CHAPTER 1

REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

1.1. The Algebraic Properties of 

On the set  of real numbers there are two binary operations, called addition and multiplication,

denoted by “+” and “  ” which have the following properties:

a. (  , +) is a commutative group.

(A1). a, b  , a  b   (closed)

(A2). a, b, c  , a   b  c    a  b   c (associative property of addition )

(A.3).  !o  , a  , a  o  o  a  a (existence of a zero element)

(A.4). a  , ! a  , a    a   o   a  a (existence of negative element)

(A.5). a, b  , a  b  b  a (commutative property of addition )

B. (R-{0},  ) is a commutative group

(M1). a, b     0 , a  b     0 (closed).

(M2). a, b, c     0 , a   b  c    a  b   c (associative property of multiplication )

(M3). !1     0 , a     0 ,1  a  a  1  a (existence of a unit element)

1 1 1
(M4). a     0 , !     0 , a    a  1 (existence of recriprocals, denoted by a 1 )
a a a

(M5). a, b     0 a  b  b  a (commutative propertiy of multiplication)

C.  ,, is distributive.

a, b, c  , a   b  c   a  b  a  c ( distributive property of multiplication over addition).

Next, each element of  is called Real number.

Theorem 1.

(a). If z and a  , z  a  a, then z = 0

(b). If u, b   , b  o and u  b  b, then u  1

Proof:

(a). Given z, a  , z  a  a

Following (A4)  z  a    a  a    a

(A2) z   a    a   a    a

(A4) z0 0

(A3) z 0

(b). u , b  , b  0, u  b  b

(M4)  u  b   b 1  b  b 1

(M2) u   b  b 1   b  b 1

(M4) u 1 1

(M3) u 1

Theorem 2.

(a). If a, b  , a  b  0 then b   a

1
(b).If a  0, b  , a  b  1 then b 
a

Proof :

(a). a, b  , a  b  0
 (A4)   a    a  b     a   0

(A2)    a  a  b    a  0

(A4) 0  b    a  0

(A3) b  a

(b). Exercise.

Theorem 3:

Let a, b   .

(a). The equation a  x  b has the unique solution x    a   b

1
(b). If a  0, the equation a  x  b has the unique solution x     b
a

Proof:

(a). Using (A2) (A4) & (A3), we obtain:

a     a   b   a    a    b  0  b  b

Which implies that x    a   b is a solution of the equation a  x  b .

To show that it is the only solution, let x1 is any solution of the equation, then:

a  x1  b

Using (A4)   a    a  x1     a   b

(A2)   a  a   x1    a   b

(A4) 0  x1    a   b

(A3) x1    a   b

(b). Left as an exercise.

Theorem 4.

If a   , then:

(a). a  0  0 (c).    a   a

(b).   1  a   a (d).   1    1  1

Proof:
 M 3
(a). a    a 1  a

 a  a  0  a 1  a  0

 c
 a  1  0 

A3
 a 1  a
Th  1a 
 a  a0  a  a 0  0

 M 3
(b). a    1  a  1  a    1  a

 c
 1    1   a

 A4
 0a

 a
 0
Th  2 a 
 a    1  a  0    1  a  a

(c). Using A4    a   a  0
Th 2 a
 a    a 

(d). From b, substitute a =  1    1    1    1

  c
  1    1  1

Theorem 5

Let a, b, c   .

1 1
(a). If a  0 then  0 and a
a 1
a

(b).If a  b  a  c, a  0, then b  c

(c).If a  b  0 , then a  0 or b  0

Proof:

1
(a). a  0  exist
a

1  M 3 1
If  0 , then 1   a  0  a  0 contary.
a a
2b
1 Th 1
Thus  a  1 a 
a 1
a

1
(b). a  0   0.
a

ab  a c

1 1
  a  b    a  c 
a a

1 b 1 c

bc

(c). Let a  0  it must be proved b  0 .

1
Since a  0 , then  0.
a

So,
1 1
    a  b   0
a a

1 b  0
b0

THE ORDER PROPERTIES OF  :

There is    satisfyingi:

(1). a, b    a  b  

(2). a, b    a  b  
 (3). a   , then exactly one of the following holds :

a  , a  0,  a   (Trichotomy Property)

P is called positive reeal numbers.

Definition:

a    a is a positive real number , denoted by a  0

 a    a is a negative real number, denoted by a  0

a  U  0  a is a nonnegative real number, denoted by a  0

 a  U  0  a is nonpositive real number, denoted by a  0

a  b    we write a  b or b  a

a  b  U  0  a  b atau b  a

a  b  c  a  b dan b  c

a  b  c  a  b dan b  c

Theorem :

a, b, c  

(1). a  b dan b  c  a  c

(2). Exactly one of the following holds: a  b, a  b, a  b

(3). a  b dan a  b  a  b

Proof:

(1). Since a  b and b  c , then a  b   and b  c   , so by (1) we have:

 a  b    b  c   a  c   . I.O. W. a  c

(2). ByTrichotomi, exactly one of the following hold:

a b , ab  0 ,  a  b   
 ab , ab , ab

(3). Assume that a  b ,then a  b or a  b , contradicted.

Theorem :

(1). a  0  a 2  0

(2). 1  0

(3). n  , n0

Proof:

(1). By Trichotomi, if a  0 , then a   or  a  

By The Order Property (2) a  a  a 2   or   a     a   a 2  . So

a2  0

(2). From (1) : 1  0  12  . So 1  0

11  1

(3). By mathematic induction:

i) n  1  1  0 by (2)

ii) Assume that rigt for n  k

(iii) Since 1   & k   , then by (1) : k  1  

 k 1  0 .

A . Theorem:

a , b, c , d  

(1). a  b  a  c  b  c

(2). a  b  c  d  a  c  b  d

(3). a  b  c  0  ac  bc

a  b  c  0  ac  bc
(4). a  0  1  0
a

a0 1 0
a

Bukti:

a b
(1). Dari a  b, maka a  b  .  a  c   b  c     a  c  b  c
(2). Karena a  b  c  d maka a  b   dan c  d  

Dengan sifat urutan (1) :  a  b    c  d    a  c    b  d   

ac bd

(3). Dari a  b dan c  0 , maka a  b   dan c  

Dengan sifat urutan (2) :  a  b   c  

ac  bc  

 ac  bc

(4). Latihan.

