EFFECT OF CALCIUM EXCHANGE PROCESS ON THE

PROPERTIES OF BLACK COTTON SOIL

A DISSERTATION

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE

OF

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
(SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING)
Submitted by

RAJU MANDAL

(31702502)

Under the guidance of

Dr. V.K. ARORA

Professor

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

KURUKSHETRA-136119, INDIA

MAY 2019
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the thesis, entitled “Effect of
Calcium Exchange Process on the properties of Black Cotton Soil”, in the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master in Technology and
submitted in the Department of Civil Engineering of National Institute of Technology,
Kurukshetra, is an authentic record of my own work carried out under supervision and
guidance of Dr. V.K. Arora, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute
of Technology, Kurukshetra.
The matter presented in this thesis has not been submitted by me for the award of any degree
of this or any other University/Institute.

Date:
(RAJU MANDAL)
31702502
Place: Kurukshetra

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of my
knowledge and belief.

(V.K. ARORA)

Professor

Date: Department of Civil Engineering

Place: Kurukshetra National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I express my heartiest and deepest gratitude to the “ALMIGHTY” for all his
kindness, blessings, perseverance, guidance, inspiration and strength to complete this
thesis work.
It is my great pleasure to express heartiest adulation and profound gratitude to my erudite
research supervisors, Dr. V.K ARORA, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra.
His long and rich experience, wide knowledge and clarity of understanding regarding the
subtleties of research process have always been of immense help to me during the research
work. I gratefully acknowledge his thorough efforts in going through and improving the
manuscript without which this work would not have been completed. I am still to learn a
lot from him.
I am highly thankful to Dr. S.N SACHDEVA, Professor and Head, Department of Civil
Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra for providing all the facilities,
help and encouragement for carrying out the research work.
I also convey my sincere thanks to all the Staff members of Laboratory of Geotechnical
Engineering and Research Scholars of Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute
of Technology, Kurukshetra for their support and cooperation.
Sincere thanks to my family members and friends for inspiring me all the time.

Date: (RAJU MANDAL)

Place: Kurukshetra 31702502

iii
 CONTENTS

Title Page No.

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION………………………………………………...…… ii

CERTIFICATION…………………………………………………………………....….. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………………..… iii

LIST OF FIGURE……………………………………….…………………………...… vii

LIST OF TABLE………………………………………………………………...…..... ix

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………..……...….. x

ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………….……..xi

Chapter -1 1-9

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………..…………………1

1.1 Black cotton soil…………………………………………………..…………….….1

1.2 Fly ash……………………………………………………………………….….….4

1.3 Calcium chloride………………………………………………………….………..6

1.4 Pore water………………………………………………………………...........…..8

Chapter-2 10-14

LITERATURE SURVEY………………………………………………………………10

iv
 2.1 Stabilization using chemicals……………………………………...………….......10

2.2 Stabilization using fly ash ……………………………………………………..…13

Chapter-3 15-28

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY…………………………………………....…15

3.1 Materials………………………………………………………….………………15

3.1.1 Black cotton soil………………………………………………...........……15

3.1.2 Calcium chloride………………………………………………...............…15

3.1.3 Fly ash……………………………………………………….….........….…17

3.2 Methodology…………………………………………………….……………......17

3.2.1 Wet and Dry cycles…………………………………………….........…..…18

3.3 Determination Of Index Properties………………………….…….….………......18

3.3.1 Determination of Specific Gravity…………………………………………18

3.3.2 Determination of Liquid Limit………………………..………..............….19

3.3.3 Determination of Plastic Limit…………………………………….........…20

3.3.4 Determination of Plasticity Index…………………………......……….…..21

3.4 Compaction Characteristics…………………………………………………....…22

3.5 Unconfined Compressive Test…………………………………...…….…...……23

3.6 Free Swell Test…………………………………………………………..….……25

v
 3.7 Swelling Pressure Test………………………………………………………...…26

Chapter-4 29-41

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………..……………29

4.1 Liquid Limit………………………………………………………………....…29

4.2 Plastic Limit………………………………………………………………....…30

4.3 Plasticity Index…………………………………………………………..….…31

4.4 Compaction Characteristics…………………………………………………….31

4.5 Unconfined Compressive Strength…………………………………..…………34

4.6 Free Swelling Index………………………………………………...……….…39

4.7 Swelling Pressure…………………………………………………….………...40

Chapter-5 42-43

CONCLUSION AND SCOPE……………………………………………….…………42

5.1 Conclusion……………………………………………..……………….…....….42

5.2 Future Scope………………………………………..…………….….……....….43

REFERENCES……………………………………...………….…………….…..…44-51

LIST OF PUBLICATION…………………………………..…...……………………..52

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

Figure 1.1 Soil distribution in India…………………………………………………………........3

Figure 1.2 Tilting of building due to swelling and shrinkage nature of .………….……….....…. 4

black cotton soil

Figure 1.3 Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)

…………………………………………………………………………………..……7

Figure 1.4 Calcium chloride formation…………………………………………………..…....….8

Figure 1.5 Structure of calcium chloride……………………………………………………...….8

Figure 3.1 Calcium chloride……………………………………………………………….…….16

Figure 3.2 Pycnometer with four cases………………………………………………...………..18

Figure 3.3 Pycnometer………………………………………………………………….……….19

Figure 3.4 Casagrande apparatus………………………………………………………………..20

Figure 3.5 Standard proctor apparatus…………………………………………………………..22

Fig 3.6 Unconfined compression test apparatus…………………………………………………24

Figure 3.7 Soil in distilled water and kerosene……………………..……………..………….…26

Figure 3.8 Swelling pressure test apparatus……………………………………………………..28

vii
Figure 4.1 Graph between liquid limit and number of cycles…………………………..……….29

Figure 4.2 Graph between plastic limit and number of cycles…………………………..………30

Figure 4.3 Graph between plasticity index and number of cycles for 2% CaCl2……………….31

Figure 4.4 Standard proctor test for different proportions of calcium chloride and fly ash...….32

Figure 4.5 Standard proctor test for different cycles of BCS+1%CaCl2………………..…....…33

Figure 4.6 Standard proctor test for different cycles of BCS+2%CaCl2………………..…..…..33

Figure 4.7 Standard proctor test for different cycles of BCS+3%CaCl2………………………..34

Figure 4.8 Graph between UCS value and number of days for black cotton soil……………….35

Figure 4.9 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+1% CaCl2……………….35

Figure 4.10 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+2%CaCl2…………...….36

Figure 4.11 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+3%CaCl2………………36

Figure 4.12 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+20% fly ash………...….37

Figure 4.13 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+30% fly ash……………38

