Part II"

Converter Dynamics and Control!

7. !AC equivalent circuit modeling!

8. !Converter transfer functions!
9.  Controller design!
10.  Input filter design!
11. !AC and DC equivalent circuit modeling of the
discontinuous conduction mode!
12. !Current programmed control!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 1! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

 Chapter 7. AC Equivalent Circuit Modeling!

7.1 !Introduction!
7.2 !The basic AC modeling approach!
7.3 !State-space averaging!
7.4 !Circuit averaging and averaged switch modeling!
7.5 !The canonical circuit model!
7.6 !Modeling the pulse-width modulator!
7.7 !Summary of key points!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 2! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

 7.1. !Introduction!

Objective: maintain v(t) A simple dc-dc regulator system, employing a

equal to an accurate, buck converter!
constant value V.! Power Switching converter Load
input
There are disturbances:! +

•  in vg(t)! vg(t) + v(t)

– R
•  in R! Feedback
connection
–
There are uncertainties:!
Transistor
gate driver
•  in element Compensator
c(t) v
Pulse-width c v
values! modulator Gc(s) –+

•  in Vg! c(t) vc(t) Voltage

reference vref
•  in R

dTs Ts t t

Controller

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 3! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

 Applications of control in power electronics!

DC-DC converters!
Regulate dc output voltage.!
Control the duty cycle d(t) such that v(t) accurately follows a reference
signal vref.!
DC-AC inverters!
Regulate an ac output voltage. !
Control the duty cycle d(t) such that v(t) accurately follows a reference
signal vref (t).!
AC-DC rectifiers!
Regulate the dc output voltage.!
Regulate the ac input current waveform.!
Control the duty cycle d(t) such that ig (t) accurately follows a reference
signal iref (t), and v(t) accurately follows a reference signal vref.!
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 4! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
 Converter Modeling!
Applications!
Aerospace worst-case analysis!
Commercial high-volume production: design for reliability and yield!
High quality design!
Ensure that the converter works well under worst-case conditions!
–  Steady state (losses, efficiency, voltage regulation)!
–  Small-signal ac (controller stability and transient response)!
Engineering methodology!
Simulate model during preliminary design (design verification)!
Construct laboratory prototype converter system and make it work under
nominal conditions!
Develop a converter model. Refine model until it predicts behavior of
nominal laboratory prototype!
Use model to predict behavior under worst-case conditions!
Improve design until worst-case behavior meets specifications (or until
reliability and production yield are acceptable)!
!
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 5! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
 Objective of Part II!
Develop tools for modeling, analysis, and design of converter control
systems!
Need dynamic models of converters:!
How do ac variations in vg(t), R, or d(t) affect the output voltage v(t)?!
What are the small-signal transfer functions of the converter?!
•  Extend the steady-state converter models of Chapters 2 and 3, to
include CCM converter dynamics (Chapter 7)!
•  Construct converter small-signal transfer functions (Chapter 8)!
•  Design converter control systems (Chapter 9)!
•  Design input EMI filters that do not disrupt control system operation
(Chapter 10)!
•  Model converters operating in DCM (Chapter 11)!
•  Current-programmed control of converters (Chapter 12)!
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 6! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
 Modeling!

•  Representation of physical behavior by mathematical means!

•  Model dominant behavior of system, ignore other insignificant
phenomena!
•  Simplified model yields physical insight, allowing engineer to
design system to operate in specified manner!
•  Approximations neglect small but complicating phenomena!
•  After basic insight has been gained, model can be refined (if
it is judged worthwhile to expend the engineering effort to do
so), to account for some of the previously neglected
phenomena!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 7! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

nd what is most important. Once this basic insight is gained, it may be
efine the model, by accounting for some of the previously ignored phe-
life that real, physical systems are complex, and their detailed analysis
ntractable and useless mathematical mess. Approximate models are an
ng understanding and Finding the response to ac variations"
physical insight.
Neglecting
apter 2, the switching ripple is small the switching
in a well-designed ripple! operat-
converter
uction mode (CCM). Hence, we should ignore the switching ripple, and
ing ac variations in the converter waveforms. For example, suppose that
Gate drive!
roduced intoSuppose
the control signal vc (t),
the control (a)!
such that
1

signal varies sinusoidally:! vc (t)

