4.01
Limestone Dust 2.346 3.48 13.55 74.31 14.30 3.37 4.33
Rice Straw Ash 2.310 4.86 14.50 66.53 10.10 2.67 3.86
Carbide Lime 2.321 4.49 14.29 68.62 13.01 3.13 4.16
Brick Dust 2.332 4.08 13.98 70.88 12.10 3.10 3.94
Red Mud 2.343 4.15 14.17 70.74 14.63 3.20 4.65
Copper Tailings 2.338 3.94 13.86 71.55 12.91 3.27 3.96
Requirements (MORTH, 2013) – 3–5 13.00 (min) 65–75 9.00 (min) 2–4 2–5

2.35
Bulk Specific Gravity of Mix

2.34

Air Voids in mix (%)

4.6

2.33 4.2
R² = 0.5369

2.32 3.8
R² = 0.615
2.31 3.4

3
2.3
20 40 60 80 100
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
German Filler Value (g)
Specific Gravity of Filler
Fig. 5. Relationship between Air voids in mix and German filler value of fillers.
Fig. 4. Comparison of bulk specific gravity of mix and specific gravity values of
fillers.

similar to that of a previous study which suggested that, for the

Fillers with pH values greater than seven display their alkaline
nature. Since bitumen is slightly acidic in nature, alkaline materials
form a stronger bond with it, hence offering superior resistance to
stripping. Hence, fillers with pH values greater than seven are
desirable. RSA, GP, BD, and CT were found to have lowest pH, which
may be due to the high amount of silica in their composition. OPC,
CL, and LD had high pH due to calcium-based minerals in their
composition. Based on detailed characterization, it can be said that
all waste materials could be utilized as fillers in bituminous mixes.
4.2. Performance of DBM mixes
This section investigated the influence of various filler proper-
ties on the performance of DBM mixes. Efforts were also made to
establish reasoning on the various test results and to set corre-
spondence across these tests.
4.2.1. Marshall and volumetric properties
The Marshall and volumetric properties of all mixes are stated
in Table 6. It has been observed that all mixes satisfied the strength
and volumetric requirements of DBM mixes as specified in Indian
specifications (MORTH, 2013). Hence, it can be said that all wastes
can be utilized as fillers in DBM mixes.
Marshall stability (MS) indicated the ability of bituminous
mixes to resist deformation caused due to imposed load. Mixes
with RM and LD had 8.21% and 5.77% higher Marshall stabilities
than OPC mixes. RSA (10.10 kN) mixes had the lowest Marshall sta-
bility. Flow values of all mixes lied in prescribed ranges, which sug-
gested that the inclusion of wastes didn’t make mix excessively
plastic or brittle.
Effect of filler can be observed on the volumetric properties of
mixes. A plot in between specific gravity of fillers and bulk specific
gravity of mixes was drawn, which suggested the existence of a
relationship between them (Fig. 4). The results obtained were
same quantity of bitumen, the bulk specific gravity of compacted
mixture is partly attributed to the bulk density of its ingredients
(Zulkati et al., 2012). Mixes prepared with RM and RSA were found
to have highest (2.343 g/cc) and lowest (2.310 g/cc) bulk specific
gravities, respectively.
Air void is the crucial factor that influences moisture suscepti-
bility, aging, and OBC of bituminous mixes. At constant bitumen
content, air void of RSA (4.86%), CL (4.89%), RM (4.15%) and BD
(4.08%) mixes were higher than 4% (i.e., OPC mix). Hence, these
materials consume higher amount of bitumen, which increases
the overall cost of the mix. Similarly, mixes prepared with LD
(3.48%), GP (3.55%) and CT (3.94%) are economical since they had
excess bitumen as observed from their lower air voids content. A
plot between air voids in DBM mixes and German filler values of
filler was drawn, which indicates a relationship between them
(Fig. 5). Mixes prepared with RSA (14.50%), CL (14.29%), RM
(14.17%) and BD (13.98%) also had higher VMA than OPC
(13.96%) mix. Hence higher porosity of filler could increase the
absorbance of bitumen in its mix.
Void filled with bitumen (VFB) is termed as the percentage of
VMAs that is occupied by bitumen. VFB values of RSA, CL, BD,
and RM mixes were lower than conventional mixes. Hence, these
materials can be preferred as filler in regions having hot climates
(Kütük-Sert and Kütük, 2012). This may be due to lower possibili-
ties of bleeding in these mixes caused by hotter climate.
4.2.2. Rutting resistance
MQ values of all materials are specified in Table 6, and all of
them are in the permissible range of Indian specification. The fine-
ness of fillers had an influence over the MQ values of the mixes. RM
and LD are among the finest fillers, and their mixes had 8.9% and
1.4% higher MQ values, respectively, than OPC mixes. Previous
studies have stated that utilization of fine fillers in bituminous
mix resulted in higher stiffness of mix (Modarres et al., 2015;
Mohammed and Al-Ghazawi, 2015). However, despite being the
424 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425