Figure 4.14 Combined graph between UCS value and different cycles………………….……. 38

Figure 4.15 Combined graph for UCS value with different % of CaCl2 and Fly ash………...…39

and different days

Figure 4.16 Swelling index at different cycles………………………………………………….40

viii
Figure 4.17 Graph between swelling pressure and number of cycles for different…….………41

proportion of CaCl2 and fly ash

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

Table 1.1 Fly ash utilization in India…………………………………………………………….6

Table 3.1 Physical properties of black cotton soil………………………………...……….……15

Table 3.2 Liquid limit in % at different cycles……………………………………………….....20

Table 3.3 Plastic limit in % at different cycles……………………………………….…………21

Table 3.4 Plasticity index in % at different cycles……….………………………………...……21

Table 3.5 Compaction characteristics of black cotton soil………………………………………23

Table 3.6 UCS (0 DAY strength) in kg/cm2 at different percentage of ………………………...24

calcium chloride and fly ash at different cycle

Table 3.7 UCS in kg/cm2 at different percentage of calcium chloride …………………………25

and fly ash in different days

Table 3.8 Free swelling index of the soil at different cycles…………………………………….26

Table 3.9 Swelling pressure in kg/cm2 at different cycles……………………………...…….....28

ix
 ABSTRACT

This research work presents the efficacy of Calcium chloride and fly ash as an additive in
improving the engineering properties of Black cotton soil which is expansive soil. Expansive
soils, popularly known as black cotton soils in India are, amongst the most problematic soils
from Civil Engineering construction point of view. Of the various factors that affect the swelling
behaviour of these soils, the basic mineralogical composition is very important. Most expansive
soils are rich in mineral montmorillonite and a few in illite. The degree of expansion being more
in the case of the former. Soil suction is another quality that can be used to characterise a soil’s
affinity for water on its volume change behaviour.

In this research work, Calcium chloride of 1%, 2% and 3% were mixed with black cotton soil
and they were used in the laboratory experiments. The fly ash percentage of 20% and 30% were
used to compare the results obtained with calcium chloride percentages. The effectiveness of the
calcium chloride and fly ash were tested by conducting liquid limit, plastic limit, standard
proctor, UCS, Free swell test and swelling pressure test. The soil samples were subjected to wet
and dry cycles and it was observed that liquid limit was decreased and plastic limit was increased
so plasticity index was decreased and consequently swell characteristic was also decreased. Free
swell index and swelling pressure were decreased after addition of calcium chloride. It was also
observed that soil sample mixed with calcium chloride has better strength after wet and dry
cycles in terms of proctor and UCS.

x
 ABBREVIATIONS

BCS Black cotton soil

CaCl2 Calcium Chloride

FA Fly ash

FSI Free swelling index

OMC Optimum moisture content

UCS Unconfined compressive strength

xi
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 BLACK COTTON SOIL

Black cotton soils are the swelling soils or shrink swell soils which have tendency to shrink or
swell with the change of moisture content. Expansive soils are predominant in many parts of the
world. The variation of water content lead to cracking of the structures which are built on them.
These problems due to expansive soils cost billions of dollars for their repair annually (Nelson
and Miller). These expansive behavior not only causes the loss of property but also loss of the
lives. These soils are also called Regur soils in some parts of the world.

Expansive soils occurring above water table undergo volumetric changes with change in
moisture content. Increase in water content causes the swelling of the soils and loss of strength
and decrease in moisture content brings about soil shrinkage. Swelling and shrinkage of
expansive soil cause differential settlements resulting in severe damage to the foundations,
buildings, roads, retaining structures, canal linings, etc. The construction of foundation for
structure on black cotton soils poses a challenge to the civil engineers. Chemical stabilization is
one of the oldest methods of stabilization of problematic soil. In general, all lime treated fine-
grained soils exhibit decreased plasticity, improved workability and reduced volume change
characteristics. However, not all soils exhibit improved strength characteristics. The properties of
soil-lime mixtures are dependent on many variables..

Expansive soils, popularly known as black cotton soils in India are, amongst the most
problematic soils from Civil Engineering construction point of view. Of the various factors that
affect the swelling behaviour of these soils, the basic mineralogical composition is very
important. Most expansive soils are rich in mineral montmorillonite and a few in illite. The
degree of expansion being more in the case of the former. Soil suction is another quality that can
be used to characterise a soil’s affinity for water on its volume change behaviour. Black cotton
soil is heavy clay soil, varying from clay to loam; it is generally light to dark grey in colour.
Cotton grows in this kind of soil. The soil prevails generally in central and southern parts of
India. The colour of the soils varies from deep black to light black and is dependent on the colour
of the mechanical fractions. The black color is attributed to the presence of titaniferous

1
magnetite, compounds of iron and aluminum, accumulated humus and colloidal hydrated double
iron and aluminum silicate. In general these soils have clay texture, average clay content being
50 % and the range being 40-50%. Except in cases where there is stratification, the clay content
down the profile is uniform. Black cotton soils are highly retentive of moisture, extremely
compact and tenacious when wet, considerably, contracted developing deep wide cracks on
drying and self- ploughing. Black soils are credited with high fertility. These are well suited to
leguminous crops like cotton, turn and citrus fruits. Other crops include wheat, jowar, millets,
linseed, castor, tobacco, sugarcane, safflower, vegetables etc. On the uplands these soils are
comparatively less fertile than on the low lands.

The most important characteristic of the soil is, when dry, it shrinks and is hard like stone and
has very high bearing capacity. Large cracks are formed in the bulk of the soil. The whole area
splits up and cracks up to 150 mm wide are formed up to a depth of 3.0 to 3.5 metre. But when
the soil is moist it expands, becomes very soft and loses bearing capacity. Due to its expansive
character, it increases in volume to the extent of 20% to 30% of original volume and exerts
pressure. The upward pressure exerted becomes so high that it tends to lift the foundation
upwards. This reverse pressure in the foundation causes cracks in the wall above. The cracks are
narrow at the bottom and are wider as they go up.

Black cotton soils are vastly spread in the regions of middle India Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra and in some places of Orissa, expansive soils are available in
the regions of Narmada, Tapi, Krishna, and Godavari . In north western India the depth of
availability of black cotton soil is very high. The black cotton soils are the residual soils formed
due to weathering or chemical decomposition of the rock, left at that place itself after formation
from the rocks. The black cotton soils consist of high percentage of montmorillonite content
which is responsible for expansion and shrinkage of the soil. Presently at India nearly 25 % of
the soils are covered by the expansive soils. Black soils, locally called black cotton soils and
internationally known as ‘tropical black earth’ or ‘tropical chernozem’ have been developed by
the weathering of the Deccan lava in major parts of Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat (Surat, Bharuch, Vadodara, Kheda, Sabarkantha and Dang district),Andhra Pradesh
,Karnataka, Rajasthan( Kota, Bundi, Sawai Madhopur, Bharatpur and Banswara district),

2
Tamilnadu (Ramnathpuram,Tirunelvelli, Coimbatore, Madurai and South Arcot district) and
Uttar Pradesh (Jalan,Hamirpur, Banda and Jhansi district).