0.5
vc (t) = Vc + Vcm cos !m t (7.1)
0 t
20 Ts
onstants, |VThis causes the duty
cm | ⌧ Vc , and the modulation frequency !m is much smaller
0 5 10 15
cycle to be modulated (b)! iL (t)
ching frequency ! S =
sinusoidally:!
2⇡ f s . This control signal
6
is fed into
hiL (t)ia
T
pulse-width
s
generates a gate drive signal having switching 4
frequency f s = 1/T s
during each switching
d(t) = D + period
Dm cos depends
mt on the2 control signal vc (t) applied
e resulting transistor
Assume Dgate and D drive aresignal is illustrated
0 in Fig. 7.2(a), and a t
m 0 5 10 15 20 Ts
tor current and output⏐D
constants, voltage
m⏐ < D,
waveforms iL (t) and v(t) are illustrated in
−13
m of v(t) isandillustrated in Fig. 7.3. This
the modulation (c)!
spectrum
−14
contains
v(t) components at
y as well asfrequency
its harmonicsωm is and
much sidebands; these−15
components
hv(t)iT s are small in
hing ripple smaller
is small.than the converter
In addition, the spectrum−16 contains a low-frequency
switching frequency ωs = t
ulation frequency
2πfs.! ! m . The magnitude and phase
−17 of this component de-
0 5 10 15 20 Ts
ntrol signal and duty cycle variation, but also on the frequency response
8!
neglect Fundamentals
the switchingof Power Electronics!
ripple, then this low-frequency component Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
remains
 Output voltage spectrum"
with sinusoidal modulation of duty cycle!

Spectrum Modulation Switching Switching

frequency and its frequency and harmonics
of v(t) harmonics sidebands

{
{
{
m s

Contains frequency components at:! With small switching ripple, high-

•  Modulation frequency and its
harmonics!
•  Switching frequency and its
harmonics!
•  Sidebands of switching frequency!
Fundamentals of Power Electronics!
frequency components (switching
harmonics and sidebands) are small.!
If ripple is neglected, then only low-
frequency components (modulation
frequency and harmonics) remain.!
9! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
 Objective of ac converter modeling!

•  Predict how low-frequency variations in duty cycle induce

low-frequency variations in the converter voltages and
currents!
•  Ignore the switching ripple!
•  Ignore complicated switching harmonics and sidebands!
Approach:!
•  Remove switching harmonics by averaging all waveforms
over one switching period!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 10! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

 Averaging to remove switching ripple!

Average over one switching Note that, in steady-state,!

period to remove switching
quivalent Circuit Modeling
ripple:!
vL(t) Ts
=0
ddhi (t)iTTss
i LL(t)
L L == hv L (t)iT s
vL(t) iC(t) =0
dt
dt Ts Ts

d dhv C (t)iT s
vC(t)
C C T s = hiC (t)iT
= i C(t) T s (7.2)
dt dt s
by inductor volt-second
balance and capacitor charge
enotes the average of x(t) over an interval of length T s :
where! balance.!
Z t+T s /2
1
hx(t)iT s = x(⌧)d⌧ (7.3)
Ts t T s /2

loy the basic approximation of removing the high-frequency switching ripple

ver one switching period. Yet the average value is allowed to vary from one
d to the next, such that low-frequency variations are modeled. In e↵ect, the
11!
e” of Eq. (7.3) constitutes
Fundamentals low-pass filtering of the
of Power Electronics! waveform.Chapter
A few of equivalent
7: AC the circuit modeling!

nces on averaged modeling of switching converters are listed at the end of this
 Nonlinear averaged equations!

The averaged voltages and currents are, in general, nonlinear

functions of the converter duty cycle, voltages, and currents. Hence,
the averaged equations!

d i L(t) Ts
L = vL(t)
dt Ts

d vC(t) Ts
C = i C(t)
dt Ts

constitute a system of nonlinear differential equations.!

Hence, must linearize by constructing a small-signal converter model.!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 12! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

 Small-signal modeling of the diode!

Nonlinear +
Linearization of the diode i-v
diode, driven i = I+i characteristic about a quiescent
by current operating point!
v = V+v
source having
a DC and small Actual
– nonlinear
AC component! 5A
characteristic
i
4A Linearized
Quiescent function
3A operating
point i(t)
Small-signal i + 2A I
AC model!
v 1A
rD
0
– 0 0.5 V 1V
v
v(t)

V
Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 13! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!
 Buck-boost converter:"
nonlinear static control-to-output characteristic!

0 0.5 1 D
0
V = Vg D/(1 – D)!

Quiescent
operating
point

–Vg Example: linearization

Linearized
function at the quiescent
operating point!

D = 0.5

Actual
nonlinear
V characteristic

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 14! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!

 Result of averaged small-signal ac modeling!

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model!

Vg – V d (t)
L
1:D D :1

+
–
+

vg(t) +
– I d (t) I d (t) C v(t) R

buck-boost example!

Fundamentals of Power Electronics! 15! Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling!