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Manufactured Feldspar-quartz Sand for Glass

Industry from Gneiss Quarry Rock Fines Using Dry
Rare-earth Magnetic Separation

Luanna C. Moura, Flávio P. André, Hayla Miceli, Reiner Neumann & Luis
Marcelo Tavares

To cite this article: Luanna C. Moura, Flávio P. André, Hayla Miceli, Reiner Neumann & Luis
Marcelo Tavares (2019): Manufactured Feldspar-quartz Sand for Glass Industry from Gneiss
Quarry Rock Fines Using Dry Rare-earth Magnetic Separation, Mineral Processing and Extractive
Metallurgy Review, DOI: 10.1080/08827508.2019.1643341

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2019.1643341

Published online: 02 Aug 2019.

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MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2019.1643341

Manufactured Feldspar-quartz Sand for Glass Industry from Gneiss Quarry Rock
Fines Using Dry Rare-earth Magnetic Separation
a
Luanna C. Moura , Flávio P. Andréa, Hayla Miceli a
, Reiner Neumannb, and Luis Marcelo Tavares a

a
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – COPPE/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; bCentre for
Mineral Technology (CETEM), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Feldspar concentrates, which have important applications in industry, have been mostly produced from Feldspar; high-intensity
pegmatites, granites, and sands from rivers. The metropolitan area of Rio de Janeiro contains major magnetic separation; dry
deposits of gneiss rocks which are the basis of crushed aggregate production. These rocks not only processing; biotite; gneiss
contain large amounts of feldspars, but also of mafic minerals. The paper demonstrates the use of rare-
earth magnetic separation (REMS) in dry processing of a manufactured fine aggregate from a gneiss
quarry. By removing iron-rich components from the low-value fine aggregate, a higher-added value
feldspar-quartz concentrate for application in glass industry is produced. It is demonstrated that three-
stage separation was successful in reaching the product specifications for use as fluxing agent and
stabilizer in amber glass production. In order to demonstrate the robustness of the separation strategy,
three different rock types present in the quarry were processed and results demonstrated that REMS is
able to reach the manufacturer specification regarding iron content (<0.3% Fe2O3 in the product) in spite
of the variation in feed composition. An industrial flowsheet on how this technology can be deployed in
a plant producing quarry rock is proposed.

1. Introduction in the order of 145 million tons (Pereira 2017). Its production
is carried out mostly from pegmatites, as a by-product from
Feldspars are the most abundant minerals in the Earth’s crust,
processing of quartz, gemstones, gold, beryl and lithium
accounting for 60% of it (Potter 2006). They are aluminum
minerals, among others (Pereira 2017) and more recently
silicate minerals that contain varying proportions of potas-
from dimension stone tailings (Silva et al. 2019).
sium, sodium, and/or calcium (Klein and Dutrow 2008).
Transportation of goods in general in Brazil relies strongly
Feldspars are widely used in the glass and ceramic indus-
on trucks and is therefore costly. Given the attractive,
tries. They are used in the production of wall and floor tiles
although comparatively modest selling value of feldspars, dis-
and grès porcelanato porcelain stoneware, besides different
tances from the feldspar-rich mineral deposits to the glass or
types of glasses (Potter 2006; Zhang et al. 2018). Glass man-
ceramic manufacturers ought to be minimized. This is impor-
ufacture encompasses an enormous range of compositions
tant not only from the economic standpoint, but also from the
and product types, for which feldspars act both as fluxing
environmental sustainability, given the greenhouse gas emis-
agents and as stabilizers. While fluxes are mainly given by
sions associated to transportation in diesel trucks. In Rio de
K2O and Na2O, which lower the melting temperature of
Janeiro, glass manufacturers rely on feldspar produced in
a glass batch, the stabilizers, given by either Al2O3 or CaO,
other states, so that a significant fraction of the final cost of
impart resistance to physical and chemical attacks (Potter
the product is associated to road transport. On the other
2006). For instance, in the United States, feldspar for clear
hand, several quarries producing crushed aggregates from
glass manufacturing is typically finer than either 850 or
gneiss rocks operate in the state. Fine products from these
425 µm, and contains 4–6% K2O, 4–8% Na2O, approximately
quarries, which found only marginal applications in the past,
19% Al2O3 and 0.08% Fe2O3 (Potter 2006).
are being progressively more used in mortars and concrete
In the United States, feldspars have been processed for the
(Gonçalves et al. 2007; Miceli et al. 2017), but their selling
production of either feldspar concentrates or feldspar-quartz
price is still comparatively small. In some of the quarries, the
mixtures from pegmatites, alaskites, aplites, granites, and
feldspar content of the rock exploited is high, so that if ferrous
feldspatic sand from rivers. Modern sands are feldspar-
contaminants are removed, a feldspar-quartz concentrate
quartz mixtures and currently make up part of the feldspar
could be offered to the glass industry at competitive prices.
market and have been a significant portion of the industry
Different technologies have been used for producing feld-
(Potter 2006). Brazil is responsible for a significant production
spar concentrates from rocks, including gravity concentration,
of feldspars, in the order of half a million tons in 2015 and is
flotation, magnetic separation, and leaching (Bhattacharya
one of the few countries that have an estimate of its reserves,

CONTACT Luis Marcelo Tavares tavares@metalmat.ufrj.br Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro –
COPPE/UFRJ, Cx. Postal 68505, CEP 21941-972, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
© 2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 L. C. MOURA ET AL.