B. Teorema :

1
Jika a  b maka a   a  b  b
2

Bukti :

Diketahui a  b  2a  a  a  a  b

a  b  a  b  b  b  2b

1 1 1
2  2  0   0   2a   a  b 
2 2 2 1
a   a  b  b
1
dan  a  b   1  2b 2
2 2
 C. Teorema:

Jika a   dan 0  a   , untuk sebarang bilangan   0 maka a  0

Bukti:

1 1
Andaikan a  0, a  0 . Dengan Teorema sebelumnya, 0  a  a . Diambil bilangan  0  a , maka
2 2

0   0  a . Kontradiksi dengan yang diketahui : 0  a   ,   0

 Pengandaian a  0 salah

Teorema (Teorema Ketidaksamaan Bernoulli)

x   dan x  1 maka 1  x  n  1  nx, n  

Bukti:

Dengan induksi matematika:

i) n  1  1  x   1  x benar

ii) Dianggap benar untuk n  k : 1  x  k  1  kx

iii) n  k  1

1  x  k 1  1  x  k  1  x   1  kx  1  x   1   k  1 x  kx 2

 1   k  1 x
  1  x  n  1  nx .

ABSOLUTE VALUE

Definition:

a   , the absolute value of a:

 a , a0
a 
 a , a  0

Theorem:

1. a 0a0

2. a  a

3. ab  a b

4. c  0 , a  c  c  a  c

5.  a a a , a  

Proof:

1. Clear from definition

2. a  

i) a  0  a  0   a  a

ii) a  0   a  0  a  a    a    a

iii) a  0  a  0   a  a  a

3. a, b  

i) If a  0 or b  0 , then ab  a b

ii) If a  0  b  0 , then ab  0  ab   ab   a   b   a b
 iii) If a  0  b  0 , then ab  0  ab   ab     a  b  a b

4. From a  c we have  a  c dan  a  c  that implies   c  a dan a  c 

Or  c  a  c

5. Take c = a , so a  0 and by (4) :  a a a

TRIANGLE INNEQUALITY

a, b, , a  b  a  b

Proof : a, b   :  a a a

 b b b

We have :  a  b  ab  a  b

 4
 a  b  a b  a  b a b  a  b

Cororally:

(1). a  b  ab

(2). ab  a  b

Proof:

1). a, b  

(i) a  a bb  a b  b

(ii) b  b  a  a  b  a  a    a  b  a  a  b  a

So

a  b  ab by (i)

b  a  ab or  ab  a  b by (ii)

So
  ab  a  b  ab

or

a  b  ab

2). a  b  a    b  a   b  a  b

COMPLETENESS OF 

Definition:

S   , , u  

(1). u is an upper bound of S if s  u , s  S .

(2).  is a lower bound of S if   s , s  S

Example:

1). S   x   , 0  x  1

 1 is an upper bound S since x  1 , x  S

 0 is a lower bound of S since 0  x , x  S

2). S1   x   , 0  x

 0 is a lower bound of S1
  An arbitrary real number u is not an upper bound of S1 since there exist

s   u  1  S1 , u  s 

1 
3). S 2   , n   
n 

 1 is an upper bound of S 2

 0 is a lower bound of S 2

4). S  

For each a real number u , u is an upper and a lower bound of S

Definition:

S  , S 

 If S has an upper bound, then it is said to be bounded above.

 If S has a lower bound, then it is said to be bounded below .

 S is bounded if S is bounded above and bounded below.

Definition:

S  , S   , , u  

a) u is a least upper bound or supremum of S , written sup S = l.u.b. S if:

(1). s  u , s  S or u is an upper bound of S .

(2). If v is an upper bound arbitrary, then u  v

(3). If v  u , v is not an upper bound of S.

(4). If v  u , then s   S , v  s 

b)  is a greatest lower bound or infimum of S , written inf S = g.l.b. S if:

(1).   s , s  S or  is a lower bound of S.

(2). If w is an any lower bound, then w  

 (3). If w   , then w is not a lower bound of S

(4). Jika w   , then s  S , s  w

Example:

1). S   x   , 0  x  1

 1 Sup S since :

i) x  1 , x  S or 1 is an upper bound of S.

ii) If v  1 , then s  1  S , v  s ( v is not an upper bound of S )

 0 inf S since:

i) 0  x , x  S or 0 is a lower bound of S.

 1 , w  1
ii) If w  0 , then s   2 , s   S , s  w

w 2 , w  1

( w is not a lower bound of S )

 1 1 
2). S1   x  ,  x  2
 x 2 

5
2 sup S1 since

i). t  5 , t  S1
2
5
ii). If v  5 , then v is not an upper bound of S since s   S1 , v  s
2 2

Lemma : (1)

S   S  , u is an upper bound of S

u Sup S    0, s  S  u    s
Proof:

(  ) Suppose that u  sup S and let   0 arbitrary.

Since u    u , then u   is not an upper bound of S .

So s  S  u    s .

( ) Suppose that u is an upper bound of S and   0, s  S  u    s .

If v  u , then   u  v  0 . The stated conditions implies that :

s  S  u    s

But, u    u   u  v   v  s , so v is not an upper bound of S .

Hence u  sup S .

Lemma-2

S   , S  , v is a lower bound of S

v inf S    0, s  S  s  v  

Example:

A   0,1U  2,3

O = inf A , since

(1). a  A , 0  a (0 is a lower bound)

(2).   0 , a  A  ao  0   (let a0  1  )

2

3= Sup A , since:

(1). a  A , a  3 (3 is a an upper bound of A )

(2).   0 , a1  3  A  3    a1

Notes :

1). Inf and sup are not necessary to be an element of a set  ex : S 3   x : 0  x  1

 2). A set can has a lower bound but not an upper bound and vise versa . Ex:

S1   x   : x  0  has a lower bound, without an upper bound

S1   x   : x  0  has an upper bound, without a lower bound.

Completeness Property of 

1. Every nonempty set of real numbers that has an upper bound has a supremum in  .

2. Every nonempty set of real numbers that has a lower bound has an infimum in  .

EXERCISES

1). S  , S   , bounded in 

Prove that: Sup S   inf   s : s  S 

Proof:

Suppose that T    s : s  S 

By completeness property , S has a supremum in 

Let u  sup S , then s  u , s  S . This implies  u   s , s  S .

So, –u is a lower bound of T .

By completeness, T has an infimum in 

Let   inf T

In this case:  u   or    u ................ (1)

In another side :    s , s  S so s   , s  S , that is   is an upper bound of S and

u   ........ (2).

From (1) & (2) we get u   or sup S   inf T

2). S   , u is an upper bound of S , u  S . Prove that u  sup S

 Proof:

If v  u then s 0  u  S such that v  s 0 . Hence u  sup S .

3). S   , u  sup S

Prove that : (1). u  1

2 is not an upper bound of S .

(2). u  1
n is an upper bound of S , n  N

Proof:

1
For n  N ,  0, u  1  u  u  1
n n n

Since u is an upper bound of S, then u  1 u  1 is an upper

n is not an upper bound of S & n

bound of S , n  N .

