MIDTERM: EARTH SCIENCE    G.

Endocrine system

I. ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH    H. The nervous system

   A. Universe and Solar System    I. Muscular and Skeletal system
   B. Earth and Earth Systems
IV. THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION
II. EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
   A. Evidence for evolution
   A. Minerals and Rocks
   B. The origin and extinction of species
   B. Exogenic Processes
V. INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENDENCE
   C. Endogenic Processes
   A. Principles of Ecosystem
   D. Deformation of the Crust
   B. Biotic potential and environmental
   E. History of the Earth resistance

III. NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND    C. Biomes

ADAPTATION

   A. Geologic Processes and Hazards

   B. Hydrometeorological Phenomena and

Hazards

   C. Marine and Coastal Processes and their

Effects

FINAL TERM: LIFE SCIENCE

I. INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

   A. Historical development of the concept of life

   B. The origin of the first life forms

   C. Unifying themes in the study of life

II. PERPETUATION OF LIFE

   A. Plant and Animal Reproduction

   B. How genes work

   C. Genetic engineering 

III. HOW ANIMALS SURVIVE

   A. Nutrition

   B. Gas exchange

   C. Circulation

   D. Homeostasis

   E. Excretory system

   F. Immune system

EARTH AND EARTH SUBSYSTEMS
Earth: The Living Planet
          Of all the space objects rotating around
the sun (terrestrial planets, jovian planets,
dwarf planets, moons, thousands of asteroids
found in the Kuiper belt, and icy particles
including comets), it is only Earth which
possesses, not only one, but many conditions to
support the flourishing life. Ever wondered
how and why Earth can support life? Below are
the conditions that Earth has why it can
support life.  temperature of Earth’s surface is 20 ˚C. The
1. Earth occupies a circumstellar
habitable zone
The circumstellar habitable zone around the
sun is an orbital region which receives the right
range of radiant energy so that water in a
planet stays in liquid form. Astronomers
estimate the region of habitable zone based on
its stellar flux. Water in liquid form is essential
for the functioning of biological systems. The
human body, for example, is 72-75% water,
70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water.
2. Earth has a magnetic field
Earth’s magnetic field protects the planet by
shielding it against the sun’s harmful charged
particles called solar wind. Earth’s magnetic
field is produced by the rotation of the planet’s
core and the rotation of Earth itself. Earth’s
molten core is in constant motion due to
thermal  Earth’s systems: atmosphere, hydrosphere,
convection produced by heat. This motion,
combined with Earth’s rotation, produces a
magnetic field.
3. Earth has an atmosphere rich in
nitrogen and oxygen
            Earth’s atmosphere is unique among the
planets, because it is made up of 78% Nitrogen
and 21% Oxygen, the rest are Argon, Carbon
Dioxide, Methane and trace elements of inert
gases. No other planet in our solar system has
an atmosphere close to ours. Nitrogen and
Oxygen, together with Hydrogen, Carbon and
Phosphorus, are constituent elements of
biological molecules: carbohydrates, protein,
lipids and nucleic acid. The atmosphere also
acts as the next layer of protection against
sun’s harmful radiation. Gas molecules and
precipitates absorb and deflect harmful UV-
rays and X-rays, in particular, the ozone
layer absorbs most of the sun’s UV-B radiation.
The atmosphere also scatters high frequency
light waves, reducing their intensity when they
reach the Earth’s biosphere.
4. Earth’s climate and temperature are
relatively stable
            Earth has a climate and temperature
which are remarkably stable when compared
with those of other planets. Average
relative stability of Earth’s climate and
temperature is important for the formation of
biological molecules. For living things, it allows
them to adopt and evolve gradually. By way of
comparison, Venus’s surface temperature is
approximately 453 ˚C. Any trace of liquid water
in this planet would have evaporated quickly.
Mars’s temperature, on the other hand, is a
freezing -55 ˚C. Any aqueous solution contained
in a cell in this temperature would have frozen,
destroying the cell’s membrane, leading to the
death of the cell itself.
SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH
            Earth science is a collective term that
studies all major parts of our planets, namely
land, sea, air, the interior structure of our
planet, and distribution of living organisms.
These parts lead to four major subdivisions of
geosphere and biosphere. The four prefixes
(atmos, hydro, geo and bio) each means
vapor/air, water, earth/land and life. (Yes, I
know what you are thinking of. It’s like the
Avatar but disregard the life part!) Let’s
discuss first the atmosphere…
Atmosphere
            The atmosphere is a mixture of many
gases and holds many suspended liquid
droplets and particulate matter. Interestingly,
however, only two gaseous elements make up
99% of Earth’s atmosphere. These are nitrogen
(78%) and oxygen (21%). The rest is a mix
trace element: Ar, CO2, Ne, He, CH4, and water
vapor. As one goes up from bottom to top,
temperature of the atmosphere shows
variations. These differences and other
physical features in the vertical layering of the
atmosphere lead to its major
subdivisions: troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, and thermosphere. In troposphere
and mesosphere, as you go higher the
temperature decreases while in stratosphere
and thermosphere, the temperature increases.
Hydropshere
           The hydrosphere includes water on the
planet’s surface, underground, and in the air. It
can take the form of liquid, vapor, or ice. On
Earth’s surface, it is in liquid form in oceans,
lakes and rivers. In frozen form, it is found in
glaciers, ice caps, and icebergs. The frozen part
of the hydrosphere is called cryosphere (cryo
means ice). Underground, it is found in aquifers
and wells, and is generally called groundwater.
Up in the air, it is visible as clouds and fog.
Geosphere
          Generally speaking, geosphere refers to
the solid part of Earth to distinguish it from
atmosphere (air) and hydrosphere (water). For
us humans, it defines much of environment we
live in. It defines the shape of lands,
distribution of mountain, position of
continents, shape of sea floor, shape and
direction of rivers and streams. It also controls
distribution of rocks, minerals, soils, and other
natural resources. It also influences the type of
living organisms that dwells on land.
Geosphere is the largest of the four spheres. It
does not only cover land surface which is easily
visible to us. It also includes the interior of
Earth all the way to its core.
Biosphere
          Biosphere is the region of our planet
inhabited by living things. These are land,
bodies of water, and air. Hence, we can
subdivide the biosphere into the lithosphere
(land), hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Although
there is no permanent community of living
things inhabiting the atmosphere, it is
necessary environment for insects and birds.
SPHERE INTERACTIONS
            The four spheres interact among
themselves in such a way that matter and
energy are constantly exchanged between and
among them. Carbon dioxide, for example, is
constantly exchanged between the atmopshere
and biosphere when plants take in CO2 to
complete photosynthesis. When plants die and
decompose, CO2 returns to the
atmosphere. With carbon dioxide and water,
plants initiate photosynthesis by converting
the radiant energy of sunlight into glucose,
releasing oxygen to the atmopshere as a
byproduct. Glucose is the storage form of
energy among plants. Herbivores consume
plants and convert them into glycogen, the
energy storage form for animals. Animals use
this energy (chemical energy) for metabolism
and to support many life sustaining processes.
The byproducts are carbon dioxide, water and
heat. Heat is leached into the atmosphere, and
carbon dioxide mixes with air and gets
absorbed again by plants initiating a new cycle
of photosynthesis.
“Earth is a perfect machine that enables life
to exist but sometimes existence will turn the
Earth into extinction”  - J. Celoso, 2019
Minerals and Rocks
Minerals are naturally-occurring, inorganic
solid with a definite chemical composition and
an ordered internal structure.
 Minerals form from hot magma as it
cools inside the crust, or as lava cools on
the surface.
 When these liquids cool to a solid, they
form crystals (minerals).
 Size of the crystals depend on time it
takes to freeze into a solid.
Extrusive cooling:
Lava cools fast. (short time=small
crystals)
Intrusive Cooling:
Magma cools slowly. (Long time=large
crystals)
Evaporation
- Some minerals form when
solutions or mixtures evaporate.
- When water evaporates, it leaves
behind the stuff that’s dissolved
in it.
Properties of Minerals
1. Color – the least useful property in
identifying minerals.
2. Streak – the color of a mineral’s powder.
(Streak test)
3. Luster – how the minerals surface reflects
light.
a. Metallic – generally opaque and
exhibit a resplendent shine similar to a
polished metal
b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy),
adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy),
greasy, etc.
4. Hardness – the ability of a mineral to resist
being scratched. (Scratched Test)
Moh’s Scale of Hardness
 Rating Description Example - The properties of minerals are
1. Very Easily crumbles and Talc due to the internal arrangement
soft can be scratched of its atoms.
with fingernail. (2.2) Classifications of Minerals
2. Soft Can be scratch with a Gypusm
fingernail. (2.2) 1. Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most
3. Soft Can be scratch with a Calcite abundant elements in the Earth’s crust,
namely, silicon and oxygen.
copper penny. (3.5)
- silicon oxygen tetrahedron -the
4. Semi- Can be scratch with a Fluorite fundamental building block of silicate minerals.
Hard nail. (5.2) (SiO4)
5. Hard Can be scratch with a Apatite  Over 90% of the rock-forming minerals
nail. (5.2) belong to this group.
Examples: Olivine=
Knife blade
6.Hard Mineral with Feldspar 2. Oxides – consist of metal cations bonded to
hardness of 6 or oxygen anion. (O4)
more can scratch Examples:
glass. 3. Sulfides – consist of metal cation bonded with
sulphide. ( S¿¿ 2)¿
Window glass
 They are common ore minerals with oxides.
7.Very Can be scratch with a Quartz Examples:
Hard concrete nail. (7.5)
Steel file 4. Sulfates – consist of metal cation bonded to the
8.Very Topaz SO42 anionic group.
 They usually precipitate out of water near
Hard
Earth’s surface.
9. Used in industrial Corundum 5. Halides – composed of halogen ion such as
