CHINA IN THE 19TH CENTURY

MODERN PERIOD (1840-1919)

The period of approximately 80 years from 1840 when the Opium War began to 1919 when the May Fourth
Movement started, was the modern period of China. During this period, Ching (Qing) Dynasty ended and the Republic
of China began. It was a period when imperialism from abroad and feudalism at home combined to reduce China to a
semi-colonial and semi-feudal status. It was also a period when the Chinese people waged a heroic struggle against
the imperialist and their running dogs in China. It was a period of democratic revolution led by the bourgeoisie. After
1919, the leadership of the democratic revolution was taken over by the proletariat and its political party. We call the
period before 1919 the period of old - democratic revolution and the period after 1919 the period of new –
democratic revolution.

FOREIGN TRADE IN CANTON : Background of the OPIUM WAR

(1840 - 1842)

Before the fourth decade of the 19th century, Britain was the most developed capitalist country in the world.
Having strengthened its control over India, it immediately targeted China as its object of aggression.
It was only in Canton (Guanzhon) where the British and foreign merchants were permitted and allowed to
conduct their trade to a group  of  Chinese  monopolists  known  as    “Hong”,  or  “Co-Hongs”.  This    Hong  merchants  had  to  
pay taxes to the state, but they had a wonderful opportunity of enriching themselves through their business with the
Europeans.
The British concentrated mainly on the purchase of silk, tea and other products which commanded a good
price in Europe. As a result, British capitalist must ship a huge amount of silver to China in exchange for tea, silk and
other products.
Their main problem was what to export in China? European woolens, cotton textile, food stuffs and other
luxury goods could not be sold because transporting this is too expensive and besides the Chinese people are able to
produce food, clothing, and other daily necessities so these are not well received in China.

To rob China of its wealth, the British capitalists resorted to arm smuggling and bribery of Chinese officials
who then allowed them to ship large quantities of Opium to China. Opium which they carried from India is the only
product that can be easily sold to China because the Chinese were familiar with Opium and they readily bought it.

From 1800 onwards, Opium became the chief article of trade, especially from the British, who were able to
bring it conveniently from India, though it is harmful to the people, so many Chinese merchants were able to enrich
themselves by selling this and a great deal of Chinese money went abroad.

Because the number of Opium smokers increased by the thousands, the feudal rulers of China became more
and more corrupt and the fighting capacity of the Chinese army deteriorated steadily. The government became
apprehensive and decided to send its commissioner to stop and prohibit the opium trade (1839). This action of the
commissioner angered the British because this meant the destruction of British trade in the Far East and also the
possibility that China would open other ports to European trade.

Lin Tse – Hsu - the imperial commissioner who prohibited and banned the Opium trade. He warned the British not
to bring in any more Opium.He ordered 20,000 chests (133 lbs. Per chests, total of 1.15 million kgs.) to be burned and
destroyed.

1840 – OPIUM WAR. - 1ST Sino-British War; British soldiers attacked the south – eastern coast of China (Guangdong
Prov.). The Chinese offered and opened negotiations but the hostilities continued and they soon found out that they
were losing because European weapons were far superior to those of the Chinese. After 2 years of war the Chinese
capitulated.
Treaty of Nanking (1842) the Sino-British treaty that ended the two years Opium War. It was the first unequal
treaty that China signed with a foreign aggressor. The signing meant that China had lost its rights as a sovereign
nation.

CHINA IN THE 19TH CENTURY

MODERN PERIOD (1840-1919)

Provisions of the Treaty of Nanking

1. China open five ports for European trade: Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningbo and Shanghai.
2. Cession of Hongkong to Britain up to 1997.
3. The Chinese establish a fair and regular tariff on export and imports.
4. The termination of the Co-hong.
5. Payment of an indemnity worth $ 21 million silver taels.
TAIPING REBELLION (1851) - “Great  Peace”

A peasant uprising headed by Hung Hsiu Chuan to take over the Manchu Dynasty. It was put to stop and
ended in 1865 after 14 years of fighting, by the Manchus led by Tseng Kuo – Fan and its foreign supporters. Although
the peasants were defeated this aroused and strengthened the revolutionary will of the Chinese people to topple
down the Manchu Imperial Dynasty.

BOXER REBELLION (1899)

An anti-foreign movement aimed at eliminating the Westerners and the western influence in China. Boxer or
“Righteous   Harmony   Fists” nickname given by the foreigners for the superb gymnastic exercises practiced by the
Chinese. Chinese Christians who were adopting the foreign religion were also included in the attack. The boxer were
defeated by the foreigners because foreign legations started to send foreign troops from abroad to protect them. The
Chinese were in no match to the artillery and troops of the foreigners.

Sept. 7, 1901 - Boxer Settlement and the rebellion ended.