Theorem :

(i).If A  B   , B is bounded above, then sup  A  sup  B 

(ii). If A  B   , B is bounded below, then inf  A  inf  B 

Proof:

(i). Since A  B and B is bounded above, then A is bounded above .

Suppose that k is an any upper bound of B .

Since A  B , then k is an upper bound of A . So sup  B  is an upper bound of A . This implies :

Sup  A  sup  B 

(ii). Exercise.
Theorem :

A, B   & x  .
A  B   a  b : a  A & b  B

If A, B   and bounded, then

(i). sup  A  B   sup  A + sup  B 

(ii). Inf  A  B   inf  A + inf  B 

Proof :

(i). Let M 1 = sup  A and M 2 =sup  B  . Then a  A, a  M 1 and b  B, b  M 2 . So,

a  b  A  B , a  b  M 1  M 2  M 1  M 2 is an upper bound of A  B and sup  A  B   M 1  M 2 = sup

 A + sup  B 

(ii) Exercise

Exercise : (1)

S , S is bounded above.

Let a   ,

a  S   a  s, s  S 

Prove that : sup  a  S   a  sup S

Archimedean Property: x  , n x  N  x  n x .

Proof : see Bartle page 48.

Corollary :

Let y and z positive real numbers. Then:

(i). n  N  z  ny
 (ii). n  N  0  1  y
n

(iii). n  N  n  1  z  n

Proof :

(i). Let x  z y  0 . By Archimedean Property, n  N such that x  z y  n

 z  ny

(ii).Setting z  1 in (i) gives 1  ny or 0  1 n  y

(iii). Let S   m  N : z  m

S , by Archimedean Property.

S  N , since N has a least element, then S has a least element. Suppose that n is a least

element, then n 1  z  n .

Theorem (existence of 2 ) :  positive real number x such that x 2 =2.

Proof: see Bartle page 49.

Density Theorem:

If x and y are real numbers , x  y , then  a rational number r such that xr y

proof :

It is no loss of generality to assume that x  0 . Let z  y  x  0 . By Archimedean property, n  N such

that 1  y  x  z
n

So 1  ny  nx or nx  1  ny

For nx  0 , then m  N such that m 1  nx  m or m  nx  1  m  1

 m
Hence : nx  m  nx  1  ny . So x   y.
n

Corollary:

If x and y real numbers such that x  y , then  an irrational number p such that x  p  y .

Proof:

x y
From x  y we get  which each is in  . By density theorem,  a rational number r such that
2 2

x y
r . Hence xr 2  y.
2 2

CAUCHY INNEQUALITY

If n  N , a1 ,......... ., an and b1 ,......., bn are real numbers, then

 a1b1  .......  an bn  2   a12  .......  an 2 b12  .......  bn 2  (*)

Furthermore , if not all the bj  0 , then equality holds in (*) if and only if s   such that

a1  sb1 ,......., a n  sbn

Proof:

Define F :    by

F  t    a1  tb1   .......   a n  tbn 

2 2

  
F  t   a1  ....... an  2 a1b1  .......  a n bn  t  b1  .......  bn 2 t 2
2 2 2

It is clear that F  t   0, t   .

Hence,

F  t   At 2  2 Bt  C
With

2
A  b1  .......  bn 2

B  a1b1  .......  a n bn

2 2
C  a1  .......  a n

Since F  t   0 , it cannot have two distinct real roots. Therefore its discriminant:

D  B 2  4 AC  0


 4 a1b1  .......  a n bn   4 a1  ......  an 2 b1  .......  bn 2  0
2 2
 2

2

 4 a1b1  .......  a n bn   a1  ......  an  b
2
1
2
 .......  bn 2 
If  a1b1  .......  an bn  2   a12  ......  an 2 b12  .......  bn 2  , then D  0 , so there exists a unique root of

the quadratic equation F(t) = 0. This implies that:

a j  sbj  0 , for j  1,2,......., n

a j  sbj

On the other hand, if a j  sbj, j  1,......., n , then

 sb
1
2
 2

 .......  sbn 2  s 2 b1  .......  bn 2
2
 2

 2
 s 2 b1  .......  bn 2 b1  .......  bn 2  2


  sb1   .......   sbn  b1  .......  bn 2
2 2
 2
.

Task 2 = S  1 ;n  
n
 . Prove that inf S  0

Task 3 =
n m

S  1  1 ; m, n    . Prove that sup S  2 , inf S  0
Task 4 = 
S  1  1 ; m, n  
m n
 . Prove that 1 = sup S , -1 = inf S

Task 5 = S  , S   , u   . Prove that

(i). u  1 is an upper bound of S

n

(ii). u  1
n is not an upper bound of S
 CHAPTER THREE

SEQUENCES

3.1. Sequences and Their Limits

3.1.1. Definition: A sequence of real numbers is a function on the set N whose range is contained in

the set  . If X : N  R is a sequence, we denote this sequence by the notations : X ,  x n  or  x n : n  N  .

The real numbers so obtained are called the elements of the sequence, or the value of the sequence, denoted

by x n  or  n or z n  .

3.1.2. Examples:

1). a  , A   a, a,.......  constant sequence a (all of qhose elements equal a ).

2).   
S  1 : n  N  1, 1 , 1 ,....... .
n 2 3

3). Y   yn  , yn    1 n , n  N .


  1,1,1,.......,   1 ,....... .
n

5n  1
4). W   wn  , wn  ,n N
2n  3

 6 11 16. 5n  1 
 , , ,......, ,....... 
5 7 9 2n  3 

3.1.3. Definition : If X   xn  and Y   y n  are sequences of real numbers, then we define:

  Their sum to be the sequence X  Y   xn  yn ; n  N 

 Their difference to be the sequence X  Y   xn  yn ; n  N 

 Their product to be the sequence X  Y   xn  yn ; n  N 

If c  , the multiply of X by c to be the sequence cX   cxn ; n  N  .

 If Z   zn ; n    , zn  0, n  N , then the quotient of X and Z to be the sequence

X  xn 
  ; n  N  .
Z  zn 

The Limit of a Sequence

3.1.4. Definition

A sequence of real numbers X   xn  converges to x   if   0, k  k ( )  N  n  k :

xn  x   .

When a sequence X   xn  has a limit x   , it is denoted by xn  x, lim xn  x .

Note:

xn  x      xn  x  

 x    xn  x  

 xn   x   , x   

Examples :

1
1). xn  , n  N . xn  0
n

Proof: xn  0  1n  0  1
n

Let   0.
 1
By Archimedean Property ,  k  N such that  .
k

For n  k ,

1 1
xn  0   
n k

xn  0

1
2). xn  3  , n  N . xn  3
2n

1 1
Proof = xn  3  3  2n  3  2n

Let   0.