Figure 1.1 soil distribution in India

3
 Figure 1.2 Tilting of building due to swelling and shrinkage nature of black cotton soil

1.2 FLY ASH

Fly ash or flue ash, also known as pulverised fuel ash in the United Kingdom, is a coal
combustion product that is composed of the particulates (fine particles of burned fuel) that are
driven out of coal-fired boilers together with the flue gases. Ash that falls to the bottom of the
boiler is called bottom ash. In modern coal-fired power plants, fly ash is generally captured
by electrostatic precipitators or other particle filtration equipment before the flue gases reach the
chimneys. Together with bottom ash removed from the bottom of the boiler, it is known as coal
ash. Depending upon the source and composition of the coal being burned, the components of
fly ash vary considerably, but all fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2)
(both amorphous and crystalline), aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO), the main
mineral compounds in coal-bearing rock strata.

4
Due to the rapid industrialization and growth of the population the power utilization has
increased. Thermal power plants uses coal for production of power, and they grind it to fine
powder form, before it is burnt. After burning the coal the mineral residue left, which is
collected from the exhaust gases by electro static precipitators . From this whole process the
waste material is produced is called fly ash. The main problem with fly ash is safe management
and disposal . Safe disposal and management of fly ash are the causing great difficulty because it
occupies vast area of land and it will easily spread around then causes the pollution. The wastes
which are generated from industries have the harmful and very complex chemicals and it is very
difficult to treat them so the disposal and management of the fly ash is very crucial points . The
fly ash disposal should be in such a way that it does not harm to ecological system and life. So it
is needed to treat before disposal to environment.

The recycling of fly ash has become an increasing concern in recent years due to increasing
landfill costs and current interest in sustainable development. As of 2005, coal-fired power plants
in the US reported producing 71.1 million tons of fly ash, of which 29.1 million tons were reused
in various applications. If the nearly 42 million tons of unused fly ash had been recycled, it
would have reduced the need for approximately 27,500 acre⋅ft (33,900,000 m3) of landfill
space. Other environmental benefits to recycling fly ash includes reducing the demand for virgin
materials that would need quarrying and cheap substitution for materials such as Portland
cement.

As of 2006, about 125 million tons of coal-combustion byproducts, including fly ash, were
produced in the US each year, with about 43% of that amount used in commercial applications,
according to the American Coal Ash Association Web site. As of early 2008, the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) hoped that figure would increase to 50% as of 2011.

Fly ash utilization in our country is around 57 % in the year 2011-13, then remaining fly ashes
moves as a waste material which causes environmental problems. Now, it is time to utilize fly
ash generation, by keeping in mind its adverse effect on eco system.

In the past, fly ash produced from coal combustion was simply entrained in flue gases and
dispersed into the atmosphere. This created environmental and health concerns that prompted
laws that have reduced fly ash emissions to less than 1% of ash produced. Worldwide, more than
65% of fly ash produced from coal power stations is disposed of in landfills and ash ponds,

5
although companies such as Duke Energy are starting initiatives to excavate coal ash basins due
to the negative environmental impact involved.

Table 1.1 fly ash utilization in India

Fly ash use in India % of use

Dykes 36

Cement 28

Ground improvement 16

Construction 16

Miscellaneous 4

1.3 CALCIUM CHLORIDE

The calcium chloride for this present investigation was procured from Kurukshetra. It has
molecular weight 110.47 grams. It was in white crystalline powder form. It was observed that
when it was mixed with water, heat was generated and water was looked like densified liquid. In
the present investigation the behaviour of soil with different proportions of calcium chloride
mixed with water was observed. Normally expansive soil swells due to the formation of double
layer of water in the soil and when soil was mixed with calcium chloride, it has high affinity for
cation exchange as compared to water alone. So when calcium chloride mixed water was added
to the soil, firstly calcium chloride replaced cations in the soil as maximum as possible and it was
observed that the thickness of the double layer was reduced which was helpful for reduction of
expansion and swelling pressure.

6
 Figure 1.3 Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)

From the literature survey it is known that the expansive behavior of the soil totally depend on
the amount of ion exchange that takes place during the whole process. In the present study
behavior of the soil with 0 number of wet and dry cycle was found and then soil was subjected to
5 wet and dry cycles and the behavior of the soil was noted. From the literature survey it is
known that as the number of wet and dry cycles increases the properties of the soil changes. As
the number of wet and dry cycles increases the cation exichange capacity of the soil increases, the
double bond thickness of the water decreases so expansiveness of the soil decreases.

1.4 PORE WATER

In the present study water was mixed for different proportions of calcium chloride to determine
the engineering and index properties of the soil. Calcium and chloride together form calcium

7
chloride. It is a strong electrolyte and it behaves as ionic halide. And it is solid at room
temperature and highly soluble in water. It is mainly used for brine in refrigerators and because
of hygroscopic nature it controls the dust on pavements. Anhydrous calcium chloride must keep
in such way that air should not be allowed . Calcium chloride is white crystalline compound
soluble in water and is soluble in alcohol and kerosene. It is very essential chemical in industrial
and manufacturing factories.
Calcium chloride is a strong electrolyte and different proportions of calcium chloride were used
in the present study and behavior of the black cotton soil subjected to wet and dry cycles was
observed.

Calcium chloride acts as source of calcium ions in an aqueous solution and it is soluble in water.

K 3CaCl2 (aq) + 2 K3 PO4 (aq) → Ca3 (PO4 )2 (s) + 6 KCl(aq)

CaCl2 (l) → Ca(s) + Cl2(g)

When calcium chloride is used in swimming pools it increases the hardness of water and
decreases erosion of concrete.

8
 Figure 1.4 calcium chloride formation

Figure 1.5 shows structure of CaCl2:

Figure 1.5 structure of calcium chloride

9
CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 STABILIZATION USING CHEMICALS

Ramdas.T.L, et al. (2012) studied stabilization of expansive soil using calcium chloride . They
used different proportions of calcium chloride and found out the strength and durability
properties of soil. They added 0.5 % , 1% , 2% and 2.5% calcium chloride to the soil and found
the consistency limits , unconfined compressive strength and swelling behavior of the soil. They
observed that addition of calcium chloride increases the unconfined compressive strength and
decreases the swelling behavior of the soil and also decreases liquid limit and increases plastic
limit. They determined unconfined compressive strength improvement for the curing period of
14 and 28 days. From the results, the optimum dosage of CaCl2 noticed is 1% by dry weight of
soil.

Ramesh.H.N, et al. (2011) due to the contamination of various acids in soils leads to changes
of geotechnical properties of soil. Compaction characteristics of the black cotton soil treated
with alkali was studied and it was found that the density of the soil has been improved and
optimum moisture content has been decreased and also strength properties of the soil has been
improved. Calcium carbonate more effective to the black cotton soil in strength improvement
point of view compared to the shedi soil. Contamination of optimum percentage of alkalis treated
soils by 1N acids reduced the dry density and increased the optimum moisture content for Black
cotton soil while reducing the dry density and moisture content for Shedi soil. Effect of 1N
H2SO4 is more negative compared to 1N H3PO4 on the alkalis treated soils.
Since past few years attention has been given to the acidification and alkalization of the soils to
understand physicochemical and engineering properties. Acid rain, industrial effluents, ground
water contamination, leachate from landfills and chemical spillages are the sources of acids and
alkalis. The effect of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and Orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) with Calcium

10
Carbonate (CaCO3) and Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) treated with black cotton soil and red
earth has been studied and found the improvement in the soil characteristics. Based on the
compaction test it was found that 15% and 10% are optimum percentages of CaCO3 and MgCO3
respectively. It has been observed that curing effect increased the liquid limit and Plastic limit.
Shrinkage limit was reduced by curing effect with CaCO3 and it was increased with MgCO3.
Adding acids to the CaCO3 and MgCO3 treated Red Earth showed decrease in maximum dry
density and marginal decrease in optimum moisture content.