Extremely tools for cutting and chlorine and fluorine which forms
Hard grinding. halite or rock salt (NaCl) and fluorite (CaF2).
10.The Diamond is used to Diamond 6. Carbonates – characterized by the presence of
carbonic ion (CO3) which bonds elements
Hardest cut all minerals.
such as calcium or magnesium.
7. Native Metals – consist of single metal.
5. Fracture – mineral breaks unevenly or
irregularly. Mineral Formula Group
Sphalite
Cleavage – the tendency of a mineral to break
Pyroxene
evenly along its weakest plane. Magnetite
6. Crystal Form – some minerals tend to form Ilmenite
Sylvite
crystals that aid in the identification of the
Corundum
mineral.
Galena
7. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the density of Pyrite
the mineral to the density of water (1g/cu.cm) Celestite
Magnesite
8. Others
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
Acid test – Calcite
Endogenic processes: The processes within
Magnetic – Magnetite
It is associated with the energy originating in
Taste – Halite the interior of the solid Earth. The ground we live
on is moving all the time and the forces within the
Properties of Minerals Earth that cause the ground to move are called
endogenic forces. When ground moves, rock layers
at the surface of the Earth are broken, twisted, and
shaken. Land is destroyed in many places and
created in other places. The endogenic processes on
Earth are responsible for earthquakes,
development of continents, mountain building,
volcanic activities, and other movements related to
Earth’s crust. The driving force is the thermal
energy of the mantle. Most of the thermal energy
originates from the decay and disintegration of
radioactive elements in Earth’s core. Here are some
of the endogenic processes that played a role in the
evolution of land-forms on Earth:
1. MAGMATISM
 Magma is the original material that make up
igneous rocks.
 Magmatism happens when a magma is
generated and develops into igneous
(magmatic) rocks.
The process can take place either under the surface
or on the surface of the Earth.
2. VOLCANISM (PLUTONISM)
 Process that usually happens after the
magma is formed.
 Magma tries to escape from the source
through openings such as volcanoes or
existing cracks on the ground.
As soon as magma reaches the surface of the Earth
it is now called lava.
Formation of Igneous Rocks
1. Igneous rocks form from hot magma as it
cools inside the crust, or as lava cools on the
surface.
2. When these liquids cool to a solid, they form
crystals (minerals).
3. Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to
freeze into a solid.
 3. METAMORPHISM
 Process of changing the materials that
make up a rock.
 Chemical components and geologic
characteristics of the rock changed due
to heat and pressure that are increasing
or decreasing.
 Rocks changing due to weathering and
sedimentation are not considered to
have undergone metamorphism. 
      Below are the causes and consequences of
metamorphism:
         1. Heat and recrystallization - Heat
energy is important for many chemical
processes because it initiates chemical
reactions. Extreme heat affects the chemical
composition of rocks such as sedimentary or
igneous rocks turn into metamorphic rocks. It
causes the atoms of mineral crystals to vibrate
faster, weakening and eventually breaking the
chemical bonds that hold them together. When
atoms detach from their old crystalline
formation, they migrate to nearby spaces,
where they form new bonds with other atoms,
and thus recrystallization occurs.
          2. Contact with hot groundwater - The
material beneath Earth’s surface is not
completely solid. Gas and liquid substances,
like CO2 and H2O, are lodged in tiny cracks and
crevices in rocks. Underneath Earth’s surface,
we can find the aquifer – a layer of permeable
rocks that contain or transmit groundwater.
Hot water can easily dissolve minerals into
ions. When hot water passes through rocks, it
carries dissolved ions and mixes them with
others. This changes the chemical composition
of rocks. Dissolved ions carried by flowing hot
water precipitate elsewhere where they leave
traces of veins. Veins are made from silica.
          3. Pressure - Pressure exerts two types of
stresses on rocks: normal
stress and shear stress. Under normal stress,
the rock receives
either compressional or tensional stress. The
result of either stresses is to change the shape
of the rock without breaking it. Below are the
different types of geological stress:
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
Exogenic process
      The exogenic processes occur on or near the
surface of Earth. They usually influenced or
driven by gravity, water, wind, and organisms.
These could be destructive occurrences that
leave significant changes on the landscape and
even in the ecosystem of an area. In extreme
cases, exogenous processes can wipe out
majority of the organism inhabiting that area.
The following are the different types of
exogenic processes:
   1. Weathering – it is the disintegration of
rocks, soil, and minerals together with other
materials through contact with Earth’s
subsystems. Weathering happens even without
movement or transportation (as opposed to
erosion that involves movement).
         Types of Weathering
             a. Physical Weathering – is the
breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces
concentrated along rock fractures. This can
occur due to changes, whether, sudden or not,
in temperature, pressure, etc.