1 1
By Archimedean Property,  k   such that  2 or  , n  k ,
k 2k

1 1
xn  3    .
2n 2 k

xn  3

5n  1
3). xn  , n  N. xn  5
2n  3 2

Proof :

5n  1 5 10n  2  10n  15  13 13 13
xn  5      
2 2n  3 2 4n  6 4n  6 4n  6 4 n

Let   0.

1 4
There exists k  N such that  .
k 13

Hence for n  k :

13 13 13 4
xn  5      
2 4n 4k 4 13

xn  5
2
3.2. Limit Theorems

3.2.1. Definition

A sequence  x n  is said to be bounded if M  0 such that x n  M , n  N

Example:

1. x n  1 , n  N
n

x n  1  1  1, n  N
n n

 x n  is a bounded sequence.

2. x n    1 n , n  N

x n  1, n  N

n2
3. y n  ,n N
2n  1

n 1  3 1 3 1 3
 2 2    1

2n 1
2
2 
4 n  2 2 4  2

 yn  1, nN

Note:

 xn  is not a bounded sequence if M  0, n  N , xn  M

Example

1) xn  2 n , n  N

x n  2 n  2 n  1  1  1  n  n
n

By Archimedean Property: M  0, n  N  n  M .
 Hence M  0, n  N such that

xn  n  M

So,  x n  is not a bounded sequence.

2) xn  n 2 , n  N

xn  n 2

There is no M  0 such that x n  n  M , n  N

2

So ,  xn  is not a bounded sequence.

3.2.2. Theorem

If  xn  is convergent, then  xn  is bounded.

Proof

Assume that x n  x . So, for   1 , there exists k  N such that for n  k :

xn  x  1

Hence, for n  k :

xn  xn  x  x

 xn  x  x  1  x

Let M = maks  x1 , x 2 ,....., x k 1 ,1  x 

Then it follows that:

x n  M , n  N

3.2.3. Theorem

Let  xn  and  yn  are convergent, then:

(1)  xn  is convergent and lim   xn    lim  xn  ,  scalar

(2)  xn  y n  is convergent and lim  x n  y n   lim  x n   lim  y n 

 (3)  xn y n  is convergent and dan lim  x n y n   lim x n   lim y n 

 xn   x  lim  x n 
(4)   is convergent and lim  n   , if lim  y n   0, y n  0
 yn   y n  lim  y n 

Proof:

Assume that x n  x and y n  y

(1)  xn   x    xn  x    xn  x ,  scalar

Given any   0 . Since x n  x , then there exists k  k     N such that if n  k then


xn  x 
 1

Hence,


 xn   x   xn  x   
 1

Or  x n converge to  x .

(2)  xn  yn    x  y    xn  x    y n  y   xn  x  y n  y

Given any   0 .

 Since x n  x , then there exists k1  N such that if n  k1 then


xn  x 
2

 Since y n  y , then there exists k 2  N such that if n  k 2 then


yn  y 
2

Let k = max  k1 , k 2  , it follows that if n  k then:

 xn  yn    x  y   xn  x  y n  y
  
  
2 2

xn  y n  x  y .

(3) x n y n  xy  x n y n  x n y  x n y  xy

 xn  y n  y    xn  x  y

 xn  y n  y    xn  x  y  xn y n  y  xn  x y

Given any   0 .

Since x n  x , then there exists k1  N such that if n  k1 , then


xn  x 
2 y  1 .

 xn  is convergent, then  x n  is bounded. So, there exists M  0 such that x n  M , n  N .

Since y n  y then there exists k 2  N such that if n  k 2 then:


yn  y  .
2M

Let k = max  k1 , k 2  . It follows that if n  k :

 
xn yn  xy  M  y
2M 2 y  1

 
   .
2 2

Examples:

1
xn  2  2
n

3n  4 3
yn  
2n  1 2

 1 4
4 x n  4 2    8   8
 n n
 1 3n  4 7n 2  4n  1 7
xn  y n  2    
n 2n  1 2n 2  n 2

1  1 1
 2   2n  1 4n 
2
xn n  n n 4
 
y n 3n  4 3n  4 3n  4 3
2n  1

3.2.4. Theorem

If x n  x, x n  0, n  N then x  0 .

Proof:

Assume that x  0 , then    x  0 .

Since x n  x , then there is k  N such that if n  k :

xn  x   x

 x  xn  x   x

 2 x  xn  0 contrary with x n  0 .

3.2.5. Theorem

If x n  x, y n  y, x n  y n , n  N then x  y

Proof:

Since x n  y n , then y n  x n  0 . It follows that:

lim y n  x n   0
n ~

 lim y n  lim x n  0
n ~ n ~

 yx0

 y  x atau x  y .

3.2.6. Theorem
If X  ( xn ) is a convergent sequence and if a  xn  b , for all n  N , then a  lim( xn )  b .

Proof:

Let Y be the constant sequence (b,b,...). It follows from 3.2.5. that lim X  lim Y  b . Similarly one shows

that we have a  lim X .

3.2.7. Squeeze Theorem

If xn  y n  z n , n  N , xn  x and z n  x, then y n  x .

Proof:

By above theorem:

x  lim xn  lim yn dan lim yn  lim zn  x

n ~ n~ n ~ n ~

x  lim yn dan lim yn  x

n~ n ~

So lim yn  x .
n ~

3.2.8. Theorem

xn1
Let  xn  be a sequence of positive real numbers such that lim  L (exists). If L  1 then  xn 
n  ~ xn

converges and lim

n ~
 xn   0 .

Examples:

n
1).  xn  , xn  ,n N .
3n

xn 1 n  1 3n n 1 1
lim  lim n 1   lim  1
n  ~ xn n~ 3 n n ~ 3n 3

n
So  x n  is convergent and lim  0.
n ~ 3n

2). z n  n  1, n  N
 zn  1 n  2
 1
zn n 1

So  z n  is not convergent.

3.3. Monotone Sequences

3.3.1. Definition

Let X =  x n  be a sequence of real numbers. Then :

(a) X is increasing/non decreasing if x n  x n 1 , n  N .

(b) X is decreasing/non increasing if x n  x n 1 , n  N .

(c) X is monotone, if it is either increasing or it is decreasing.

Examples:

1
1). xn 
n

1
x n 1 
n 1

x n  x n 1 , n  N

So  x n  is decreasing.

2n  1
2). xn  ,n N
3n  5



2n 5 7 2
3 3  7

3n 53

3 9n  15

2 7
x n 1  
3 9n  24

x n  x n 1 , n  N . So  x n  is increasing.
 