1. An official apology to Germany for the murder of her minister and the erection of a monument in his honor.
2. Suspension of the official examination for 5 years in towns where foreigners had been killed or ill-treated.
3. The payment of a large indemnity(450,000,000 taels; US $ 333,900,000)
In 39 annual installments.
4. The improvement of the river channels leading to Tientsin and Shanghai.
5. The setting aside of a legation quarter in Peking to ensure their safety.

Foreign legations:

1. Russia 6. Japan
2. Germany 7. Italy
3. France 8. Belgium
4. Great Britain 9. Austria
5. USA 10. Others

By the turn of the 20th (1900) the Ching Dynasty was starting to feel its downfall and this was during the
reign of the luckless and prisoner Emperor Kuang Hsu and the domineering Empress Dowager Tzu Hsi .

Reasons for the decline of the Ching (Manchu) Dynasty:

1. administrative inefficiency
2. widespread corruption
3. debasement of the military
4. pressure of a rising population
5. financial stringency
6. intellectual irresponsibility
7. rebellions (domestic) by secret societies
8. foreign aggressions
9. rise of the nationalist reformers

Reasons for the rise of a Nationalist Republic:

1. The long list of unequal treaties (Treaty of Nanking, Shimonoseki to the Boxer Protocol)
2. The  lost  of  China’s  tributary  states    (Korea,  Hongkong,  etc.)
3. Lack of vigor in domestic administration
4. The urgent need from a monarchial institution to a Republican form of government in China.

Dr. Sun Yat – Sen (1866-1925)

- was  the  originator  and  leader  of  China’s  bourgeoisie  domestic  revolution.
- A medical doctor by profession but spent his entire life in propagating revolutionary thought in China.
- Known in China as the ff.
“Father  of  the  Chinese  Revolution”
“Patron  Saint  of  the  Nationalist  Republic”
“Father  of  Nationalist  China”
“Founding  Father  of  the  Republic  of  China”.
 1905 - was elected President of the China Revolutionary League. An organization which aimed to overthrew the
Ching Dynasty. For Sun Yat- Sen to achieve his dreams he established the Three principles of the people for the
nationalist movement to become more successful.

(San Min Chu I) The Three Principles of the People

(The Great Bright Way for China)

1. NATIONALISM - Principles  of  Min  Tsu      (People’s  Rule)

- a nationalistic revolution to overthrow the Manchu Dynasty and the imperial institutions. This is the
restoration of a new China.

2. DEMOCRACY - Principle  of  Min  Chuan    (People’s  Authority)

- a democratic revolution to establish a republic and popular sovereignty.

3. SOCIALISM - Principle  of  Min    Sheng      (People’s  Livelihood)

- a social revolution to equalize land rights and to prevent the ills of capitalism (equal land ownership)

Double Ten Uprising (Oct. 10, 1911) - a revolution that started in Wu-Chang which overthrew the
Manchu Dynasty.

Hsuan Tung (Henry Pu Yi) - Last Manchu Emperor.

Yuan Shi Kai - protector of Pu Yi; Premiere and Commander in Chief of the Army . Later he became a political
opportunist and militarist and as a result of this China was engaged in Civil wars among the warlords for 13 years until
1924.

January 1, 1912 - The Republic of China was founded and Sun Yat Sen became the Provisional President of the
Republic of China.

Feb. 12, 1912 - Sun resigned as President under the pressures of Yuan Shi Kai. This he did to seek peaceful
unification of the country. Different political organizations were then reorganized together with other political groups
into the KOUMINTANG (National  People’s  Party,  or  Nationalist  Party.)

Summer, 1914-1919 - World War 1 started.

1914 - Japan decided to take over all German territories in the Pacific including the Shantung Peninsula. With the
inception of war in Europe, China realizes herself surrounded with the enclaves of warlike countries within its
borders. He formally asked that hostilities be kept out of its territories and waters. It also declared its neutrality.
China requested the USA in obtaining from neutral countries their promise to respect their request.

August 1914 - Japan  declared  war  with  Germany  for  the  simple  reason  that  Germany  wouldn’t  withdraw  her  leased    
territory of Kiaochow in  the  province  of  Shantung  .  In  moving  against  Kiaochow,  Japan  violated  China’s  neutrality  by  
dispatching her attacking forces across the Chinese territory. Fortunately for Japan, he overcome the German
resistance and captured the port of Kiaochow.

Jan. 1915 - Japan  sent  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  a  communiqué  known  as  the  “21 demands“. Yuan Shih Kai accepted the 21
Demands and sent the documents to America for her to help China. During this time he had foreseen the
establishment of a new Dynasty.
21 Demands - total surrender of Chinese sovereignty to Japan.