                For example: soil cracks because of
extreme heat and drought. In some cases,
water, wind, or ice may abrade or scrape rocks
or soil.
    b. Biological Weathering – the weakening
and subsequent disintegration of rock by
plants, animals, and microbes. Growing plant
roots can exerts stress and pressure on rock.             b. Mudflow – happens when combined
Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals
by altering the rock ‘s chemical composition,
thus making it more susceptible to weathering.
 c. Chemical Weathering – the process by
which rocks break down by chemical reactions.
In the process, new and secondary minerals
develop and sometimes replace the original
properties of the minerals in the original rock
or soil.
                   * Oxidation – the reaction of a
substance with oxygen.
                   * Hydrolysis – the chemical
breakdown of a substance when combined
with water.
                   * Acid rain – may cause metals or
stones to corrode or deteriorate and change
their properties because of the reaction to
acids by some of the minerals in soil and rocks
that make them up.
  3. Mass Wasting – refers to the movement of
large masses of materials (rock debris, soil, and
mud) down a slope or a steep-sided hill or
mountain due to the pull of gravity. This
process is very destructive in areas with
increased water flow (such as rainfall or flash
floods), steep slopes, scarce or no vegetation,
or vibrating or moving ground (from
earthquakes or industrial activities).
The following are the different forms of mass
wasting: 
           a. Debris flow – happens when a large
amount of sediments, usually rocks of various
sizes, falls down the slope. Unlike landslide,
debris flow does not need water to flow down.
soil and water flow down a slope. This usually
happens near rivers or streams where soil or
sand is always moist or has been soaked in
water  for a long time. The weight of the
mudflow indicates the severity of risk when it
flows down a community.
           c. Slump – a slow movement of soil along
a curved surface. In time, they are would look
curved because of the depression formed by
the sinking land.
    4. Sedimentation – it is the accumulation of
materials such as soil, rock fragments, and soil
particles settling on the ground. This usually
occurs in streams and sea erosion. Over time,
the sediment load becomes thick and forms a
new layer of ground. In some small inland
waters, this sediment layer will eventually dry
up the water and become part of the soil. In
oceans, the sediment layer can form the ocean
basin. Because geologic processes are constant,
ocean basins change in size and depth. The
change depends on the rate of erosion in their
surrounding continental masses or by ocean
ridges.
DEFORMATION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST
Continental Drift Theory
The theory proposed that continents
move and used to be one supercontinent. How
can that be? Alfred Wegener proposed the
theory of continental drift, he was familiar with
the shapes of continents, and one which struck
him the most was they seem to fit each other
like pieces of a puzzle. Even for ordinary
people not trained in geology, the seeming fit
between the continents of South America and
Africa is striking.
Continental Drift Theory states that all
continents were once joined in a single massive
landmass and have since drifted apart.
Pangaea is a supercontinent that existed
between the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic
eras. The pieces that composed the
supercontinents began to drift some 175
million years ago, and over time came to be the
continents that we see today.
What are the evidences then? Below are
Wegener’s proof for continental drift theory:
Apparent fit of continents
The eastern coastline of South America seemed
to lock quite well with the western coastline of
South America.
Mountain ranges of Buenos Aires, Argentina
match the mountain ranges of South Africa.
The rock type and rock formation of the
mountain ranges in Northern America and
Europe, in particular, the Appalachian
Mountains in North America and the
Northwestern Highlands north of Scotland.
Fossil Correlation
Cynognathus used to roam the connected land
masses of South America and Africa. But the
continents separated long after they had died,
resulting in their separated fossil locations.
Wegener pointed as additional evidence the
fossil records from Glossopteris, a fern whose
fossils were found in five continents.
Rock and Mountain Correlation
Similarity in rock strata – similar layers of rock
were formed in South America and Africa
before Pangaea began to drift apart.
Additionally, pieces of fossil evidence of
Glossopteris were found in the same strata of
the rock.
Paleoclimate data
Glacial striations – the distinct scratch patterns
left on rocks by ice sheets as they slip past to
surface of rocks
Presence of tillites – these are a mix of various
sediments left by glacier movement.
Did you know ..
that Wegener’s theory was rejected by
scientists because he could not explain what
force pushes or pulls continents?
that India was once in the Southern
Hemisphere connected Antarctica?
that North America was once surrounded by
warm, tropical seas?
that Africa was once covered by glaciers, which Plate Boundaries
were kilometers in thickness?
1. Convergent Boundary
that the Sahara Desert was once a tropical rain
forest? where plates meet.

this happens when two tectonic plates move

toward each other brought by mantle
Wegener’s Problem: convection.

He could not find the force that was causing the two possible land-forms can be created:
continents to drift. trenches and mountains.

Because of this, he could not convince anyone

that continents could move.

He died in Greenland on an expedition.

At the time of his death, no one believed his

hypothesis. 2. Divergent Boundary

Technology developed during the 1940's where plates move away from each other.
changed all that!
plates move apart because of the magma that is
Plate Tectonics being pushed upward in boundaries of the
plates.
The basis for the movement of
continents progressed, geologists started to use when this happens, the slowly moving plates
a more precise term to refer to the moving transport newly formed crust away from the
piece of crust as “plate” because it was believed ridge as it spreads in both directions where the
that continents are not the only ones moving plates go.
(as explained by Wegener). A plate,
geologically speaking, refers to one of about
twenty distinct pieces of the relatively rigid
lithosphere. By the way of analogy, it is one
piece in a jig-saw puzzle composed of twenty
matching pieces. Tectonism the deformation of
the lithosphere, and tectonics is the study of
this deformation. Together plate tectonics is
the study of the interlocking plates of Earth’s
lithosphere, their motion relative to each other,
and the consequences of this motion to
seismism, volcanism, continental drift, 3. Transform Boundary
formation of folds and faults and formation of where plates slide past one another.
mountain ranges. Tectonic plates are composed
of oceanic lithosphere and a thicker but less neither plate gets subducted.
dense lithosphere (land). Scientists were able
to identify eight major plates. Can you it creates friction which results in earthquakes.
enumerate the eight major plates of the Earth?
e.g. The Philippine Fault System and the Verde
Passage – Sibuyan Sea Fault.
Crystal Movement

Folding – the horizontal movement of the

Earth’s crust. Folds mountains occur where the
crust is pushed up as plates collide which
causes the crust to rise up in folds. (e.g.
Himalayan Mountains)

Faulting – the vertical movement of the Earth’s

crust involves uplift or subsidence of crust
along the lines of weakness. The cracks or
fractures formed is called fault lines. This event
can form mountains and valleys.