Table 7
Moisture Susceptibility Cracking Resistance and Adhesion of DBM mixes.

Property GP RM CT RSA CL LD BD OPC

Retained Marshall Stability (%) 82.71 89.21 88.56 80.21 97.26 92.23 81.26 93.56
Indirect Tensile Strength (kPa) 951 1152 992 887 1023 1089 857 1010
Active Adhesion (mixing time in seconds) 88 69 63 80 57 61 63 55
Passive Adhesion (bitumen coverage in %) 70 90 85 75 95 95 80 95

1400 integrated structure in the bituminous mix, which improves stiff-

ness as well as ITS of mixes (Modarres and Bengar, 2017).
1300

1200 4.2.4. Moisture susceptibility

ITS (kPa)

R² = 0.6722
1100
Other Fillers
1000
RSA
900
800
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
FM
Fig. 6. Comparison of ITS values of mix and fineness modulus (FM) of various fillers.
finest filler, RSA mixes had lowest MQ value amongst all mixes. It
should be noted that RSA mixes have highest VMA value (14.50%)
amongst all mixes, which could be a reason for its lowest MQ
value. Previous studies have suggested that rutting resistance of
bituminous mix is inversely proportional to their VMA
(Christenson and Bonaquist, 2006; Jenks et al., 2011). A recent
study on rice husk ash has also found a similar conclusion
(Arabani et al., 2017).
4.2.3. Cracking resistance
A higher ITS value of mix signifies its superior resistance to low
temperature cracking and fatigue cracking. ITS values of all mixes
are stated in Table 7. RM and LD mixes have 14% and 7.82% higher
ITS values, respectively than OPC mixes. This may be attributed to
fine nature of these materials as specified from their low FM val-
ues. BD and RSA containing mix were found to have lowest ITS
values.
Fig. 6 showed the trend between ITS values of mix and FM of fil-
lers. It can be observed that, except for RSA containing mixes, ITS
value of other mixes followed an inverse relationship with FM of
fillers. A recent study has suggested that fine fillers have great
potential for uniform distribution; this leads to the formation of
A higher value of RMS suggested higher resistance of mix
against moisture. RMS values of all mixes are stated in Table 7.
All mixes satisfied the Indian criteria of the minimum requirement
of 75% RMS (MORTH, 2013). Fillers having a predominance of insol-
uble calcium-based materials gave superior resistance against
moisture. CL, OPC, and LD mixes displayed the highest RMS values.
CL mix had highest RMS value due to the presence of portlandite
and calcite minerals in the composition of CL. These minerals are
primarily constituent of hydrated lime and have anti-stripping
properties. Similarly, LD had calcite in its composition, which
enhances bitumen filler adhesion (Pasandin et al., 2016). RSA, BD
and GP mixes had lower moisture resistance due to the predomi-
nance of silica in respective fillers. RSA mix had lowest RMS value
due to the high porosity of RSA and predominance of silica in its
composition. BD mix also had poor RMS value with the highest
active clay content and silica content. This result is in agreement
with a previous study which stated that high clay content of BD
might be responsible for poor moisture resistance of its mix
(Kuity et al., 2014). However, another study also found good mois-
ture resistance of mix with the incorporation of brick dust filler
(Arabani et al., 2017).
4.2.5. Active and passive adhesion
Results of active and passive adhesion tests are stated in
Table 7. Similar to RMS values, calcium-based fillers (LD, OPC,
and CL) had superior active and passive adhesion values in com-
parison to silica-based fillers (RSA, GP, BD, and CT). OPC was
found to have the least mixing time followed by CL and LD mixes.
Similarly, these materials also had highest bitumen coverage.
Alkaline nature of these materials may be a responsible parame-
ter, which ensures their good adhesion with bitumen. GP was
found to have worst active and passive adhesion values, which
may be due to its high silica content. This result is in agreement
with a previous study on the glass based aggregates and fillers

Table 8
Comparative Performance of All Mixes.

Property of DBM Significance Ranking Criteria Ranking of DBM Mix

Mix
RM LD CL CT GP BD RSA OPC
Air Voids Lower air voids have lower OBC and Mix with lower air voids percent has given 6 1 7 3 2 5 8 4
impermeability higher ranking.
MS Higher MS signify higher resistance against Mix with higher MS value has given higher 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 3
imposed load ranking.
MQ Higher MQ signify higher resistance against Mix with higher MQ value has given higher 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 3
rutting ranking.
ITS Higher ITS signify higher resistance against Mix with higher ITS value has given higher 1 2 3 5 6 8 7 4
cracking ranking.
RMS Higher RMS signify higher resistance against Mix with higher RMS value has given higher 4 3 1 5 6 7 8 2
moisture ranking.
Active Adhesion Lower mixing time signifies higher active Mix with lower mixing time has given higher 5 3 2 4 7 4 6 1
adhesion ranking.
Passive Adhesion Higher bitumen coating signifies higher passive Mix with higher bitumen coating has given 2 1 1 3 6 4 5 1
adhesion higher ranking
 J. Choudhary et al. / Waste Management 78 (2018) 417–425
which also suggested its poor moisture sensitivity (Wu et al.,
2007). Interestingly, RM mix had good passive adhesion but rela-
tively inferior active adhesion.
Suitability of all mixes was assessed based on their performance
in various aspects. Depending upon the obtained results, the rela-
tive ranking is provided to all mix in each criterion, with best and
worst performing mix was given the highest (1) and lowest (8)
ranking, respectively (Table 8). This will help any individual to
choose most appropriate waste for any specific situation.
5. Conclusions
This study was devised to check the suitability of seven differ-
ent waste materials as replacement fillers to OPC in DBM mixes,
without altering any other design parameter. The study also aimed
to assess the influence of physical and chemical characteristics of
fillers over the performance of DBM mixes. The following points
summarize the findings of this study.
 All studied wastes displayed physical and chemical characteris-
tics of good filler, and DBM mixes prepared with them delivered
mechanical and durability properties equivalent to the conven-
tional mix. Hence, the studied wastes could be utilized as fillers,
especially in Indian conditions (MORTH, 2013).
 Strength and volumetric properties of DBM mixes were largely
influenced by the physical and chemical properties of the filler.
An important volumetric parameter, percent air void content, of
DBM mixes was found to be largely influenced by the porosity
of its filler. Mixes with porous fillers such as RSA, CL, and RM
had higher VMA and air voids than conventional mixes, which
may not only lead to higher bitumen consumption but may also
lower the durability of mix.
 Rutting and cracking resistances of mixes were found to be
dependent upon the fineness of fillers. Mixes prepared with
finer fillers like RM and LD had superior stiffness and cracking
resistance than conventional mixes, which may be due to filler’s
higher potential for uniform distribution.
 Mineralogy of filler played a key role in ensuring satisfactory
moisture resistance and adhesion. Waste fillers having a pre-
dominance of calcium-based minerals (LD and CL) formed a
stronger bond with bitumen and displayed superior moisture
resistance as well as adhesions in comparison to silica-based fil-
lers (BD, GP, and RSA).
In conclusion, it can be said that the systematic utilization of
the studied wastes as fillers can limit the consumption of conven-
tional fillers and provide an effective solution for waste disposal.
All studied wastes were obtained from dump yards in free of cost
and didn’t require any excessive labor or cost for modification
before use. Hence, they could be utilized profitably in places of
their abundance. However, to ensure the optimum performance
of mix, selection of suitable waste should be made judiciously after
a meticulous analysis of its physical and chemical nature.
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