Provisions of the 21 demands:

1. Transfer  of  Germany’s  rights  to  Japan

2. No territory / islands should be leased to any power without Japanese consent.
3. Manchurian railways under Russian control be transferred to Japanese control.
4. Chinese iron mines be transferred to Japanese control.
5. That China would accept political, military and economic advisers from Japan.

- The acceptance of the Demands by Yuan Shi Kai resulted to divisions in China by having two governments:

1. North (Peking) - Pro-Japanese under Yuan Shi Kai.

2. South (Canton) - Anti-Japanese under Revolutionary League to form the Koumintang under Sun Yat Sen
and Chiang Kai Shek.

January 1919 - TREATY OF VERSAILLES

After  the  conclusion  of    World  War  1,  Britain,  France,  U.S.,  Japan,  China  and  other  “victors”  of  the  war  held  a  peace  
conference in Versailles, France.

During the conference the Chinese delegation demanded 3 things:

1. termination of foreign countries special privileges in China.
2. Abolition of the 21 demands
3. Return to China of Shantung peninsula that was seized by Japan.

But the peace conference turned down the demands of China and instead it  resolved  to  transfer  Germany’  
special rights in Shantung to Japan. In the following months, angry Chinese students and leaders demonstrated and
protested this outrageous decision made in Versailles and this culminated in the so-called…

MAY FOURTH MOVEMENT (1919)

The first genuine mass movement in modern Chinese History. It was a national response to pressure the
Chinese delegation to reject the signing of the Peace Treaty for the sake of China as a whole. It was a huge
demonstration by thousands in Peking (and abroad) against the verdict of the Versailles Peace Conference. This was
not  only  held  by  patriot  students  but  thousands  of  workers  from  China’s  major    province joined by calling strikes. This
also led with the arrest of thousands of patriotic students and workers and a concerted boycott of Japanese goods.

R E S U L T S:

Because the northern warlords were pressured by thousands of Students and workers, they released the
arrested students and refused to sign the Versailles Peace Treaty. The movement was a total victory.

Importance of the Movement

1. heightened its revolutionary movement
2. Reinforced social and cultural reforms
3. Spread of Marxism with the working class became the mainstream of the new culture movement.
4. It paved the way for the founding of the Chinese Communist Party
5. It made possible the transformation of the Chinese revolution from the old-democratic to the new-democratic
revolution.

The May 4th movement had a profound impact to the Chinese working class. It provided a model for the
founding of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) IN 1921. Marxism from Russia became a model, too. Communist
groups were founded in some of the great provinces of China.

Basic task of the Chinese Communist Party:

1. eliminate civil strife

2. overthrow the warlord
3. establish domestic peace
4. to cast off the oppression brought by the imperialist so that the Chinese nation can become truly
independent.
5. To unify China into a genuine Democratic Republic.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE RISE OF COMMUNISM IN CHINA

1. Many Chinese intellectuals had lost faith in the West after the Versailles pronouncement in Shantung.
2. The rise of Socialism became more appealing to most people
3. The intellectual and Psychological appeal of Marxism to the Chinese were strengthened by the practical Soviet
offer of friendship
4. The belief that the liberation of the peasantry from the corruption of city life is the liberation of China
5. The close ties of the CCP with labor and agrarian organization

1927-1933
The Republican government was formally established in Nanking (capital) and Chiang Kai Shek (CKS), became
the President. He also reorganized the KMT.
 President CKS in his capacity of Commander-in-Chief once again led the revolutionary army to the North and
this Northward expedition became a great success and the Northwest provinces fell quickly thus finally achieving the
unification of China.
CKS  never  believed  in  Soviet  sincerity  in  aiding  China’s  revolution  against  the  Communist.  He  believed  that  the  
real    intention  of  the  Soviets  was  to  seize  the  leadership  position  of  the  KMT  for  the  CCP.    He  argued  that  “an  alliance  
with Russia is an admission  of  Communism”.
The Communist perpetrated the land with acts infiltration, secret attacks and destruction and armed
rebellions. CKS launched massive campaign of Encirclement and extermination against Communists.

THE LONG MARCH (1930-1934)

The Communist would often be defeated as a result of wrong strategy of positional warfare, instead of
following  Mao’s  test-proven guerilla warfare.

MUKDEN INCIDENT (September 18, 1931)

- Japanese aggression in Manchuria which sowed the seeds of World War II.
- It  was  a  Japanese  idea  that  “to conquer the world, it is necessary to conquer China first, and to conquer China,
it  is  necessary  to  conquer  Manchuria  and  Mongolia  first.”

Originally Japan targeted to invade Manchuria in 1936 but instead made it in 1931 for the following reasons:

1. China was deeply involved in domestic turmoil, natural disaster and civil strife after another.
2. Costly campaign against the increasing Communist threat.
3. The western powers and the League of Nations were too powerless to intervene because they were hard hit
by the depression and were involve too with domestic problems.