Sivapullaiah P.V, et al. (2010) observed that Mineralogy shows an important role in the
behavior of fine grained soils. Due to addition of acids in pore water causes the sudden change
in the geotechnical properties of the soil and also changes in mineralogical structure of the soil.
When original mineralogy of the structure affected the properties of the soil get worse. The
behavior of soil during and after contamination was quite difficult to find behavior of the soil. It
has been observed that type of chemical was contaminated with the soil and type of soil was
affected the time period that was contacted with the soil main factors to assess the properties soil.

Abdelmalek Bouazza (2006) in land field cover system the clay liner may badly subjected to
the cations such as magnesium, sodium and aluminum changes the properties of bentonite
material if it is subjected to cycles of drying and wetting because of continuous rainfall and
temperature. To determine the effect of cycles of wetting and drying on the liquid limit and
plastic limit of the bentonite material and expansive characteristics of the bentonite were found at
different cycles of wet and dry with different proportions of CaCl2 solution used for cycles of
wetting and drying, different proportions of CaCl2 mixed at every wetting stage, and determined
degree of ion exchange of calcium for sodium on clay for each stage. However all other authors
investigated behavior of the soil with different proportion of the chemicals and have not been
determined degree of calcium exchange achieved. In this they considered two solutions such as
0.0125M and 0.125M of calcium chloride and determined degree calcium exchange in each
cycle of wetting. It was also determined that in the laboratory it may not possible to achieve the
full exchange capacity but in case field it is possible to achieve the full cation exchange capacity.
If it is necessary to achieve the full exchange in the laboratory the soil should be subjected to
several wet and dry cycles.

11
Mohan.S.D.V. et al. (2013) it is not well understood of alkalis and acids on the volume change
behavior of soils. Attempts have been made in this paper to study soils treated with optimum
percentage of alkalis and contaminated with one normal acids. Results showed the decrease in
void ratio for Red earth was small compared to that of BC soil. MgCO3 treated soils with
H2SO4 increased the void ratios in marginal differences with CaCO3 treated soil through
H3PO4 at all effective pressure. The study showed the acid’s effect on the clay mineralogy. It
effected the compressibility of soil.

Ekrem Kalkan (2011) black cotton soils having montmorillonite as main mineral causes
expansive behavior and shrink properties due to variation of water percentage. It was observed
that wetting and drying cycles cause cracks in soil and it leads to increase in the permeability of
the soil, which causes distresses to footings, side drainages, and clay liner and side fill for waste
nuclear deposits. To reduce the effect of cycles of wet and dry it is necessary to stabilize the soil
with some stabilizing agent like chemicals and waste materials. In this study, black cotton soil
material mixed using silica fume waste material was observed. The natural clay sample mixed
with silica fume was subjected to several wet and dry cycles and strength improvement and
swelling reduction was noted at each wet and dry cycles.

Abdelmalek Bouazza et al.(2007) determined the impact cycles of wetting and drying based on
exchange, set of three bentonite soil samples were prepared with different proportions of
hydrating liquid. The first set test was performed using deionized water and it was used as base
line of the tests and these results were used to compare with the other results. The second and
third samples were subjected to 0.0125M and 0.125M of CaCl2 to water and wet and dry cycles
were performed to exchange cations in soil and water. All the samples were subjected to
number of wet and dry cycles before going to the air permeability test. It was observed that
gas permeability of bentonite subjected with 1% calcium chloride solution was approximately
higher than that of the GCL hydrated with de-ionized water, whereas gas permeability test
subjected with 0.125M calcium chloride solution was higher than the 0.0125M CaCl2 and
deionized water.

12
 Ling-Chu Lin, et.al (2000) liquid limit, plastic limit, swelling index, and permeability tests
were performed to determine the effect of wet and dry cycles on the plastic behavior of the soil,
swell behavior of expansive soil and the permeability of expansive clay liners added with water
having PH value 6.5, tap water having PH value 6.7, and 0.01255M CaCl2 solvent having PH
value 6.3. It was observed that swelling characteristics of expansive soil added with water was
enhanced at each wetting and drying cycle. The swelling behavior of expansive soil added with
water and CaCl2 was reduced for every cycles of wet and dry. Wet-dry cycle in de-ionized water
and tap water had very little effect on swelling of the bentonite which can be negligible.

2.2 STABILIZING USING FLY ASH

Sharma.K.L et al. (1992) explained stabilization of the soil using fly ash and other waste
material. The material they used were fly ash, gypsum and blast furnace slag. They used these
materials with different proportions for suppose 6:12:18.From the experimental data they found
that decreased in the swelling pressure of the soil.

Phani Kumar and Sharma (2004) observed that expansive properties of the soil permeability
and swelling properties of the expansive soil decreased with increase fly ash content in the soil
and it was observed that the dry unit weight and strength increased with increase in fly ash
percentage in the soil. It was also observed the resistance against penetration of the soil increased
with an increase in fly ash content for given water content. They presented statistical model to
predict the un drained shear strength of the treated soil.

Satyanarayana et al. (2004) aimed to study the mutual effect of addition of lime and fly ash on
the engineering properties of the expansive soil. He found out that 70%, 26% and 4% were the
optimum percent mixture of the ingredients for the construction of roads and embankments.

Baytar (2005) observed the stabilization of black cotton soil using fly ash and desulphogypsum
obtained from thermal power plant varying 0 to 30 percent. Different percentage of lime (0 to
8%) was added to the expansive soil-fly ash-desulphogypsum mixture. The treated samples were
cured for 7 and 28 days. It was observed that swelling pressure was decreased and rate of swell

13
was increased with increasing stabilizer percentage. And also curing of the soil further reduced
the swelling of the soil. As the no of days increased the unconfined compressive strength was
also increased and swelling potential of the soil was decreased.

Phani Kumar and Sharma (2007) observed the effect of fly ash on swelling of a highly plastic
expansive clay and shrink and swell behavior of another non-expansive high plasticity clay. It
was observed that the swell potential and swelling pressure, when found at constant dry unit
weight of the sample (mixture) was reduced by nearly 50% and compression index and
coefficient of secondary consolidation of both the clay was decreased by 40 % at 20% fly ash
content.

Srivastava et al. (1997) studied the microscopic changes in the fabric and micro-structure of the
expansive soil due to the addition of lime sludge and fly ash using SEM photography. It was
found that there were changes in the micro-structure and fabric of the expansive soil when 16%
lime sludge and 16% fly ash were both added.

