Guideline Values – CPCB Standards

Classification of Inland Surface Water

S. No. Characteristics A B C D E
1. Dissolved Oxygen, mg/L, 6 5 4 4 -
Min
2. Biochemical Oxygen 2 3 3 - -
Demand, mg/ L Max
3. Total Coli form Organisms* 50 500 5000 - -
MPN/100 ml, Max
4. Total Dissolved Solids mg/L 500 - 1500 - 2100
Max
5. Chlorides (as CL), mg/L, Max 250 - 600 - 600
6. Colour, Hazen Units, Max 10 300 300 - -
7. Sodium Absorption Ratio, - - - - 26
Max
8. Boron (as B), mg/L Max - - - - 2
9. Sulphates (as SO4), mg/L 400 - 400 - 1000
Max
10. Nitrates (as NO3), mg/L Max 20 - 50 - -
11 Free Ammonia (as N), mg/L - - - 1.2 -
Max
12. Conductivity at 25?C, - - - 1000 2250
micromhos/cm, Max
13. pH value 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5
14. Arsenic (as As), mg/L Max 0.05 0.2 0.2 - -
15. Iron (as Fe), mg/l, Max 0.3 - 50 - -
16. Fluorides (as F), mg/L, Max 1.5 1.5 1.5 - -
17. Lead (as Pb), mg/L Max 0.1 - 0.1 - -
18. Copper (as Cu), mg/L, Max 1.5 - 1.5 - -
19. Zinc (as Zn), mg/L, Max 15 - 15 - -

* If the coli form is found to be more than the prescribed tolerance limits, the criteria for
coli form shall be satisfied if not more than 20 percent of samples show more than the
tolerance limit specified, and not more than 5 percent of samples show values more than 4
times the tolerance limits. Further, the fecal coli form should not be more than 20 percent
of the coli form. Source : Indian Standard (IS : 2296 – 1982).

A’ Drinking water surface without conventional treatment but after disinfection

B’ Outdoor bathing (organized)
C’ Drinking water source with conventional treatment followed by disinfection
D’ Propagation of wild life, fisheries
E’ Irrigation, industrial, cooling, controlled waste disposal
 SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND
DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND WETLAND
HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER

Santhalakshmi1, A. S., Jeyakumaran Thampi1, P. S. and

M. Arunachalam2*

1Sri K. G. S. Arts College, Srivaikuntam – 628 619

2Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences, ManonmaniamSundaranar
University, Alwarkurichi 627 412.Tamil Nadu.

*Corresponding author: arunacm@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In the lower reaches of the Tamiraparani river basin has 25 wet hollows and
a study was carried out, from August 2011to March 2012, with the objective to
evaluate species composition, relative abundance and distribution of the bird fauna
in wetlands and riverine habitats of 25 wetlands. Sampling sites were selected
based on the vegetation type and area cover, and transect count technique was
employed. A total of 88 bird species consisting of four bird species in the near
threatened category and 25 Palaearctic migrants were identified. The species
composition of birds during the wet and dry seasons was significantly different; and
also there was a significant variation with the habitats. The Arumugamagalam
wetland showed the highest species diversity and evenness. The relative abundance
score of species during the wet and dry seasons was variable in all the habitats.
Expansion of farmlands and more irrigation lands under cultivation along the delta
bird fauna.

KEYWORDS: Distribution of Birds, Riverine wetlands, Species composition &

Tamiraparani River.

SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam 2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 14
INTRODUCTION exclusively in wetlands, especially
Birds are the ideal bio-indicators and preferring seasonal grass swamps. As a
useful models for studying a variety of result of wetland habitat loss, the Wattled
environmental problems (Newton, 1995).In and Black-crowned Cranes are now under
more attention is now being given to threat.
conservation monitoring and ecological
Wetlands in India are high biological
studies, the methods employed in field
importance as habitats for fishes, birds and
ornithology warrant a closer examination.
small mammals (Pol 2006).Tamiraparani
The preparation of a list of species is basic
River originates from the PeriyaPothigai
to the study of avifauna of a site, because a
Hills of the Western Ghats are the biosphere
list indicates species diversity in a general
reserve and part of world heritage site
sense (Bibby et al. 1992; Bibby 1998).
(Rehman&Shrivastava 2012). Most of the
Information is far from complete for most
Tamiraparani Riverine wetlands are located
species of birds in different regions.
in the lower reaches of Thoothukudi District
Concentration of threatened avian species is
of Tamilnadu. These wetlands cover an area
greater in the tropics than elsewhere.The
of 4400 Km². These inland wet hollows were
burden of conserving threatened species lies
built a few centuries ago and are
on the developing nations, where resources
interconnected byriverine canals that
are scarce for effective conservation
supplywater from the river (Arunachalam and
measures. There are two categories of water
sukumaran 2000). In Thoothukudi District
birds; wetland specialists and generalists.
there are 75 riverine wetlands, among these
Specialists are those that nest, feed and roost
25 wetlands with a hydroperiodof more than
in wetlands. Wetland specialists are wholly
6 to 10 months in a year. Some larger
dependent on aquatic habitats, and cannot
wetlands like Arumugamangalam and
survive in other habitats (Airinatwe 1999).
Kadambakulamthe hydroperiod extends
Generalists are those birds that frequently
throughout the year. Only limitedresearch
visit wetlands, but are seen in other habitats
was carried out on water birds of on the
as well. Cranes, for example, are generally
regarded as terrestrial birds, but breed

SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam 2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 15
wetlands of Thoothukudi district (Abhisheka to38°C. (rain fall have been collected from
et al 2013). the meteorological department,
The objective of the present study Thoothukudi).
was to evaluate the species composition,
A preliminary survey was conducted
relative abundance and distribution of bird
during August, 2011. The physical features
fauna of rivers and wetland habitats in lower
of the study area were assessed using ground
reaches of TamiraparaniRiver in
survey. The coordinates of each study site
Thoothukudi District.
was taken and their boundaries were
MATERIALS AND METHODS delineated. The study was conducted from
The wetlands in the lower reaches of August2011 to March 2012 covering wet
the river in Thoothukudi District, were the and dry seasons.
specific sites where the present study was
STRATIFICATION OF THE STUDY
conducted (Fig.1) (8049’N and 7808’E)are
AREA AND SAMPLING DESIGN
encompassed by the Western Ghats on the
The study area was selected based on
west and the Bay of Bengal on the east. This
habitat type, and the sampling unit within
region is known as the rice bowl of southern
the habitat was determined and assigned on
Tamil Nadu and wetlands are lowland plains
the basis of area coverage and vegetation
and are regularly inundated with water.
type. Stratification was made following the
Protected and cultivation is carried out when
methods of Jones (1998) and Krebs (1999).
the water level recedes. The vegetation of
The total area of the riverine habitat and
these areas predominantly comprises paddy
wetlands was 120 km of land, respectively
agriculture in the region. The old trees and
(Valliappa, 1973). Around 20% of the
plantations in the region support heronries
wetland and 75% of the riverine habitat
whiles the Borassusflabelliferpalam
areas were covered for sampling. A
traditionally planted around the wetlands
stratified random sampling technique was
offers roosting sites for numerous resident
used for selecting the actual sites for
birds. It is a permanent river. Mean
sampling through line transects (Sutherland
temperatures of the study area was 23°
1996). To avoid repeated counting of bird,
SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam 2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 16
routes were reasonably spaced out. In
riverine enclosed habitats by 150-200 m,
and in the open wetland habitats by 250-500
m. The speed of walking on the routes
depended on the number of birds present
and difficulties in recording them. In open
wetland habitat, a speed of about 2 km hˉ¹
and in riverine habitats 1 km hˉ¹ was
followed (Bibby et al. 1992). To minimize
disturbance during the count, a waiting
period of 3 to 5 min prior to counting was
applied (Hosteler 2001; Sutherland 2000).
Counting was accomplished for a fixed
period of 3-10 min depending upon how
conspicuous the birds were.
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Following Jones (1998), data
collection commenced about 30 min after
dawn and continued to mid-morning. Late
afternoon count was also carried out. Data
collection was carried out for 5 h a day from
6:30-10:00 a.m. in the morning and from
4:30 to 6:00 p.m. in the afternoon, when the
activities of birds were prominent. On
average, 20 samples per month were
collected. The perpendicular distance from
which the bird occurred to the transect line
was estimated and then the type and the
SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam
group number of species were recorded
using direct observation. Photographs and
videos were taken to justify the species type
for those species which were difficult to
identify. Birds were identified to the species
level and their taxonomic groups were
properly categorized based on field guides
Ali and Ripley (1989), Grimmett et al
(1999), Manakandan and pittie (2001).
Relative abundance of avian species
was determined using encounter rates that
give crude ordinal scales of abundance
(abundant, common, frequent, uncommon
and rare) (see Bibby et al. 1998). Encounter
rate incorporates the effort expended in the
analysis of bird survey results; field hours
for each observer, and the number of
individuals of each species observed. This
allows an encounter rate to be calculated for
each species by dividing the number of birds
recorded by the number of hour. The
abundance categories (the number of
individuals per 100 field hours) were: < 0.1,
0.1-2.0, 2.1-10.0, 10.1-40.0 and > 40. For
each category, the following abundance
score is given: 1 (rare), 2 (uncommon), 3
(frequent), 4 (common), and 5 (abundant),
respectively. Therefore, the relative
2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 17
abundance of each bird species was Anhingidae (1), Phoenicopteridae (1),
determined on the ordinary scale of rare, Recurvirostridae (1), Lariae (2), Apodidae
uncommon, frequent, common and (1), Coraciidae (1), Upupidae (1),
abundant. For example, if the abundance Monarchidae (1), Cisticolidae (1),
category is < 0.1, the abundance score will Nectariniidae (2), Turdidae (2), Orioledae
be 1 and the species is considered as rare. (1), Dicruridae (1), Sturnidae (1),
Simpson’s Index (D) (Simpson 1949), and Pychonotidae (1) Meropidae (2) Danidae (1)
Shannon- Wiener Index (H´) (Shannon & respectively, Out of 25 wetlands
Weaver 1949) were used to evaluate the bird Arumugamankalalam and Kadambakulam
species diversity. Species evenness are perennial wetlands, and most of the
(H´/H´max) was also calculated. species were present in these wetlands.
During September, October and November
RESULTS
months in all wetlands fresh supply of water
A total of 88 species of birds were
comes and at that time bird species were less
observed during the two seasons viz. wet
in number. In Perunkulamwetland Painted
and dry from 25 wetlands in Thoothukudi
strok (1,500) Coots (2,000) were high in
District (Tables 1& 2).During the study
number and Flamingo (240) were limited in
period a total of 30,000 numbers of birds
number. In all wetlands during June and July
belonging to 88 species and 35 families
month local birds were very frequent and
were recorded. More number of species
migratory birds were absent due to scarcity
were sighted in the family Ardeidae (10)
of water. In Kaspa and Perur wetlands
and Anatidae (10), Alcedinidae (3),
resident birds like Spot billed duck (1,000),
Scolopacidae (5), Accipitridae (5),
Comb duck (300), Cotton teal (700), Little
Threskiornithidae (4), Columbidae (4)
grebe (400) were noticed. During December
Rallidae (4), Phalacrocrorcidae (3),
to April most of the migratory ducks were in
Charadriidae (3), Motacillidae (3) Ciconidae
ArumugamangalamKaspa and Kadampa
(2), Jacanidae (2), Cuculidae (3), Hirundidae
wetlands. In shallow wetlands bird counts
(2), Phasianidae (2) Accipitridae (1),
were maximum when compared to deep
Podicipedidae (1), Pelecanidae (1),
water bodies.

SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam 2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 18
 During the wet and dry seasons, 86
and 83 bird species were recorded,
respectively. 20 bird species were common
to both seasons, but 46 and 9 species were
exclusive to the wet and dry seasons,
respectively. The species composition of
birds during the wet and dry seasons was
significantly different.
The highest species diversity (D)
during the wet season was observed in site
23 (0.96). In site 14 had the least species
diversity, (0.91). The highest species
evenness was registered in the site 23. For
the entire season, Arumugamangalamkulam
(site 25) had the highest species diversity
and evenness, 0.93 and 0.43 respectively
(Table 3). The relative abundance scores of
species are high and low in during the wet
season show that 68 species (site 23) and
40species (site 24), were frequent in high
and low in, 38 (site 23) and 12 (site 25),
were common in high and low in, 24 (site 5)
and13 (7), were abundant at, high and low in
32 (8) and 11(25) respectively. During the
dry season, high and low as 12 (site 24) and
1(site 1) high and low in 6 (site 22) and 1
(site1) species were common; high and low
in 6 (site 26) and 2(9) species were abundant
SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam
respectively. Rare or uncommon species
were not registered in both the seasons. The
highest number of species was recorded in
the site 23 during the dry season. However,
during the wet season, site 23showed a
relatively high number of species (83).
DISCUSSION
The recorded88 species of birds
during the wet and dry seasons in the area
shows that the diversity is very high. At the
same time, the occurrence of winter birds in
the area indicates that the area is important
for migratory birds. Most of these were
observed from November to February.
Indian Pond Heron Ardeolagrayiiwas the
most common species and occurred in 76%
of the 25 wetlands surveyed, followed by
Little Egret Egrettagarzetta (75%) and Little
Cormorant Phalocrocoraxniger (71%). A
few species were recorded in only one tank,
and some examples of these are Black-
capped Kingfisher Halcyon pileata,
Common Tern Sterna hirundo, Lesser Sand
Plover Charadriusmongolus, Little Stint
Calidrisminuta, Oriental Pratincole
Glareolamaldivarum, Small Pratincole
Glareola lacteal. Four bird species in the
Near Threatened category; Black-headed
2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 19
Ibis Threskiornismelanocephalus, Oriental
Darter Anhinga melanogaster, Painted Stork
and Spot-billed Pelican were recorded in
large numbers in these tanks. Some species
like the Black-capped Kingfisher was
restricted in some areas. Eurasian Wigeon
Anaspenelope and Sand Plover were seen
more often in wetlands closer to the coast.
The species composition of birds
counted during the wet and dry seasons was
not significantly different. The extended
time of inundation of the area during the wet
and dry seasons could contribute to the
insignificant effect of seasons on bird
species composition in the studied habitats.
Moreover, in the multi-bird species
composition study at micro geographic or
local scale, the effect of season or the role of
climate could be negligible. Bird species
also shift their feeding habit between
seasons in temperate areas (Ward 1969).
This might account for the insignificant
effect of seasons on bird species
composition.
The species diversity index and
evenness of habitats during the entire season
revealed that Arumugamagalakulam (site
23) wetland had the highest species diversity
and evenness. The large size of
SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam
Kadambakulam (site 12) as compared to the
other sites might contribute to the highest
bird species diversity and evenness. This is
because of the availability of multiple and
variety of alternative feed sources for bird;
moreover, large area of site 23 is
inaccessible for people contributing to a
favorable condition for breeding, feeding
and nesting sites. As a result, birds which
depend on these sites for feeding, nesting,
hiding and breeding, are affected. In natural
habitats where the intervention of humans is
less and minimum, the diversity as well as
the evenness of species is higher than the
fragmented ones where intensive farming is
carried out (Rana 2005). Differences in
feeding habits and habitats could also
increase diversity, evenness and species
richness (Smith 1992). The smallest size of
the habitat might have contributed to the low
evenness and diversity of species both
during wet and dry seasons.
The relative abundance of bird
species during seasons might be related to
the availability of food, habitat condition
and breeding season of the species. The
distinct seasonality of rainfall and seasonal
variation in the abundance of food resources
2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 20
result in seasonal changes in the species
abundance of birds (Gaston et al. 2000; Karr
& Roth 1971). The distribution and
abundance of many bird species are
determined by the composition of the
vegetation that forms a major element of
their habitats. As vegetation changes along
complex geographical and environmental
gradients, a particular bird species may
appear, increase or decrease in number, and
disappear as the habitat changes (Lee
&Rotenberry 2005).
Very few wetlands had trees within
which serve as islands when the wetland is
inundated and can provide safe nesting and
roosting sites. The few wetlands had trees of
Acacia nilotica planted by the Forest
Department or Panchayat earmarked for
harvesting under the social forestry scheme.
These trees are used by birds for nesting and
roosting. It is imperative that forestry
practices are carried out incorporating the
breeding and roosting requirements of water
birds in the area. At present, the unusually
high level of reduction in the size of the
wetland led many areas under permanent
cultivation. Unless appropriate community
based conservation measure is taken, the
SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam
entire habitat will be lost in near future.
Existence of many birds by destroying their
habitat or directly affecting their survival
and reproductive success (Green
&Hirons1991). This leads to a big threat for
more areas were brought in to agriculture
leading to the loss of wetland acreage and
here in lower reach. Unless environmentally
sound operation is carried out, these sites
will face similar destruction thereby
affecting the diversity of bird species
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to Mr. Thomas
Mathi Balan, Pannavilai, Thoothukudi
District for generous help and support
associated with identification of wetland
birds.
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SPECIES COMPOSITION, RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF BIRD FAUNA OF RIVERINE AND
WETLAND HABITATS IN LOWER REACHES OF TAMIRAPARANI RIVER - Santhalakshmi, A. S., Jeyakumaran
Thampi, P. S. and M. Arunachalam 2014 Vol. 2 (1) Page 23