Table 1. Specifications of feldspar-quartz sand for amber glass from a magmatic series of rocks with low contents of quartz, evolving
a manufacturer located in Rio de Janeiro.
to granodiorite and granite to the north (Heilbron et al. 2016).
Content Sample selection was based on compositional variations
K2O 2–6% identified at the mine face, resulting in three lithological
Na2O 2.5–8%
Al2O3 18–21% groups that could be identified by visual inspection. Group
Fe2O3 <0.3% A consisted of a dark-colored porphyritic rock with lepido-
Loss on ignition <1%
Top size 850 µm blastic texture and feldspar phenocrystals. Group B is com-
posed of rocks containing dark-colored matrix and fine flaky
grains, with centimetric light pink feldspar porphyroblasts.
Group C is leucocratic, with pinkish coloration, attributed to
and Das 1994; Kangal and Guney 2002; Potter 2006; Heyes
the presence of alkali feldspar. Samples were collected from
et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2018; Silva et al. 2019). In Brazil,
the stockpile that feeds the secondary crushing stage. Over
restrictions are growing steeply regarding industrial use of
100 kg of samples from each of these three rock types were
water in the mining industry, more so in the case of mining
taken to the laboratory and crushed in jaw, rolls and cone
activities in the vicinity of large urban centers such as Rio de
crushers below 3.35 mm so as to mimic the multistage indus-
Janeiro. Dry processing becomes the most sustainable
trial operations. In addition, a representative sample of the
approach, in particular whenever thermal drying can be
fine product from the crushing plant was also collected and is
avoided. Dry high-intensity magnetic separation is particu-
known to represent a blend of the rock types A, B and C, in
larly attractive in this case, given the tremendous develop-
particular B and C. This sample was identified as sample X.
ments of the technology that occurred in recent decades
The four crushed samples were then sieved into narrow size
(Wills and Napier-Munn 2006; Tripathy et al. 2016, 2017).
ranges for liberation analyzes. These consisted of inspection of
Some of its advantages include the low energy consumption,
particles using a stereoscopic microscope to estimate the propor-
the high field intensities that can be reached, and the compact
tion of particles that were either composed exclusively of the mafic
design of the equipment. This process has been successfully
minerals, felsic minerals and those that were locked. In the present
used from preconcentration to cleaning stages, and industrial
work a particle was considered liberated if it contained more than
uses include removal of iron oxides from quartz or feldspar
about 95% of either mafic or felsic minerals.
for sand purification (Bhattacharya and Das 1994; Burat et al.
With the aim of reaching the desired product size specifi-
2007; Tripathy et al. 2017).
cation (850–212 µm), the four samples were additionally
The present work analyzes the application of dry high-
screened in the laboratory so as to mimic an industrial screen-
intensity magnetic separation in an industrial roll separator
ing operation using an 850 µm sieve, while screening with the
to concentrate fine aggregates, from an aggregate crushing
212 µm sieve would mimic high-precision separation in
plant located in Rio de Janeiro, with the aim of obtaining
a V-type air classifier (Johansson and Evertsson 2012).
a feldspar-silica mixture. The sensitivity of the process to deal
with rocks with different compositions that are found in the
deposit is analyzed in great detail. The product, hereby called
manufactured feldspar-quartz sand has an estimated market 2.2. Magnetic separation experiments
demand of 6000–8000 tons per month in the state by amber
Each sample containing about 50 kg and particle size between
glass manufacturers. Specifications sought were reasonably
850 and 212 µm was then subjected to dry separation in batch
similar to those given by Potter (2006), although the glass
mode in an industrial dry high-intensity roll separator, shown in
manufacturer in question was more tolerant to several oxides,
Figure 1. The experiments were performed in an industrial two-
as shown in Table 1. The work then aims to demonstrate that
stage separator, equipped with 2 m long, 240 mm diameter rolls
the demand for feldspar-quartz sand can be supplied locally
in which the first stage has an average magnetic field intensity of
by retrofitting a crushed aggregate plant by inclusion of clas-
0.20 T (standard deviation of 0.03T), whereas the second applies
sification and dry rare earth magnetic concentration stages in
the field of 0.73 T (standard deviation of 0.01 T). While the first
processing the fines.
stage is responsible for removing any ferromagnetic or strongly
magnetic minerals present in the feed, the second stage is meant
to separate the diamagnetic minerals from the paramagnetic
2. Experimental ones. In each roll, separation has been carried out with
a nonmagnetic product and a magnetic waste (Figure 1). The
2.1. Samples
thickness of the belts was 0.83 mm, the roller speed was constant
Aggregate quarries are well distributed in the metropolitan area of at 215 rpm, and the feed rate at 1.2 ± 0.1 t/h in all tests.
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. For the present study samples were col- Experiments were carried out by introducing the feed sample
lected from a quarry located in the city of Itaguaí. The quarry is to the separator shown in Figure 1, followed by an additional
within the Rio Negro geological Complex, a Neoproterozoic mag- pass of the nonmagnetic concentrate from the previous stages
matic arc with orthogneisses and granitoid metamorphic rocks on the high (0.73T) intensity roll, totaling three stages of separa-
(amphibolite facies) as typical lithology, although igneous-looking tion. This third stage consisted in a second pass on the same
textures are frequent. This Complex has significant areal distribu- separator, by-passing the first low-intensity stage. It was used
tion in the metropolitan area of Rio de Janeiro. From the south to with the aim of further removing residual paramagnetic miner-
the metropolitan area of Rio de Janeiro this Complex shows als from the feldspar-quartz sand. The complete configuration