 1 , n  100
3). yn   n

 n  1, n100

 yn  is not monotone

3.3.2. Monotone Convergence Theorem

Let  x n  is monotone.

 xn  is convergent if and only if it is bounded.

Further:

(a). If  x n  is increasing, then nlim  xn   sup  xn ; n  N  .

~

(b). If  x n  is decreasing, then nlim  xn   inf  xn ; n  N  .

~

Proof:

 It was seen that if  x n  is convergent, then it must be bounded.

 Let  x n  is a bounded monotone sequence.

Assume that  x n  is increasing , so x n  x n 1 , n  N

Let x = sup  x n : n  N  , then for each   0 , there exists k  N such that

x    xk

Since  x n  is increasing, then for n  k :

x    xk  xn  x  x  

It follows that for n  k :

xn  x  

So x n  x .
Note:

To know the convergence of the sequence, we can see the tail of the sequence.

Let Y   y1 , y 2 ,....., y n ,..... is a sequence of real numbers and if M is a given natural number, then the

M-tail of Y is the sequence:

YM   y M  n ; n  N    yM 1 , yM  2 ,.....

Example:

Y  1, 3, 5, 7, 9,11,13,....., 2n  1,.....

Y5   y 5 n : n  N    y 6 , y 7 , y 8 ,......  11,13,15, ....., 2n  1,..... .

Theorem:

Ley Y   y n ; n  N  is a sequence of real numbers and M  N .

The M-tail of Y, YM convergent  Y convergent.

In tis case, Lim Y  Lim YM .

Example:

1). xn  1 , n  N
n

 xn  is a bounded and decreasing sequence, then by MCT:


Lim x n  inf 1 ; n  N  0
n

1
2). Let the sequence  y n  , y1  1, yn 1   2 yn  3 , n  N
4

Show that  y n  convergent.

Proof:

y1  1, y 2 
1
 2  1  3  5 , y 3  1  2  5  3   11 ,.....
4 4 4 4  8
 Claim y n  y n 1 (increasing).

By induction:

n  1  y1  1  y2  5 (true)
4

Suppose that for n = k, y k  y k 1

Then for n = k + 1

1
y k 1   2 y k  3  1 y k  3  1 yk 1  3  1  2 yk 1  3  yk  2
4 2 4 2 4 4

Hence n  N , y n  y n 1 .

Claim 1  y n  2 (bounded)

n  1  1  y1  1  2 (true)

Suppose for n = k, 1  y k  2

Then for n = k + 1

1
y k 1   2 y k  3  1 y k  3 4  1  2  3 4  1 3 4
4 2 2

So, 1  y k 1  2 .

Hence, n  N , 1  yn  2.

Since  y n  is increasing and bounded, then by MCT,  y n  converges to a limit that is at most 2. In this case

it is not so easy to evaluate lim  y n  by calculating sup  y n : n  N  .

The 1-tail of Y  Y1   y1 n : n  N  .

Since Y   y n  converges to y, then Y1   y n 1  also converges to y.

So,

y  Lim  yn   Lim  yn 1 
 1 
 Lim   2 yn  3 
 4 

1 3 1 3
 Lim yn  Lim  Lim yn  .
2 4 2 4

1 3 1 3
y y  y  y 3 .
2 4 2 4 2

3.4. Subsequences and The Bolzano-Weirstrass Theorem

3.4.1. Definition :

Let X   x n  be a sequence of real numbers, and  rn  be a strictly increasing sequence of natural

numbers,that is rn  rn 1 , n . The sequence given by:


X 1  x r1 , x r2 , x r3 ,......., x rn ,....... 
is called a subsequence of X .

Examples:


X  1, 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ,......., 1 ,.......
2 3 4 5 n


X 1  1 , 1 , 1 ,......., 1
3 4 5 n2
,.......  subsequence of X

X 1  1, 1 , 1 ,......., 1
3 5 2n  1
,.......  subsequence of X

X 11  1 ,1, 1 , 1 , 1 ,.......
2 4 3 6
 not subsequence of X

Note: any tail of a sequence is a subsequence, bur not every subsequence of a given sequence need be a tail

of the sequence.

3.4.2. Theorem:
If a sequence X   x n  converges to x, then any subsequence of X also converegs to x.

Proof:

Let any   0 be given. Since x n  x ,then k  N , n  k : xn  x  

Since (rn ) is a strictly increasing sequence of natural number, then rn  n ( see by induction). Hence

n  k , rn  n  k so that xr  x   .
n

3.4.3. Divergence Criterion

Let X   x n  be a sequence of real numbers. The following statements are equivalent:

(i). X   x n  is divergent (does not converge to x   )

(ii).  o  0, k  N , rn  N  rn  k and xr n  x  

(iii).  o  0 dan X '   xr   xr  x   o , n  N

n n

Example:   1  divergent
n

Proof: Assume that   1  converges to x, then subsequence   1  converges to x, but

n n

X 1    1,1,1,1,.......  1

X 1  1,1,1,1,.......  1


   1
n
 divergent

Note :  x n  convergent   x n  bounded

 xn  bounded   x n  may not be convergent, example   1 n bounded but it not convergent.

Bolzano Weierstrass Theorem:

A bounded sequence of real numbers has a convergent subsequence.

Example: X   x n     1 , n  N
n

X bounded

X 1    1,1,1,.......  1 .

Theorem : Let  x n  be a bounded sequence. If x rn  x , then x n  x . (#)

 CAUCHY SEQUENCE

Definition :  xn  is a Cauchy sequence if   0, H  N  m, n  H : xm  xn  

Example:

1). xn  1 , n  N
n

Let any   0 given.

xm  xn  1  1  1  1  1  1
m n m n m n
 Choose H  N such that 1 
H 2

Hence for m, n  H :

xm  xn  1  1       .
H H 2 2

 xn  is Cauchy sequence.

2n  5
2). yn  ,n N
3n  1


 3 3 

2 n  1  13 2 13
3n 13

3 9n  3

Let any   0 given.

2 13   2 13 
ym  yn      
 3 9 m  3   3 9 n  3

13 13
 
9m  3 9n  3

13 13
 
9m  3 9n  3

13 13
 
9m  3 9n  3

13 13
 
9m 9n

1 9
Choose H  N such that 
H 26

Hence m, n  H :

13 9 13 9
ym  yn     
9 26 9 26
  yn  is Cauchy sequence.

z n    1 , n  N
n
3).

z m  z n    1    1
m n

Take   1

H  N , m, n  N , m is even, n is odd such that m, n  H

Hence:

z m  z n    1    1
m n

 1    1  2  

 zn  is not a Cauchy sequence.