Srivastava et al. (1999) stated that 23 best stabilizing effect of the swelling and consolidation
behaviour in an expansive soil mixed with fly ash and lime sludge was obtained when 16% lime
sludge and 16% fly ash were added.

Cokca (2001) found out that swelling pressure was decreased by 75% after 7 day curing, and 79%
after 28 day curing when soil specimens were treated with 25% Class C Fly ash (18.98% of
CaO).

14
CHAPTER-3
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 MATERIALS

3.1.1 Black cotton soil

In the present research, expansive black cotton soil was obtained from Nagpur, Maharashtra. The
black cotton soil was obtained after removing 0.5 m depth top soil by the method of disturbed
sampling and transported in sacks to the laboratory. The sample was carefully transported to the
laboratory for all the test. The soil was dried and grinded to 4.75 mm sieve to carry out
laboratory experiments. The various geotechnical properties shown below:

Table 3.1 physical properties of black cotton soil

SL.NO Properties Confirming to IS Code Value

1 Specific gravity IS 2720:PART 3: SEC1:1980 2.65

2 Liquid limit IS 2720:PART 5:1985 76.52%

3 Plastic limit IS 2720:PART 5:1985 27%

4 OMC IS 2720:PART VII: 1980 25.10%

5 MDD IS 2720:PART VII:1980 1.56g/cc

3.1.2 Calcium Chloride

15
The calcium chloride for this present investigation was procured from Kurukshetra. It has
molecular weight 110.47 grams. It was in white crystalline powder form. It was observed that
when it was mixed with water, heat was generated and water was looked like densified liquid. In
the present investigation the behaviour of soil with different proportions of calcium chloride
mixed with water was observed. Normally expansive soil swells due to the formation of double
layer of water in the soil and when soil was mixed with calcium chloride, it has high affinity for
cation exchange as compared to water alone. So when calcium chloride mixed water was added
to the soil, firstly calcium chloride replaced cations in the soil as maximum as possible and it was
observed that the thickness of the double layer was reduced which was helpful for reduction of
expansion and swelling pressure.
From the literature survey it is known that the expansive behavior of the soil totally depends on
the amount exchange takes place during the whole process.

Figure 3.1 Calcium chloride

16
In the present study it was found that the behavior of the soil with 0 number of wet and dry cycle
and then soil was subjected to 5 wet and dry cycles and behavior of the soil was found. From the
literature survey it is known that as the number of wet and dry cycles increases the properties of
the soil changes. As the number of wet and dry cycles increases the cation exchange capacity of
the soil increases, the double bond thickness of the water decreases so expansive property of the
soil decreases.

3.1.3 Fly ash

Fly ash is a byproduct from the thermal coal power plant. It is a of type waste material formed
due to the combustion of bituminous coal. It is separated from the outlets by the electrostatic
precipitators before the flue gases reach the chimneys of coal fired power plants. Normally
the fly ash removed with the bottom ash from the bottom of the furnace jointly known as coal
ash. The fly ash behavior is abnormal , though fly ash particles are of same size the chemistry,
behavior and mineralogy of the particle varies from the particle to particle. So there is variation
of fly ash behavior from different sources. Generally fly ash also maintains some unburnt carbon
and its main constituents are silica, aluminum oxide and ferrous oxide. In dry disposal system,
the fly ash collected at the bottom of the mechanical dust collectors and ESPs. From the dry
storage silos also fly ashes are collected in closed wagons or moisture proof bags or metallic
bins, if the quality of the fly ash is better. The dry fly ash so collected is transported to the
required locations where it is subjected to further processing before its use in many non-
geotechnical applications such as cement industry, brick manufacturing and the like.

3.2 METHODOLOGY

To evaluate the effect of soil / calcium ratio and soil / fly ash ratio in swelling behavior and
mechanical strength. Three different types of calcium chloride and two different fly ash ratios
has been used. The calcium ratios were 1%, 2 % and 3% and two different proportions of fly ash
20% and 30% were used in the present study. The soil and fly ash were mixed thoroughly
before the experimental programs conducted. All the tests were conducted according to the IS
code method.

17
3.2.1 Wet and Dry Cycles

Black cotton soil specimens were mixed with water and different proportions of calcium chloride
solutions and different proportions of fly ash, then after Atterberg limits were measured .Then
the black cotton soil was left to air dry in the laboratory environment (at controlled temperature
of 21± 5C) until the loss of moisture was ceased. Each black cotton soil specimen was then
rewetted with the same concentration of liquid as used initially. The soil specimens were tested
for up to five wet–dry cycles. In each cycle the behavior of the soil was observed.

3.3 DETERMINATION OF INDEX PROPERTIES

3.3.1 Determination Specific Gravity

The empty bottle with stopper (W1) was weighed. About 10 to 20 gm of oven soil sample was
taken which was cooled in a desiccator. It was transferred to the bottle. The weight of the bottle
and soil (W2) was found. 10ml of distilled water was taken in the bottle to allow the soil to soak
completely. It was left for about 2 hours. Again the bottle was filled completely with distilled
water and the bottle was kept under constant temperature water baths. The bottle was taken
outside and it was cleaned. Now the weight of the bottle and the contents (W3) was determined.
Now the bottle was emptied and thoroughly it was cleaned. The bottle was filled with only
distilled water and it was weighed. It was noted as W 4. The same process was repeated for 2 to 3
times, to take the average reading.

Obtained specific gravity value= 2.65

18
 Figure 3.2 Pycnometer with four cases

Figure 3.3 Pycnometer

3.3.2 Determination of Liquid Limit

The liquid limit experiment was conducted as per code of IS 2720 : PART 5 :1985. 300 grams
of soil sample was taken and water was added. The paste was mixed thoroughly using knife plate
for 10 minutes. By using casagrande apparatus liquid limit was determined. After mixing the soil
thoroughly, the soil sample was placed in the cup. A groove was cut at the center of the soil
sample. By using of the crank-operated cam, the cup was lifted at a height of 10 mm and then it
was dropped. The water content at which the length of 12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove
close after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit. It is very difficult to judge the water content in
the soil to get the required 12.7 mm closure of the groove in the soil at 25 blows. Hence, at least
three tests for the same soil were conducted at different water contents, and noted number of

19
blows N required to achieve closure varying between 15 and 35. The water content with respect
to number of blows was drawn in the semi logarithmic graph and water content was determined
at 25 number of blows. The graph drawn between water content and number of blows is almost
straight line. This line is known as flow line. The water content at 25 number of blows gives the
liquid limit of the soil .The slope of the flow line is defined as the flow index.