Figure 1. Industrial dry-high intensity separator used in the study, comprised of two stages (a); flowsheet showing the three stages of separation emulated using two
passes of the material in the separator (b).
Magnetic
Rougher waste #1
Feed
Stage
Cleaner
0.20 T Rougher
concentrate
Figure 2. Scheme used in the three-stage dry magnetic separation tests, showing the field intensities. The feldspar-quartz sand is obtained after the re-cleaner stage
and the magnetic waste is composed of samples #1 to #3.
of the circuit, comprised of a rougher, a cleaner and a re-cleaner
stage, is shown in Figure 2.
Samples of all magnetic wastes (#1 to #3), as well as of the
nonmagnetic products were collected, weighed and subjected
to physical, chemical and mineralogical analyzes.
2.3. Physical, chemical, and mineralogical analyzes
Size analyzes of the various samples were carried out in a Ro-
Tap® sieve shaker using pffiffiffisieves with openings from 850 to
212 µm, following a 2 Tyler series of sieves. Chemical
analyzes were carried out on samples quartered down to
15 g aliquots, then ground in a planetary ball mill to sizes
below 75 µm. They were performed using an energy disper-
sive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer SHIMADZU Ray Ny
EDX-720, with 3 kW rhodium sealed tube and Si(Li) detector,
cooled by liquid nitrogen, in standardless mode. Samples were
dried at 105°C for 12 h, mixed in proportion of 1 g of sample
to 0.5 of boric acid (H3BO3) and then compacted in pellets
with a boric acid matrix in a VANEOX automatic press. Loss
on ignition was measured from calcining ground samples at
1050°C and measuring the mass loss percent.
Preparation of samples for mineralogical quantification
was carried out from samples containing approximately 3 g,
which were wet ground for 10 min in a McCrone Micronizer
mill using agate grinding media, and dried overnight in
MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 3
Magnetic
waste #2 Magnetic
Stage
Re-Cleaner waste #3
0.73 T Cleaner Stage
concentrate Feldspar
0.73 T -quartz
Sand
vacuum at 50°C. Analyses were performed on a D4
Endeavour diffractometer (Bruker–AXS), with cobalt radia-
tion and a silicon drift LYNXEYE detector. Total measure-
ment time per sample was about one hour. Mineralogical
quantification was carried out using the Rietveld refinement
method with TOPAS version 5 software.
Images from transmitted light microscope were obtained
from thin sections of unbroken rock samples using a Zeiss’s
AxiosKop 40, A150, Tri-Axis Optical Microscope, compatible
with AxioVision 4.5.0 software for photomicrographs, with
acquisition of zvi-format images and Axiocam MRC camera.
Images of the feed for liberation analysis as well as of the
final feldspar-quartz sand were obtained using a binocular mag-
nifier, a hybrid model where the frame belongs to a Schneider
magnifier equipment whereas the Zeiss lens from a Stemi 2000-
C is used in the top part. The light source used was external,
from a portable 6 W white lamp. White paper was used as
sample background. Photographs were shot using a Canon,
model EOS 6D, CMOS sensor full-frame with 20.2 megapixels.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Macroscopic analyzes of feed samples
Sample A (Figure 3(a)) contains flaky minerals that are
aligned, with vitreous luster and dark color, suggesting
4 L. C. MOURA ET AL.
Figure 3. Images of the rock types selected for the study; rock with high content of biotite (a); rock with moderate biotite content (b); light pink gneiss (c).
predominance of biotite, with low foliation and an igneous-
looking texture (Tupinambá et al. 2012). Grain sizes range
from fine to medium (millimetric to centimetric size), with
approximately 10% of phenocrystals and 90% of matrix.
Visual inspection suggested predominance of biotite and
quartz, with about 30% of each, with the remainder (40% in
volume) made up by feldspars.
Sample B also presents inequigranular texture (Figure 3(b)).
Incipient orientation of flaky minerals can also be distin-
guished. Phenocrystals represent about one quarter of the sam-
ple volume while the matrix represents the remaining 75%.
Visual inspections allowed detection of feldspars as the main
minerals, representing about 60% of the rock in volume, with
quartz representing about 30%, and biotite about 10%. No
characteristic gneiss bands were identified.
Sample C has granoblastic seriate texture, with smaller amount
of mafic minerals, although gneissic texture is recognizable
(Figure 3(c)). This sample contains light pink feldspar (about
30%) and quartz (about 40% in volume) grains forming the felsic
bands. Flaky minerals represent 5–10% of the rock volume, align-
ing in bands that range from a few millimeters to centimeters in
width and that are composed of grains of small sizes.
In the three samples whitish spots around feldspar are well
identified by naked eye, suggesting its incipient weathering to
kaolinite.
3.2. Mineralogical and chemical analyzes of feed samples
Micrographs from thin sections show an inequigranular tex-
ture. Figure 4(a) shows elongated feldspar crystals and
Figure 4. Transmitted light images of the samples, crossed polars. Image showing plagioclase undergoing sericitization (ss) process, biotite (bio) inclusions in
plagioclase (pl) (a); small size biotite, small biotites undergoing to chloritization process (chl) (b). Abbreviations according to Whitney and Evans (2010).
oriented small lamellar biotite. The size of biotite can help
understanding the need for crushing below 300 µm to fully
liberate it. Biotite grains also appear as inclusions in plagio-
clase and microcline. The dominant alkali feldspar is micro-
cline, identified by its tartan twinning.
Plagioclase presents fine dusty gray stains, sericitization
(ss), related to some level of alteration (Figure 4(a)). Also,
the twin planes are not perfect, which made its proper identi-
fication difficult. The main identified mica was biotite, which
presented a light to dark brown pleochroism, although some
biotite grains exhibit dark green coloration, suggesting pseu-
domorphic chlorite replacement. Plagioclases appear as elon-
gated crystals, while biotite formed lamellar crystals. Quartz
grains were anedric, showing undulatory extinction, some-
times with new grain formation. Accessory minerals were
mainly zircon grains, which appeared sparsely and with
small grain sizes. Microcline was observed under sericitization
process, forming white mica; its grains were well developed
and can be identified as muscovite, at this stage this process
can be called muscovitization.
Sericitization process in alkali feldspar results in white
mica using its own potassium while sericitization to form
white mica in plagioclases needs to be associated to chloritiza-
tion of biotite, as its alteration releases potassium (Winter
2001).
The mineralogical composition of all samples, measured
using X-ray diffraction and Rietveld refinement, is summar-
ized in Table 2. It shows that all samples are predominantly
composed of quartz and feldspars (between 73 and 90%),
which represents the majority of the felsic portion of the
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 5

Table 2. Mineralogical composition of the feed samples. this was expected from its felsic macroscopic appearance
Mineral Chemical formula X A B C (Figure 3). Sodium is a common element in plagioclase
Plagioclase NaAlSi3O8–CaAl2Si2O8* 37.76 43.23 36.65 28.91 (around 11% in albites) and amphiboles (Klein and
Alkali feldspars KAlSi3O8* 12.94 9.80 16.19 24.54
Quartz SiO2* 34.50 20.37 33.46 36.34
Dutrow 2008). Calcium oxide can be associated to the pre-
Mica group K(Al2□,Fe3,Mg3)AlSi3O10 11.97 19.12 10.65 6.32 sence of calcite (more than 50% of CaO), plagioclase
(OH)2** (anorthite contains around 20% CaO) and amphibole (acti-
Amphibole Ca2 (Mg2.5–4.5, Fe2+0.5–2.5) 2.15 6.17 1.93 0.00
Si8O22(OH)2*** nolite has around 12% of CaO) (Klein and Dutrow 2008).
Chlorite group (Fe,Mg)5Al (Si3Al) O10(OH)8 0.15 1.15 0.72 1.14 Potassium is an important constituent of alkali feldspars as
**** well as of mica (biotite, muscovite and others), but might
Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4* 0.54 0.15 0.41 0.45
Calcite/dolomite CaCO3–CaMg(CO3)2* 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.30 also be found in small amounts in amphiboles. Magnesium
* Dana (1955); ** Muscovite or the annite-phlogopite series, □ meaning vacancy is frequently found in amphiboles and in minerals from the
(Rieder 1998); ***Actinolite (Hawthorne et al. 2012); ****Clinochlore-chamosite mica and chlorite group, besides dolomite, all of which
series (Bailey 1988). identified in the mineralogical analyzes (Table 2).
A comparison between results from Table 3 and the speci-
fication from the glass producer (Table 1), demonstrates the
samples. This technique allows discriminating among the need for upgrading of the various samples to meet the
main groups of feldspars and it is possible to observe that chemical specifications of the product for use in amber
plagioclase is the main one (from 29 to 43%). Kaolinite and glass production.
chlorite group minerals, that are products of alteration, were Thin sections demonstrated the presence of small biotite
identified in all samples, as already observed in the thin grains, the main mica in samples A and B, and formation of
sections. Sample C stood out as the only one containing secondary muscovite associated to microcline. X-ray diffrac-
carbonates, probably related to alteration of plagioclase tion has challenges in discriminating mica that are eventually
(Figure 4(a)). Sample X, which is taken from the −3.35 mm tolerable as raw material for glass production, namely, mus-
fraction of the fine product of the crushing plant, has inter- covite or phlogopite, from biotite, which is not, since it con-
mediate composition between the various ones collected from tains appreciable amounts of iron in its composition (Klein
the mine face, as expected, except for the proportion of and Dutrow 2008). As such, chemical analyzes were used as
minerals from the chlorite group, whose content was lower the primary tool to assess separation performance.
than in all other samples.
The total content of mica in the samples, which includes
biotite, muscovite and phlogopite, varied from 6 to 19%. 3.3. Size and liberation analyzes of feed samples
Amphiboles were not detected in sample C but represent
more than 6% in sample A in the form of actinolite. Magnetic separation tests involved the four different feed sam-
Although X-ray diffraction does not allow properly distin- ples (A, B, C, and X) contained in the size range from 850 to
guishing the composition of the mica within the group, visual 212 µm. The particle size distributions of the samples fed to the
inspection of the samples and thin section observations separator are presented in Figure 5. The distributions are quite
helped to conclude that biotite is the main mica mineral in similar, due to the relatively narrow size ranges, in spite of the
samples A and B, whereas secondary muscovite seems to be slightly coarser particle sizes of sample B.
dominant in sample C. Liberation analyzes have also been carried out of the sam-
Results from chemical analyzes of samples by X-ray ples, including sizes as coarse as 3.35 mm (Figure 6). It shows
fluorescence spectroscopy are summarized in Table 3.
They indicate that samples are rich in silica and alumina,
100
which confirms the mineralogical analyzes results, given the
Sample X
predominance of feldspars and quartz (Table 2). Fe2O3
Sample A
content is strongly related to the mafic minerals, namely, 80 Sample B
Cumulative passing (%)