Theorem:

(a).  x n  is a Cauchy sequence   x n  is a bounded sequence

(b).  x n  is a Cauchy sequence   x n  is a convergent sequence

Proof:

(a). Since  x n  is a Cauchy sequence then for   1 , H  N , m, n  H

xm  xn  1

Then n  H

xn  xn  x H  x H

 xn  x H  x H

 1  xH

Take M = maks  x1 , x 2 ,......., x H 1 , x H  1

Then n  N :
 xn  M .

(b). Let   0 be given.

Since  x n  is a Cauchy sequence, then H  N , m, n  H :

xm  xn   2 .

 xn  is a Cauchy sequence, then  x n  is bounded. By Bolzano Weirrstrass theorem,  sub sequence

 x  of  x
rn n  such that x r  x, x   .
n

 
Since x rn  x, then  k  N , k  H k   r1 , r2 ,....... such that rn  k :

xrn  x   .
2

So, for n  k :

xn  x  xn  xk  xk  x

 xn  xk  xk  x

   .
2 2

Example:

1
Let X   x n  , x1  1, x 2  2, x n   x n2  xn1  , n  2
2

Show that  x n  is convergent and determine to what a real number it converges?

Answer:

x1  1, x 2  2, x3  3 , x 4  7 , x5  13 ,......
2 4 8
 1  x n  2, n   x n  is bounded
The Monotone Convergence Theorem can not be used
 x n  does not monotone

See that:

x1  x 2  1  2  1

x 2  x3  2  3  1
2 2

x3  x 4  3  7  1  1 2
2 4 4 2

1
x n  x n 1  (chek by induction).
2 n 1

We have:

xn  xm  xn  xn 1  xn1  xn  2  xn 2  .......  xm 1  xm

 x n  x n 1  x n 1  x n  2  x n  2  x n  3  ....... x m 1  x m

1 1 1 1
 n 1
 n 11
 n  2 1
 .......  m 11
2 2 2 2

1  1 1 1 
 n 1 
1   2  .......  m  n 1 
2  2 2 2 

1  1  4
 
2 n 1  1  1  2 n
 2

1 
Take an arbritrary   0 . Choose H  N , H
 .
2 4

It follows that m, n  H :

 4 4 
xn  xm  n
 H  4  
2 2 4

 xn  is a Cauchy sequence , hence  x n  is convergent.

Look at for the odd element subsequence  x 2 n 1 

x1  1
x3  3  1  1
2 2
x5  13  1  1  1 2
8 2 2
x7  53  1  1  1 3  1 5
32 2 2 2
:
:
1 1 1
x 2 n1  1   3  .......  2n 1
2 2 2
  
1 
1 1  4 
 1 
n

2  1  1 
 4 
1 4 1 
 1   1  n 
2 3 4 
2 1  2
 1  1  n   1   5
3 4  3 3

So x n  5
3 .
 LIMIT OF FUNCTIONS

Definition

A  , c  

c is called a cluster point of A if   0 ,

V  c   A   c  

where V  c    c   , c    = neighborhood of c.

Examples

1) A   0,1  

2
 
  0, V 1  A  1  
2
  so 1
2 is a cluster point of A, 2 is not a cluster point of A since there

exist 
 0   1
2
 such that V  2   A   2  

1 
2) A   ; n  N 
n 

1
  0,  k  N ,  . V  0     ,   .
k

1 1
For n  k ,   .
n k

1  1 
V  0  A   : n  k    0   : n  k   
 n   n 
 So 0 is a cluster point of A.

Theorem

A  , c  

c is a cluster point of A   x n   A, x n  c, x n  c .

Proof

 Let c is a cluster point of A

n  N , V 1  c   A   c   x n  V 1  c   A, x n  c
. So, .
n n

xn  V 1  c   1 1
It follows that and x n  A, x n  c , or x n   c  , c  , x n  A, x n  c
n  n n

1 1
Hence   x n  c  , x n  A, x n  c .
n n

1 1 xn  c  0 .
Since lim   0 and lim  0 , then by squeeze theorem: lim
n ~
n ~ n n  ~ n

So,  x n   A, x n  c, x n  c

 Let  x n   A, x n  c, x n  c . It means that for   0 , there exist k  N such that for

n  k : xn  c  

   xn  c   , xn  c, xn  A

 c    xn  c   , xn  c , xn  A

So x n  V  c  , x n  c, x n  A . Hence, x n  V  c   A   c or V  c   A   c   .

Definition

Let A   , f : A   be a function and c is a cluster point of A.

Suppose that there exists an L   and for every   0 , there exists a     c,    0 such that whenever

x  A, 0  x  c   then

f  x  L   .

In this case we say that f(x) converges to L as x goes to c.

We write:

lim f  x   L     0       c,    0  x, x  c    f  x   L   
x c

If no such L exists, then we say that the limit does not exist or that f diverges at c.

Examples:

1) lim
x c
 3x  2  3c  2, x

Proof

Let   0 arbitrary.

3 x  2   3c  2   3 x  c


Choose   . It follows that for every x, 0  x  c   then:
c


3 x  2   3c  2  3 x  c  3  3  .
3

x2  9
2) lim 6
x 3 x3

Proof

x2  9
6  x3
x3

Let   0 arbitrary.

Choose    . It follows that for every x, 0  x  3   then:

 x2  9
x3
6  x3 < .

3) lim
x c
 
4 x 2  x  8  4c 2  c  8

Proof

4 x 2
  
 x  8  4c 2  c  8  4 x 2  4c 2  x  c

 4 x 2  c 2    x  c 

 4 x  c  x  c    x  c 

  x  c   4 x  c   1

 4 x  4c  1 x  c

  4 x  4 c  1 x  c

For x  c 1 :

x  x  c  c  x  c  c 1  c

So

4x 2
 x  8   4c 2  c  8   4 x  4 c  1 x  c

41  c   4 c  1 x  c

  8 c  5 x  c


  

Let   0 arbitrary. Choose   min 1,



 8 c 5 


Hence for every x, 0  x  c   :

4 x 2
  
 x  8  4c 2  c  8   8 c  5 x  c

  8 c  5


 8c  5 
8c  5
Theorem (Sequence criterion for limit)

lim f  x   L   x n   A, x n  c, x n  c  f  x n   L
x c

Proof

 Let lim f  x   L , it means that

x c

   0      c,    0    x,0  x  c    f  x   L   

Let any  x n   A, x n  c, x n  c .

For   0 above, there exists k  N such that if n  k then

xn  c   .

Hence for n  k :

f  xn   L   .

 Assume that lim f  x   L . It means that  0  0,   0, x  A  x  c  

x c

1
but f  x   L   0 . Hence, n  N , xn  A  xn  c  but
n

f  xn   L   0 .

So   x n   A, x n  c and x n  c but

f  xn   L   0 .