Fig 3.4 Casagrande apparatus

Table 3.2 Liquid limit in % at different cycles

BCS BCS+1%CaCl2 BCS+2%CaCl2 BCS+3%CaCl2 BCS+20%FA BCS+30%FA

0CYCLE 76.52 72.20 67.36 66.58 65.42 57.55

1CYCLE 75.00 69.45 66.49 65.61 65.40 58.67
2CYCLE 75.04 67.30 64.30 63.78 66.52 58.69
3CYCLE 75.61 65.99 62.66 60.46 66.04 58.25
4CYCLE 76.00 65.19 61.52 58.23 66.07 59.29
5CYCLE 76.66 64.50 58.90 56.37 66.59 59.77

3.3.3 Determination of Plastic Limit

The plastic limit is defined as the water content at which soil crumble into the 3 mm threads. The
plastic limit is the lower water content of plastic stage. The plastic limit test is easy to determine
and it was determined by continuous rolling of soil mass by hand on a ground glass plat. The
20
procedure for plastic limit was followed according to ASTM. For the present investigation
different proportions of calcium chloride and different proportions of fly ash were used. Liquid
limit and plastic limit were determined for all the proportions and the results were compared.

Table 3.3 plastic limit in % at different cycles

BCS BCS+1%CaCl2 BCS+2%CaCl2 BCS+3%CaCl2 BCS+20%FA BCS+30%FA

0CYCLE 27 33 38 39 23 21
1CYCLE 27 34 39 40 24 22
2CYCLE 28 35 40 41 24 22
3CYCLE 28 36 40 42 25 23
4CYCLE 28 36 41 43 25 24
5CYCLE 28 37 42 43 25 24

3.3.4 Determination of Plasticity Index

Since it was observed that 2% of CACL 2 was best for decreasing liquid limit and increasing
plastic limit so taking values of liquid limit and plastic limit for 2 % of CACL2 for calculation of
plasticity index after rounding off.
plasticity index = liquid limit – plastic limit.
Using this formula for calculation of plasticity index and the observed values of plasticity index
was noted in table no 3.4

Table 3.4 plasticity index in % at different cycles

LIQUID LIMIT PLASTIC LIMIT PLASTICITY INDEX

0 CYCLE 67 38 29
1 CYCLE 66 39 27
2CYCLE 64 40 24
3CYCLE 63 40 23
4 CYCLE 61 41 20

21
 5 CYCLE 59 42 17

3.4 COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS

Standard proctor test has been performed as per the code IS 2720: PART VII: 1980. This test is
used to determine the maximum dry density of the soil. In this method first empty mould of base
plate was weighed then thin layer of grease was applied to the mould. Then 2.4 kg of the soil was
taken and water was added up to 10% of the weight of the soil, then the soil was mixed
thoroughly. Soil was kept under covered 20 to 30 seconds to allow the soil for full maturation.
Then soil was divided into three equal parts and the mould was filled with first part and it was
compacted by 25 number of blows. These blows should be evenly distributed whole area of the
sample, so that the better density can be achieved. This procedure was repeated with second and
third part of the soil by taking precaution to scratch the previously compacted soil to
achieve the homogenous density throughout depth of the soil, then collar was removed rotating
it without disturbing the soil and then top soil was scratched up to the level. Then the total
weight of the soil and mould was noted. This procedure was repeated by taking the fresh soil
with varying the water content and density of soil was determined in each case and then graph
was drawn between dry density verses water content and then maximum dry density of the soil
was determined. The above procedure was repeated for different proportions of calcium chloride
and density improvement was observed with the increase in calcium chloride and also reduction
of water content was observed with increasing the calcium chloride content.

22
 Figure 3.5 Standard proctor apparatus

D=Maximum Dry Density in g/cc, OMC=Optimum Moisture Content in %

Table 3.5 Compaction characteristics of black cotton soil

BCS+1%
BCS CaCl2 BCS+2%CaCl2 BCS+3%CaCl2 BCS+20%FA BCS+30%FA

D OMC D OMC D OMC D OMC D OMC D OMC

0CYCLE 1.56 25.10 1.578 23.37 1.59 21.33 1.581 21.15 1.52 30.58 1.62 31.39

1CYCLE 1.567 24.23 1.58 22.55 1.60 19.97 1.611 19.44 1.53 29.88 1.51 30.49

2CYCLE 1.578 23.15 1.589 21.76 1.611 19.67 1.62 18.94 1.523 28.62 1.513 27.89

3CYCLE 1.59 22.16 1.592 21.98 1.621 18.72 1.627 18.14 1.52 28.12 1.541 26.00

4CYCLE 1.60 21.82 1.60 20.66 1.626 18.68 1.63 18.12 1.511 28.66 1.51 27.36

5CYCLE 1.601 21.31 1.612 20.61 1.624 17.74 1.63 18.11 1.50 27.96 1.502 26.27

23
3.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE TEST

The unconfined compression test is the most popular method of soil shear testing because it is
one of the fastest and cheapest methods of measuring shear strength. The method is used
primarily for saturated, cohesive soils recovered from thin-walled sampling tubes. The
unconfined compression test is inappropriate for dry sands or crumbly clays because the
materials would fall apart without some land of lateral confinement. To perform an unconfined
compression test, the sample was extruded from the sampling tube. A cylindrical sample of soil
was trimmed such that the ends are reasonably smooth and the length-to-diameter ratio is on the
order of two. The soil sample was placed in a loading frame on a metal plate and by turning a
crank, the level of the bottom plate was raised. The top of the soil sample was restrained by the
top plate, which was attached to a calibrated proving ring. As the bottom plate was raised, an
axial load was applied to the sample. The crank was turned at a specified rate so that there is
constant strain rate. The load was gradually increased to shear the sample, and readings were
taken periodically of the force applied to the sample and the resulting deformation. The loading
was continued until an obvious shearing plane was developed or excessive deformations was
noted. The measured data were used to determine the strength of the soil specimen and the
stress-strain characteristics. Finally, the sample was oven dried to determine its water content.
The maximum load per unit area is defined as the unconfined compressive strength, qu.
The entire procedure was repeated by adding 1%, 2% and 3% CaCl 2 and test results were
compared with the values of soil with fly ash.

Fig 3.6 Unconfined compression test apparatus

24
Table 3.6 UCS (0 DAY strength) in kg/cm2 at different percentage of calcium chloride and
fly ash at different cycle

BCS BCS+1%CaCl2 BCS+2%CaCl2 BCS+3%CaCl2 BCS+20%FA BCS+30%FA

0 CYCLE 27.54 28.77 31.24 32.88 29.22 31.54

1 CYCLE 27.71 29.52 33.40 35.42 29.51 31.78

2CYCLE 27.87 30.57 36.75 37.42 30.58 31.77

3CYCLE 28.22 32.14 38.97 39.65 30.64 32.21
4 CYCLE 28.41 34.17 41.52 43.55 30.54 32.57
5 CYCLE 28.92 35.87 43.82 44.64 30.86 32.77
UCS test was also performed in 0,7,14 and 28 days with CaCl 2 and Fly ash and their values were
noted in the following observation table:

Table 3.7 UCS in kg/cm2 at different percentage of calcium chloride and fly ash in different
days

DAYS BCS BCS+1%CaCl2 BCS+2%CaCl2 BCS+3%CaCl2 BCS+20%FA BCS+30%FA

0 27.54 28.77 31.24 32.88 29.22 31.54

7 31.25 33.50 35.02 36.21 33.94 35.49

14 33.84 35.33 39.74 42.56 35.86 37.77

28 39.77 41.05 45.22 47.14 42.31 45.36

3.6 FREE SWELL TEST

Free swell test was performed by allowing expansive soil to expand freely in distilled water and
kerosene for 24 hours in measuring cylinder and then finally expanded volume was noted by
measuring cylinder. Then free swell index was calculated by this formula:

Free swell index (FSI) = ((Vd-Vk)/(Vk))*100

25
Where,

Vd = equilibrium sediment volume of 10gm of oven dried sample passed through 425microns and
placed in distilled water to expand up to its capacity.
Vk= equilibrium sediment volume of 10 gm of oven dried sample passed through 425microns
and placed in kerosene which would not expand at all.

Figure 3.7 soil in distilled water and kerosene

Free swell test is performed to find out the swell or expansive nature of soil and it is used for
only fine grained soils.
In present investigation, test was performed by adding 1%, 2% and 3% CaCl2 to the soil and test
was also performed with the parent soil and test results were compared with swell index value of
soil with fly ash.

Table 3.8 Free swelling index of the soil at different cycles

BCS BCS+1%CaCl2 BCS+2%CaCl2 BCS+3%CaCl2 BCS+20%FA BCS+30%FA

0 CYCLE 75.41 70.40 65.22 64.86 60.57 57.11
1 CYCLE 75.23 67.84 61.54 60.55 60.84 57.84
2CYCLE 74.88 65.55 57.27 57.10 61.27 57.81
3CYCLE 74.60 63.45 54.84 53.94 61.44 58.57
4 CYCLE 74.66 61.20 52.99 51.58 61.81 58.21

26
 5 CYCLE 74.48 60.77 49.47 48.81 62.54 58.84

3.7 SWELLING PRESSURE TEST

The main purpose of swelling pressure test is to determine the intrinsic swelling pressure of the
expansive soil tested. The expansive clays increase in their volume when they come in contact
with water owing to surface properties of these clay types. Light structures founded on these type
of clays - popularly known in India as black cotton soil, experience severe structural damage due
to the swelling of the subsoil. Since the intrinsic swelling pressure is to be associated with the
design of structures against such damages, measurement of swelling pressure assumes
importance. The swelling pressure is dependent upon several factors namely (a) the type and
amount of clay in the soil and the nature of the clay mineral, (b) the initial water content and dry
density, (c) the nature of pore fluid, (d) the stress history of the soil including the confining
pressure and (e) drying and wetting cycles to which the soils have been subjected to. Besides, the
dependence of swelling pressure on volume change makes a precise measurement of swelling
pressure difficult. This test procedure covers the laboratory method of conducting one
dimensional swelling pressure test using either fixed or the floating rings on remoulded soils in
the submerged condition to determine the swelling pressure of the soil. Consolidometer method
in which the swelling pressure exerted by the soil is shown by proving ring reading is noted and
the following procedure was followed:
At least 30mm (more if desired) sample from one end of the sample was rejected. The
arrangement for Swell Pressure Test by Consolidometer consists of Consolidometer, Dial gauge,
Water reservoir, Soil trimming tools, Oven, Desiccator, Balance and Containers. Consolidation
ring was cleaned and gradually consolidation ring was inserted in the sample by pressing with
hands and carefully the soil was removed around it. The soil specimen cut should project around
10mm on either side of the ring. The specimen was trimmed with both ends of the ring and all
the voids were filled. Assembly of the Consolidometer Test was performed as per Figure3.8. The
free swell reading under the seating was recorded till the equilibrium was reached. Around 6-7
days was taken to reach equilibrium.

27
The entire process was repeated by adding 1%, 2% and 3% of calcium chloride and again the test
was performed with fly ash percentage and finally results with fly ash and calcium chloride were
compared.

Figure 3.8 Swelling pressure test apparatus

The following table shows the test results with equilibrium pressure:

Table 3.9 swelling pressure in kg/cm2 at different cycles

BCS BCS+1%CaCl2 BCS+2%CaCl2 BCS+3%CaCl2 BCS+20%FA BCS+30%FA

0 CYCLE 4.9 4.2 3.0 2.8 4.1 3.6

1 CYCLE 5.0 3.9 2.8 2.7 4.1 3.7
2CYCLE 5.1 3.7 2.6 2.5 4.1 3.7
3CYCLE 5.1 3.5 2.5 2.3 4.2 3.8
4 CYCLE 5.2 3.2 2.3 2.2 4.2 3.8
5 CYCLE 5.2 3.1 2.1 2.0 4.3 3.8

28
CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
4.1 LIQUID LIMIT

Liquid limit test was performed as per code IS 2720: PART 5:1985. The following graph has
been observed.

Figure 4.1 Graph between liquid limit and number of cycles

From the above graph it was observed that when the number of cycles of wet and dry were
increased then the liquid limit of the soil was decreased for soil mix with calcium chloride. And
also it was found that with 1% calcium chloride reduction of liquid limit was quite less. 2%
calcium chloride was effective in the reduction of liquid limit. And also with 3% of calcium
chloride it was observed that liquid limit was little bit less than 2 % of calcium chloride. With the

29
fly ash it was observed that when the number of wet and dry cycles were increased the liquid
limit of the soil was increased.
4.2 PLASTIC LIMIT
Plastic limit test was performed as per code IS 2720: PART 5:1985. The following graph has
been drawn:

Figure 4.2 Graph between plastic limit and number of cycles

The graph has been depicted for different percentages of calcium chloride. It was observed that
as the number of cycles were increased the plastic limit of the soil was also increased. With the
high percentage of calcium chloride, it was observed that 2% of calcium chloride was optimum
percentage for the plastic limit of the soil. Due to increase in plastic limit of the soil plasticity
index was decreased so the expansive behavior of the soil was also decreased. It was observed
that with 3% calcium chloride the change in plastic limit was little bit above then 2% calcium
chloride. So for economical point of view the 2% calcium chloride has been recommended.

30
4.3 PLASTICITY INDEX

Plasticity index (%) was plotted with different cycles by taking 2% of CaCl 2 which was proved
best economically (figure 4.3)

Figure 4.3 Graph between plasticity index and number of cycles for 2% CaCl2

4.4 COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS

Standard proctor test was performed as per code IS 2720: PART VII: 1980.

31
 Figure 4.4 standard proctor test for different proportions of calcium chloride and fly ash

Figure 4.4 shows that graph was drawn for different proportions of calcium chloride and fly ash.
It also shows variation of max dry density and water content for only black cotton soil (light blue
graph). Graph shows that with the increase in percentage of calcium chloride maximum dry
density increases with less percentage of water content. It was observed that black cotton soil
with 3% of calcium chloride has better density and less optimum moisture content which has
small margin than of black cotton soil with 2 % of calcium chloride. So for the economical point
of view 2% of calcium chloride is recommended.

32
Figure 4.5 standard proctor test for different cycles of BCS+1%CaCl2

Figure 4.6 standard proctor test for different cycles of BCS+2%CaCl2

33
 Figure 4.7 standard proctor test for different cycles of BCS+3%CaCl2

Experiment has been performed for different wet and dry cycles to analyse density changes in
soil and it was observed that when number of wet and dry cycles were increased, the density was
also increased. It was observed that black cotton soil with 3% of calcium chloride has better
density and less optimum moisture content which has small margin than of black cotton soil with
2 % of calcium chloride. So for the economical point of view 2 % of calcium chloride is
recommended.

4.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE TEST

Unconfined compressive strength has been done with BCS in different days without any addition
of calcium chloride and fly ash and obtained results has been plotted by taking UCS in y-axis
and number of days in x-axis and graph shown in figure 4.8 was obtained by table 3.6:

34
 Figure 4.8 Graph between UCS value and number of days for black cotton soil
Unconfined compressive strength has been done with BCS in different days by addition of 1 %
calcium chloride and obtained results has been plotted by taking UCS in y-axis and number of
days in x-axis and graph shown in figure 4.9 was obtained by table 3.6:

Figure 4.9 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+1% CaCl2

35
Unconfined compressive strength has been done with BCS in different days by addition of 2 %
calcium chloride and obtained results has been plotted by taking UCS in y-axis and number of
days in x-axis and graph shown in figure 4.10 was obtained from table 3.6:

Figure 4.10 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+2% CaCl2

Unconfined compressive strength has been done with BCS in different days by addition of 3 %
calcium chloride and obtained results has been plotted by taking UCS in y-axis and number of
days in x-axis and graph shown in figure 4.11 was obtained by table 3.6:

Figure 4.11 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+ 3% CaCl2

36
Unconfined compressive strength has been done with BCS in different days by addition of 20%
fly ash and obtained results has been plotted by taking UCS in y-axis and number of days in x-
axis and graph shown in figure 4.12 was obtained by table 3.6:

Figure 4.12 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+20% fly ash

Graph shows that as the number of days is increased then unconfined compressive strength of
soil is also increased and it happens with all percentages of fly ash that has been used in the test
of unconfined compressive strength.

Unconfined compressive strength has been done with BCS in different days by addition of 30%
fly ash and obtained results has been plotted by taking UCS in y-axis and number of days in x-
axis and graph shown in figure 4.13 was obtained by table 3.6:

37
 Figure 4.13 Graph between UCS value and number of days for BCS+30% fly ash

Unconfined compressive strength has been done with BCS by addition of 1,2 and3% CaCl 2 and
20 % and 30% fly ash with 5 wet and dry cycles and obtained results has been plotted by taking
UCS in y-axis and cycle in x-axis and graph shown in figure 4.14 was obtained by table 3.5:

Figure 4.14 Combined graph between UCS value and different cycles

38
After performing UCS with different % of CaCl2 and Fly ash ,the graph shown in figure 4.15 was
obtained from table 3.6 that shows variation of UCS strength in kg/cm2 with different % of CaCl2
and Fly ash for 0,7,14 and 28 days:

Figure 4.15 Combined graph for UCS value with different % of CaCl2 and Fly ash and
different days

4.6 FREE SWELLING INDEX TEST

After performing free swelling index test by submerging soil in distilled water and kerosene, free
swelling index in % was found and noted in table 3.6 and the graph shown in figure 4.16 was
obtained from table 3.6.

39
 Figure 4.16 swelling index at different cycles

Figure 4.16 shows swelling index values that has been found by immersing black cotton soil in
distilled water and kerosene and graph shows that as wet and dry cycle increases the value of
free swell index decreases. Hence cation exchange process occurs more with increase in wet and
dry cycle, so swelling characteristics decreases. Graph also shows that the value of 2% and 3%
calcium chloride for decreasing in free swelling index is nearly equal so for economical purpose
2% calcium chloride is recommended.

4.7 SWELLING PRESSURE TEST

After performing swelling pressure test by the help of consolidometer, swelling load was noted
through dial gauge and by dividing this value by area of sample swelling pressure in kg/cm2 was
found and noted in observation table 3.7 and the graph shown in figure 4.17 was obtained.

40
Figure 4.17 Graph between swelling pressure and number of cycles for different
proportion of CaCl2 and fly ash

41
CHAPTER-5
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE
5.1 CONCLUSION

Based on the experimental study and analysis of results following conclusions are made:
. Liquid limit of the soil decreases with the increase of calcium chloride percentage. Thus with
the increase in calcium chloride, cation (calcium cation) exchange of the soil increases. And
difference between the decrease in liquid limit for 2% calcium and 3% calcium chloride solution
is very less so 2% calcium chloride is better for economical point of view.
. Liquid limit also decreases with number of wet and dry cycles so it can be concluded that full
calcium exchange process does not take place instantly after adding to the soil.
. Plastic limit of the soil increases with increase in calcium chloride percentage so it can be
concluded that plasticity index of the soil decreases, so the swelling characteristics also
decreases.
. Unconfined compressive strength of BCS (black cotton soil) increases with increase in CaCl 2
and UCS value with 3% CaCl2 was slightly higher than 2% CaCl2 .So for economical purpose
2% CaCl2 is recommended for stabilization of black cotton soil.
. UCS value increases with increase in number of days much higher with calcium chloride than
fly ash.
. UCS value increases with increase in wet and dry cycle with CaCl 2 and addition of 2% calcium
chloride is recommended economically.
. Unconfined compressive strength was nearly equal with calcium chloride and fly ash initially
but as the cycle of wet and dry was increased, difference in UCS strength was very much in both
the cases due to cation exchange process in case of CaCl2 but not in case of fly ash.
. To decrease the free swelling index (FSI) value addition of calcium chloride is good option
than fly ash and free swelling value decreases with increase in wet and dry cycle.
. Swelling pressure also decreases with increase in percentage of calcium chloride and with the
wet and dry cycles.
. The value of 2% and 3% calcium chloride for decreasing in swelling pressure and free swelling
index was nearly equal so for economical purpose 2% calcium chloride is recommended.

42
5.2 FUTURE SCOPE

. Efforts should be made to obtain less cost material for the cation exchange in the place of
calcium chloride.
. Field application of this method by the suitable technology.
. Use of other chemical for their effect on the cation exchange of the black cotton soil.
. Application of this calcium chloride for other highly expansive soil materials.

43
REFERENCES

[1] Abdelmalek Bouazza, Stephan Jefferis and Thaveesak Vangpaisal (2007) , “Investigation of

the effects and degree of calcium exchange on the Atterberg limits and swelling of

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 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

[1] Raju Mandal, V.K.Arora (2018), “The Effect of Calcium Exchange Capacity on The

Properties of Black Cotton Soil” , Proceedings of national conference on Advanced Structures,

Materials And Methodology in Civil Engineering, ASMMCE – 2018, 03 - 04th November 2018,

NIT Jalandhar.

[2] Raju Mandal, V.K.Arora (2019), “Effect of Calcium Chloride Solution on the Engineering

Properties of Black Cotton Soil” , Proceedings of national conference on Advances in Building-

Road Materials and Construction Engineering, ABRMCE-2019, 25-26th March 2019, NIT

Jaipur.

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