biotite, which contain from 5 to 25% FeO in its composi- Sample C

tion, as well as amphiboles (Klein and Dutrow 2008).
Sample C was the one with the lowest iron content, and 60

40
Table 3. Chemical composition of feed samples.
Oxide X A B C
SiO2 62.75 55.80 64.32 67.29 20
Al2O3 19.12 20.38 19.69 18.38
Fe2O3 5.24 7.68 3.66 1.90
K2O 4.33 3.58 4.42 5.91 0
CaO 3.00 4.60 2.92 2.61 0.1 1
MgO 1.77 2.82 0.97 0.45
Na2O 1.73 2.21 2.25 1.93 Particle size (mm)
TiO2 0.72 1.05 0.50 0.26
Others 0.47 0.72 0.41 0.22 Figure 5. Particle size distributions of samples of rock types A, B, and C as well
Loss on ignition 0.87 1.16 0.85 1.03 as the blend X.
6 L. C. MOURA ET AL.

100
Sample A
Sample B
80 Sample C

% of particles liberated
Sample X

60

40

20

0
0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)

Figure 6. Estimated proportion of liberated particles in number (both felsic and mafic) as a function of particle size for the crushed samples (vertical bars are 90%
confidence intervals considering the binomial distribution). Vertical dashed lines indicate the size range of the material subjected to magnetic separation tests.

that liberation characteristics of the samples differed, with
sample C presenting significant liberation at relatively coarse
sizes and sample A the smallest, being consistent with the
proportion of mafic minerals contained in the samples
(Figure 3). Nevertheless, at sizes finer than about 0.5 mm, all
samples presented reasonably good liberation of mafic and
felsic minerals. Such differences in liberation are likely to
impose challenges to the application of the physical separation
process. The incomplete liberation of material that has size
close to the upper size range specified in the product
(0.85 mm) for some of the samples will likely have an impact
on either the selectivity or the recovery of the felsic minerals
during magnetic separation.
3.4. Magnetic separation
3.4.1. Separation of sample X (blend)
Table 4 presents chemical analyzes results for the various
samples from the tests. From an initial amount of 5.2%
Fe2O3 in the feed, the various concentration stages (Figure
2) demonstrated to be able to reduce the Fe2O3 content to
0.23%. The sum of silica and alumina increased from less
than 82% in the feed to above 90%, indicating mainly an
enrichment in feldspars and quartz by magnetic separa-
tion. It is also evident in Table 4 that the Fe2O3 content
reduced modestly in the first stage of separation, but
significantly in the second stage, responsible for reaching
a Fe2O3 content of 0.32% in the nonmagnetic product
(cleaner concentrate). Table 4 demonstrates that several
oxides, namely SiO2, Al2O3, K2O, and CaO, are shared
between minerals that report to the nonmagnetic product,
in particular feldspars and quartz, and those that report to
the magnetic product, as mica and amphibole. On the
other hand, some of the oxides in the sample are asso-
ciated only to the magnetic waste. These are the cases of
Fe2O3 and MgO that are primarily associated to mica-,
amphibole-, and chlorite-group minerals, and TiO2, which
is contained in amphiboles (Table 2). The product
obtained after all stages of magnetic separation still con-
tains nonliberated minerals, but using binocular magni-
fiers it became clear that the crystals recovered have more
felsic than mafic minerals in volume (Figure 7(X)). Figure
7(X) also shows that the mafic minerals are recovered in
the final product as inclusions in the particles containing
primarily felsic minerals.
Magnetic separation resulted in reduction in loss on igni-
tion of the sample (Table 4), owing to the rejection of
minerals such as mica, amphiboles, kaolinite, and chlorite
(Table 2).
A more detailed assessment of the test is possible
through the mineralogical analyzes results as well as
from the analysis of its overall mass balance. Results are

Table 4. Chemical composition of products from magnetic separation of sample X.

Oxide Rougher concentrate Magnetic waste #1 Cleaner concentrate Magnetic waste #2 Feldspar-Quartz Sand Magnetic waste #3
SiO2 64.92 43.43 70.71 50.83 71.56 66.87
Al2O3 19.19 18.53 18.93 19.80 18.47 21.02
Fe2O3 3.71 18.82 0.34 11.91 0.23 0.87
K2O 4.12 6.23 3.51 5.60 3.54 3.39
CaO 3.10 2.16 3.02 3.28 2.88 3.66
MgO 1.28 6.12 0.00 4.40 0.00 0.00
Na2O 1.92 0.00 2.71 0.00 2.61 3.18
TiO2 0.52 2.47 0.05 1.66 0.06 0.00
Others 0.47 0.55 0.24 1.01 0.22 0.34
Loss on ignition 0.77 1.68 0.48 1.50 0.43 0.68
Yield (%) 89.9 10.1 63.7 26.2 52.2 11.5
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 7

Figure 7. Binocular magnifier images, showing the nonmagnetic product from all rock types. Evident is a predominance of felsic material, whereas mafic minerals
appear associated to the felsic ones, as inclusions. The mafic material does not represent more than 5% of volume of the grains.

Figure 8. Cumulative yield and recovery of mineralogical components in the nonmagnetic product after each separation stage.

summarized in Figure 8, which shows that quartz and
plagioclase were concentrated at each stage while mica,
amphibole, and chlorite were rejected in each magnetic
separation stage. Recoveries of alkali feldspars were nearly
equal to the yield, demonstrated that they separated pro-
portionally to the mass of the products. On the other
hand, kaolinite was concentrated in the nonmagnetic pro-
duct in the first separation stage, that is, as a result of
application of a lower field intensity, but was partially
rejected at the final stage, carried out at the higher field
intensity. It is possible that kaolinite is contaminated with
iron ions, rendering it a weak paramagnetic response.
Rejection of mica in the magnetic concentrate was rela-
tively modest in the rougher stage, which suggests the
lower magnetic susceptibility of these minerals, given the
lower field intensity applied at this stage (0.20 T).
3.4.2. Variability of separation response of rocks from the
quarry
With the aim of assessing the robustness of the REMS in
dealing with the different rock types present in the quarry,
samples A, B, and C have been fed, after proper classification,
to the separator and a summary is given in Figure 9. It is
evident that although the feed materials contained highly
variable Fe2O3 contents, the three-stage separation (Figure 3)
was able to reach a final nonmagnetic product that did not
exceed 0.3% Fe2O3. Evidently, this occurred at the expense of
significant loss in yield in the case of sample A, which con-
tained more than 25% of mica and amphibole (Table 2). This
was also the sample with the poorest liberation (Figure 6). The
highest yield was reached with sample C, which contained the
smallest percentage of mica and no amphibole, and the high-
est liberation of the felsic and mafic minerals (Figure 6).
8 L. C. MOURA ET AL.

100

80

60

Yield (%)
40
Sample X
Sample A
20 Sample B
Sample C

0
0.1 1 10

Fe2O3 content (%)

Figure 9. Yield versus Fe2O3 content in the nonmagnetic products in the three-stage REMS experiments.

A more detailed analysis of the separation results is possible 0.4

by inspection of Table 5, which contains the chemical compo-
sition of the cleaner concentrate as well as of the final non-
magnetic product (re-cleaner concentrate) (Figure 2). Change 0.3
Fe2O3 content (%)

in composition with a second pass at the high-intensity roll (re-

cleaner stage) resulted in modest improvement in the content
of nearly all oxides associated to nondeleterious minerals but 0.2
was beneficial since it allowed reaching a maximum Fe2O3 Sample A
content that did not exceed 0.3%. Loss on ignition was also
Sample B
below 1% for all samples. This relatively large sacrifice in yield 0.1
Sample C
with a relatively modest gain in Fe2O3 reduction becomes also
evident from Figure 9. Sample X
Size-by-size analyzes of the final nonmagnetic product are 0.0
then presented in Figure 10, which shows that iron oxide content 0.850-0.600 0.600-0.425 0.425-0.212

increased with particle size for all samples analyzed. This is Size range (mm)
consistent with results from liberation analyzes (Figure 6),
Figure 10. Size-by-size iron oxide content in the final nonmagnetic product
more so in the case of sample A, which presented the most (feldspar-quartz sand).
limited liberation at coarse sizes.
Table 5 demonstrates that all the products met the speci-
fications, while Table 6 shows that the rejection of amphibole Table 6. Yields and recoveries of the different minerals in the final feldspar-
was complete, whenever present, in all samples, including quartz concentrate.
sample X. On the other hand, removal of mica was nearly Mineral (%) Sample X Sample A Sample B Sample C
complete in the case of sample X and sample A (Table 6); Plagioclase 59.4 36.0 51.4 58.4
a large proportion of mica in samples B and C, however, Alkali feldspars 54.5 29.3 53.5 65.3
Quartz 71.5 38.0 52.9 61.4
reported to the feldspar-quartz concentrate. Given the very Mica 3.9 1.4 10.3 28.7
low Fe2O3 content in these later products (Table 5) it becomes Amphibole 0.0 0.0 0.0 -
Yield 52.2 26.5 46.5 58.9
evident that the mica in samples B and C correspond to

Table 5. Chemical composition of nonmagnetic products from samples A, B, and C.

Sample A Sample B Sample C
Oxide Cleaner concentrate Feldspar-quartz sand Cleaner concentrate Feldspar-quartz sand Cleaner concentrate Feldspar-quartz sand
SiO2 66.23 66.84 69.64 70.33 70.15 70.82
Al2O3 22.15 21.88 19.54 19.07 18.13 17.77
Fe2O3 0.43 0.30 0.36 0.25 0.34 0.23
K2O 2.11 2.10 3.85 3.91 5.89 6.02
CaO 4.57 4.38 3.05 2.91 2.23 1.95
MgO 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2O 3.61 3.65 2.69 2.54 2.08 2.02
TiO2 0.10 0.06 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.05
Others 0.31 0.35 0.27 0.31 0.17 0.17
Loss on ignition 0.49 0.43 0.57 0.68 0.97 0.96
 MINERAL PROCESSING AND EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY REVIEW 9