So f  x n   L, contrary.

Divergence Criterion

Let A  , f : A   and c   is a cluster point of A.

(a) lim f  x   L   x n   A, xn  c, xn  c but f  x n   L.

x c
(b) lim f  x  does not exist   x n   A, x n  c, x n  c but  f  x n   divergent.
xc

Examples

1
1) f  x   cos , x  0
x

1
Let xn  , xn  0, xn  0
 n  1

 1 
But f  xn   cos   cos n  1    1 n1 , n  N
 xn 

 lim f  x  does not exist.

x 0

1
2) g  x   , x  3
x3

1
Let x n  3  , x n  3 and x n  3
n

1 1
g  xn    n
But xn  3  1
  3    3
 n

 lim g  x  does not exist

x 3

 x  2, x  3
3). f  x    2
1  x , x  3

1
Let x n  3  , x n  3, x n  3
n

1 1
f  xn   xn  2  3  2  5  5
n n

1
xn  3  , x n  3, x n  3
n

2
 1  6 1  6 1
 - 8.
f  xn   1  xn
2
 1   3    1   9   2   8   2
 n  n n  n n
  lim f  x  does not exist
x3

Definition

A  , f , g : A  

(1) f  g  x   f  x   g  x 

 fg  x   f  x  g  x  , x  A

(2) b  ,  bf  x   bf  x  , x  A

 f  f  x
(3) h x   0,   x   , x  A
h h x 

Theorem of Limit of Functions

f ,g : A

c is a cluster point of A

If lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M , then

xc x c

(1) lim  f  x    L,   
x c

(2) lim f  g  x   L  M
x c

(3) lim fg  x   LM
x c

 f  L
(4) lim  x   ,M  0
x c g M
 

Proof

(1) Let  x n   A, x n  c, x n  c so f  x n   L

Hence

 f  xn    f  xn    L

 lim  f  x    L
x c
(2) Let  x n   A, x n  c, x n  c

Since lim f  x   L, lim g  x   M then

x c x c

f  x n   L dan g  x n   M

Hence

 f  g  xn   f  xn   g  xn   L  M

 lim f  g  x   L  M
x c

Examples :

 x  2, x  3
1) f  x    2
1  x , x  3

 5, x  3
g x  
 8, x  3

lim f  x  and lim g  x  do not exist.

xc xc

 x  3, x  3
f  g  x    2
9  x , x  3

lim f  g  x   0  lim f  x   lim g  x 

x 3 x 3 x 3

2) lim f  x   3, lim f  x  do not exist

x 2 x 3

lim g  x  does not exist, lim g  x   8

x 3 x 2

 5 x  2 , x  3
 fg  x   
 2

 8 1 x , x  3

lim fg  x   24
x2

lim fg  x  does not exist

x 3
  x  3, x  3
3) f  x    2
1  x , x  3

 3, x  3
g  x  
2, x  2

 3 x  3 , x  3
 
 fg  x   3 1  x 2 ,2  x  3

 2 1 x2 , x  2
 
lim fg  x  tidak ada
x 3

Karena lim f  x  tidak ada, lim g  x  ada, lim fg  x  tidak ada

x 3 x 3 x 2

Karena lim f  x  ada, lim g  x  tidak ada.

x 2 x2

Teorema

f : A  , f  x   0

lim f  x  exists  lim f  x   0

xc x c

Proof

Let lim f  x   L . Assume that L  0

x c

Take    L  0 , then there exixts   0 such that for each x  A,0  x  c   :

f  x  L   L

 L  f  x  L   L

 2 L  f  x   0 . Contrary with f  x   0

Squeeze Theorem

Let A  

f , g, h : A  
 c is a cluster point of A.

If f  x   g  x   h x  , x  A, x  c and

lim f  x   lim h x   L , then lim g  x   L .

x c x c x c

CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

Definition:

f :A

c A , c is a cluster point of A.

f continuous at c     0      c,    0   x  A, x  c    f  x   f  c     .
Note:

A function f continuous on A if f continuous at every point of A .

f discontinuous if f does not continuous.

Or:

A function f continuous at c if:

(1). f  c  exists

(2). Lim f  x  exists

xc

(3). Lim f  x  f  c
x c

Example:

 3 x  1, x  1
1). f  x   2
 x  3, x  1

f 1  4

Lim f  x   4
x 1

f 1  Lim f  x 
x 1

So f continuous at 1.

3 x  1, x  1
2). g  x  
2 ,x 1

g 1  2

Lim g  x   4
x 1

g 1  Lim g  x 
x 1
 So g discontinuous at 1.

Theorem:

f :A

c A

f continuous at c   xn   A, xn  c, xn  c  f  xn   f  c  .

Proof: analog in sequential criterion for limit.

Theorem:

f :A

c A

f discontinuous at c   xn   A, xn  c, xn  c  f  xn   f  c 

Example:

1, x rational
1). f  x  
0, x irrational

For c rational, f  c   1

Let  x n  be an irrational sequence , x n  c

x n irrasional  f  x n   0, n  N . Hence f  x n   0  f  c 

So f discontinuous at c rational.

For c irrational, f  c   0

Let  y n  be a rational sequence, y n  c

y n rasional  f  y n   1, n  N . Hence f  y n   1  f  c 

So f discontinuous at c irrational.

2). f :   continuous

f  r   0, r rational
 Prove f  x   0, x  

Proof:

It is enough to prove f  x   0, x irrasional

Let any x irrational. Since f continuous on  , then f continuous at x. Let a sequence of

rational number  rn  , rn  x . Hence f  rn   f  x  .

In other hand, f  rn   0; n . So f  rn   0

By uniqueness of limit, f  x   0 , x irrational.

3). f :  

 x  3, x rasional
f  x  
8  3 x, x irrasional

Find the continuity point of f

Ans:

Assume that f continuous at c.

 Let any sequence  x n   , xn  c , then f ( xn )  f (c) .

 x  3, xn rational
f  xn    n
8  3 xn , xn irrational

Since x n  c then  x n  rational dan  x n  irrational also converge to c.

So,

yn  xn  3  c  3

z n  8  3 x n  8  3c

In other hand,  yn  and  zn  are subsequences of  f  xn   . Since f continuous at c, then

y n  f  c  and z n  f  c 

By uniqueness of limit :

f  c   c  3  8  3c so c  5 .
4

Theorem:

f ,g : A   , c  A.

f,g continuous at c, then

(i).  f continuous at c,  scalar .

(ii). f  g continuous at c

(iii). fg continuous at c .
 f
(iv). g continuous at c, g  c   0 .

Theorem:

Let A, B  

f :A

g:B

aach are functions with f  A  B .

If f continuous at c  A and g continuous at b  f  c  , then g  f : A   continuous at C .