XIAN INCIDENT: (Dec. 12, 1936)

- the kidnap/arrest of Pres. CKS ordered by his own generals (Gen. Chang and Yang)

July 17, 1941 - China declared war with Japan

- Pres. Cks was determined that China would fight Japan to the bitter end.
- When the Nationalist government was busy contending with the Japanese aggression, the CCP grabbed the
opportunity to begin an open rebellion and make themselves more powerful as an army.

Dec. 7 1941 -the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the war to the Pacific.

1942 - the allied countries unanimously agreed that CKS should assume the position of Supreme Commander of
the allied forces in China, Vietnam and Thailand. This move joined China into the Big 4 of the international community
along with the US, Britain and USSR.

- During   this   time   the   allies   began   to   recognize   that   China’s   long   and   bitter   fight   against   the   Japanese   was,  
actually a battle to maintain international justice and world peace. Shortly afterwards the US and Great
Britain announced their intention to relinquish their extra-territorial and related rights in China and other
countries  soon  followed  this  step  and  China’s  problems  were  finally  removed.

Nov. 1943 - CKS conferred with President Roosevelt of U.S, P.M. Winston Churchill of Great Britain in Cairo, Egypt.
This Cairo Conference ended with the so called Cairo Declaration.

Provisions of the Cairo Declaration:

1. Demanded  for  the  first  time  the  “unconditional  surrender”  of  Japan.
2. The complete restoration of Chinese territories lost to Japan. (also the return of Taiwan and Pescadores,
liberation of Korea and the Phil., and independence of Vietnam.)
3. The return of the Japanese and its possessions outside Japan proper. (Sakhalin and Kurile islands to Russia
and some Japanese mandatories in the Pacific to the US.)

Aug. 15, 1945 - Japan announced its formal surrender. The anti-Japanese resistance movement led by CKS finally
reigned victoriously.

* While China rejoiced over the end of the war and eagerly looked forward for a period of peace and
reconstruction , there was still a deep concern over the unresolved communist problem . While the war still existed,
Mao Tse Tung laid low from politics but was gathering strength for his sudden rise, and the Chinese Communist Party
greatly expanded the scope of their rebellion.
 CHUNGKING CONFERENCE (Aug. 30, 1945) - This was the formal meeting of CKS with the Communist
delegation headed by Mao Tse Tung to discuss the total unification of China and an end to civil war. The conference
lasted for 43 days but was a total failure and never produced any concrete results.

Dec. 25, 1947 - the Nationalist government officially adopted a new constitution drafted by CKS.

April 19, 1948 - the  First  National  Assembly  elected  CKS  as  China’s  first  President  under  the  New  Constitution.

January 21, 1949 - CKS was forced to resign by the peace faction within his party. Vice President Li Tsung Ren took
over the government as acting President. In the following months Li engaged negotiations with the CCP but
failed, for Mao saw no reason to compromise with the KMT because victory was so close at hand.

April 23, 1949 - The  CCP  captured  Nanking  ,  the  center  of  CKS’S  rule,  thus  ending  the  Kuomintang  regime  for  good.

July 1946 - June 1950 - the Communist destroyed and defeated 8 million more Koumintang troops.

October 1, 1949 - Mao Tse  Tung    proclaimed  the  establishment  of  the  “People’s      Republic  of  China    (PROC).    “A  
people’s    democratic  dictatorship  and  by  the  working  class  and  based  upon  the  alliance  between  workers  and  
peasants.”      Peking,  renamed  Beijing  was  the  capital  of  the new China. Mao was elected as Chairman of the
Cental  People’s  Government.

December 8, 1949 - the Nationalists led by CKS fled from Chungking to Taiwan to restore the country. After the
exile of CKS, the communist conquest of Mainland China became complete and after 28 years (1911-1949) of
struggle, Mao rose to the pinnacle of power.

Causes of the Nationalist Defeat:

1. The 8-year Japanese war which completely exhausted the government, militarily, financially, and spiritually.
2. Deceptive military strength
3. Inflation and economic collapse (inflation and financial mismanagement destroyed the livelihood of hundreds
of millions of Chinese and totally discredited the government so the people looked forward to a change in
administration.)
4. Failure of American mediation and aid
5. Retardation of social and economic reforms
6. Loss of public confidence and respect

A. Government irresponsibility which brought on rampant inflation.

B. Officials returned as conquerors and treated the people with contempt.
C. Officials were more interested in taking over enemy properties for selfish purposes than for the welfare of the
people.
D. Officials monopolized profitable commodities and enterprises in open competition with the people and
publicly auctioned relief materials for personal gains.