secondary muscovite, which do not typically contain iron in 3.5. Industrial implementation
their composition. In general, recovery of diamagnetic miner-
Considering the case in question, the implementation of the
als, namely plagioclase, alkali feldspars and quartz was not
processing route proposed would correspond to the circuit
particularly high, being relatively similar to the yield, resulting
illustrated in Figure 11. Following this approach, the fresh
in losses to the magnetic waste. As seen in Figure 4, biotite
feed to the circuit would consist of a coarse aggregate fraction
crystals are typically smaller than 500 µm, often appearing as
(45–19 mm) from the main crushing plant. This material, after
inclusions in feldspars and quartz, which can explain some
crushing in a VSI crusher, would then follow to a multiple deck
losses in yield. Binocular magnifier images (Figure 7) also
vibrating screen for production of coarse aggregates as well as
assisted in these analyzes, where it was possible to observe
of fine (−4 mm) product. This fines stockpile would then be fed
that mafic minerals contained in the final product were asso-
to two circuits: the manufactured mortar and concrete sand
ciated to felsic minerals as inclusions. These occurrences
circuit; and the feldspar-sand sand circuit. Whereas part of the
implied that the quantity of mafic mineral occluded or as
material would then be fed to the circuit responsible for produ-
superficial inclusions was not large enough to be pulled by
cing high-quality concrete and mortar fine aggregate (André
the magnetic field and pushed to the magnetic waste concen-
et al. 2019), the remainder would be fed to the feldspar-quartz
trate (Figure 7(a–c)). Figure 7 also shows that biotite was
circuit, starting with a single-deck screen to remove the +0.850
more often present as inclusions in the transparent minerals,
mm material to be returned to the VSI crusher or to be crushed
mostly quartz, rather than the feldspars. This could be
in a separate high-pressure grinding roller. The −0.850 mm
explained by the cleavage planes of feldspars in contrast to
material would then be fed to an air classifier, through which
quartz (Klein and Dutrow 2008), leading to preferential
the −0.212 mm material would then be removed. The resulting
detachment of micas from the former. The pinkish appear-
0.850–0.212 mm material would then be fed to the three-stage
ance of Figure 7(c) confirms evidence of the larger proportion
REMS, generating a final product (feldspar-quartz sand) and
of alkali feldspars in sample C, whereas sample A contains the
a magnetic waste.
smallest (Table 6).
Fines from classification as well as the magnetic waste #1 and
The results show that processing of material coming from
#2 in Figure 2, given their high iron oxide content (Table 4)
different portions of the quarry, represented by rock types A,
would represent the tailings from separation, since the magnetic
B and C sampled, will not compromise the product specification
waste #3 could be easily incorporated into the manufactured fine
in terms of Fe2O3 content, neither regarding the various other
aggregate, given its low iron oxide content. Applications are
relevant oxides, whenever the three-stage REMS is used.
being sought for such tailings, given their high content in
However, processing of samples with larger proportions of
mafic minerals and fines, including as filler in polymers and
mafic minerals and poorer liberation will result in lower yields
rubber, rock fertilizers (slow release of potassium) and KCl
and recoveries, as evident from results from sample A (Table 6).

Figure 11. Schematic flowsheet of the proposed industrial circuit for production of manufactured feldspar-quartz sand from the fine aggregate stockpile, containing
VSI crusher, two-stage screening, aero classification, and three-stage of REMS.
10 L. C. MOURA ET AL.
production from its acid leaching. This is work ongoing in the
authors’ laboratory.
Given the coarse size of the fresh feed to the circuit, it has been
observed that its saturation moisture is 0.7% (dry basis). If the
entire flowsheet shown in Figure 11 is protected from rainfall, by
coverage of processing units and conveyor belts, then passage
through the vertical shaft impact crusher (VSI) would be able to
further reduce this moisture to levels that would enable conducting
dry screening, air classifying and rare-earth magnetic separation
with acceptable efficiency. In that case, thermal drying, which is
a significant component of the operating cost of such plant, could
be minimized. Besides the capital investment in the equipment
depicted within the dashed line in Figure 11, production of the
feldspar-quartz sand would only require means to load and bag the
product. As such, the production of quartz-feldspar sand in such
plants would benefit from pre-existing facilities for ore exploitation
(mining), crushing, classification and stockpiling. With the addi-
tional benefit of shorter distance to the glass manufacturers, some
of which situated near the large urban centers in Brazil, in parti-
cular Rio de Janeiro, such product would stand a good chance of
being a more economic and sustainable alternative for amber glass
production than traditional feldspar sources.
4. Conclusions
Gneiss rocks from a quarry used to produce manufactured fine
aggregates were used to generate feldspar-quartz sand for the appli-
cation in amber glass production. The main deleterious minerals,
namely, amphibole and iron-rich micas, were rejected very effec-
tively in the three-stage dry separation using rare-earth magnets.
Additional experiments were carried out with samples of
the three rock types found in the quarry, containing variable
proportions of deleterious minerals. Feldspar content and
composition varied significantly among the rock types stu-
died, ranging from one with predominantly plagioclase and
another with comparable proportions of plagioclase and alkali
feldspar. Although with different recoveries and yields, it has
been demonstrated that three-stage magnetic separation was
capable of reducing Fe2O3 content in the feldspar-quartz sand
to not exceed 0.3%, meeting the chemical requirements of the
product while ensuring a constant and homogeneous compo-
sition of the product. Relationships between mineralogical
composition and recovery of the different mineralogical com-
ponents to the nonmagnetic product have been discussed.
While meeting the demands for being used as raw material
for amber glass production, the feldspar-quartz sand demon-
strated to be a viable alternative for quarries whose rock
contains appreciable amounts of feldspars and reasonable
liberation of the mafic minerals below about 1 mm.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Ms. Jaqueline
V. Oliveira from CETEM in the X-ray fluorescence analyses.
Disclosure statement
The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are
responsible for the content and writing of the article.
Funding
The authors would like to thank Mineração Santa Luzia Ltda. for sup-
porting the work, as well as the Brazilian Agencies CNPq [Grant
Numbers 310293/2017-0 and 302828/2015-0], CAPES and FAPERJ
[Grant Number E-26/203.024/2016] for partially funding the work.
ORCID
Luanna C. Moura http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2880-0256
Hayla Miceli http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6520-7489
Luis Marcelo Tavares http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1447-7697
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