Proof:

Let any  xn  , xn  c

Since f continuous at c , then f  xn   f  c 

Since g continuous at f  c  then g  f  x n    g  f  c   that means  g  f  x n    g  f  c  .

Example:

1). f  x  x  3

g  x  x 2  1

f continuous at 0

g continuous at 3  f  0 

 g  f  x   g  f  x    g  x  3   x  3 2  1 continuous at 0

2). f  x  x  1

0, x  1
g x  
2, x  1

f continuous at 0 but g discontinuous at 1  f  0 

 0, x  0
 g  f  x   
2, x  0

 g  f  discontinuous at 0.

UNIFORM CONTINUITY

Examples

1. Let f :   

f  x   5 x, x  

Let any   0 and any c   .

f  x   f  c   5 x  5c  5 x  c   5 x  c  5 x  c


Choose     0
5


Hence x, c  , x  c   : f  x   f  c   5 x  c  5  5  
5

So f continuous at c. Since c   arbitrary, then f continuous on  .

1
2. g  x   , x  0
x

Let any   0 .

Let c      x   : x  0 .

1 1 cx cx 1
g  x  g  c      xc
x c xc xc xc

c c c
If x  c  then   x  c 
2 2 2

c c
c  xc
2 2
 c 3c
 x
2 2

2 1 2
  
3c x c

So

1 2 1 2
g  x  g  c  xc   xc  2 xc
xc c c c

 c c 2 
Choose   min  , 
2 2 

Hence x, c    , x  c   :

2 2 2 c 2
g x  g  c  xc   
c2 c 2
c2 2

So g continuous at c that means g continuous on   .

Definition

Let A  

f :A

f is said uniformly continuous on A if for each   0 , there exists        0 such that for x, c  A ,

xc  :

f  x  f  c   .

In the first example, f uniformly continuous while (2) f just continuous.

Un uniformly Continuous Criterion

Let A   . f :A

These statements are equivalent:

(i) f is not uniformly continuous on A

(ii)  0  0    0, x , c  A, x  c   but f  x   f  c    0

 1
(iii)  0  0, n  N , x n , y n  A, x n  y n  but f  x n   f  y n    0
n

Or

 0  0,  x n  ,  y n   A, x n  y n  0 but f  x n   f  y n    0

Example

1
1. g  x   , x  0
x

Let  0  3

1
xn 
n

1
yn 
n3

1 1
xn  y n    0 but g  xn   g  yn   n   n  3 33
n n3

g is not uniformly continuous on  x   : x  0

2. f  x   x 2 , x   . f is not uniformly continuous on R.

Let  0  2

1
xn  n 
n

yn  n
 1
xn  y n  0
n

1
f  xn   f  yn   2  2
n2

f is not uniformly continuous on  .

1
3. f  x  , x  a, a  0
x

x, y   x   : x  a, a  0

1 1 yx 1
f  x  f  y      x y
x y xy xy

1 1
  x y
a a

1
 x y
a2

Let any   0 and x, y   x   : x  a

Choose   a 2   0 

Hence x, y   x   : x  a, a  0 , x  y   :

1 1
f  x  f  y   2
x y  2
a 2  
a a

So f is uniformly continuous on  x   : x  a, a  0

Theorem

Let f : [a,b] R be a continuous function. Then f is uniformly continuous

Example:

f  x  x , x   0, 2

f continuous on  0, 2 ,  0, 2 is closed and bounded, then f is uniformly continuous on  0, 2 .

Definition

A

f :A

f is said to be Lipschitz function (satisfied Lipschitz condition) on A if there exist K  0 such that for

each x, y  A :

f  x  f  y   K x  y

Theorem:

f :A

If f satisfied Lipschitz condition on A, then f uniformly continuous on A.

Proof

f is Lipschitz function on A, then there exist K  0 such that x, y  A

f  x  f  y   K x  y


Let any   0 . Choose   . Hence x, y  A, x  y   :
K

f  x  f  y  

So f is uniformly continuous on A.

Example:

1
h x   , x  a, a  0
x

h is Lipschitz function on  x   : x  a, a  0 , WHY? By the above theorem, then h uniformly continuous

on  x   : x  a, a  0 .

Note:
A uniformly continuous function may not be a Lipschitz function.

Counter example:

f  x  x , x   0,1

f is uniformly continuous on  0,1 WHY?

But f is not a Lipschitz function on  0,1 .

Prove:

Assume that f be a Lipschitz function on  0,1 , then there exists K  0 such that x, y   0,1 :

f  x  f  y   K x  y

But,

1
x   0,1 , y  0   0,1
2K 2

1 1
f  x  f  y   x 0  0 
2K 2 K 2

1 1
K x  y  K x  0  Kx  K  2

2K 2K

1 1 1 1
   contrary.
K 2 2K 2 2

Theorem

f : X Y uniformly continuous.

 xn  is a Cauchy sequence in X.

then  f  x n   is a Cauchy sequence in Y.

Prove
Let any   0 . Since f : X Y uniformly continuous, then there exists   0 such that

x, y  X , x  y   :

f  x  f  y   

Since  x n  is a Cauchy sequence in X, then for   0 above, there exists H  N such that m, n  H :

xn  xm  

Hence for m, n  H :

f  xn   f  xm    .

Example

1
f  x  , x  (0,1)
x

1
Let a sequence  x n    0,1 , x n  .
n

 xn  is a Cauchy sequence but f  x n   n is not a Cauchy sequence.

1
So f  x   is not uniformly continuous on  0,1 .
x

Teorema

f is uniformly continuous on  a, b  if and only if f can be expanded into a continuous function on  a, b

Proof

 Since f continuous on  a, b then f is uniformly continuous on  a, b . Hence, f is uniformly

continuous on  a, b  .

 Let f is uniformly continuous on  a, b  , then f is continuous on (a,b)

We will prove that f can be expanded into a continuous function at a and b.

Without loss generality, we will show that lim f  x   L exist  .
xa

a is a cluster limit of  a, b  , then there exists  x n    a, b  such that x n  a . Hence  xn  is a Cauchy

sequence, so  f  x n   is a Cauchy sequence such that  f  x n   convergent.

So lim
n ~
 f  xn    L exist 

If  y n    a, b  arbitrary, y n  a then

lim y n  x n   a  a  0
n ~

By uniformly continuity of f ,

lim  f  yn    lim  f  yn   f  xn    lim  f  xn  

n ~ n ~ n ~

 0 L  L.

Since for each sequence that converges to a, we have the same value, then by the sequence criterion of limit,

f has a limit L in a . Define f  a   L , then f is continuous at a .

Analogue for point b.

So f can be expanded into a continuous function on  a, b .