Rationale:

Earth and life sciences cover all aspects of life on earth such as the complex and dynamic
processes in solid earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, the natural world and organisms, including
humans.
Earth science is the study of the Earth and the physical components that make it up: the
constitution of the atmosphere, the seas, the land and how those things are tied together. Life
science is the study of living organisms, including microorganisms, plants, animals and human
beings. It is an integrated study of the Earth's history, composition, and structure, its atmosphere
and oceans, and its environment in space.
Knowledge of Earth Science is important because most human activities are related to
interaction with the planet Earth. Scientific research in the earth and life sciences is wide-ranging
and relevant to current tissues.
Earth and life sciences cover all aspects of life on earth such as the complex and dynamic
processes in solid earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, the natural world and organisms, including
humans. The processes concerned occur at timescales ranging from tens of millions of years in
geology to nanoseconds in cell biochemistry.
Progress in earth and life sciences research is accelerating due to developments in satellite
technology, deep core drilling, imaging technology and bioinformatics, for example.

Most Essential Learning Competencies:

 Recognize the uniqueness of Earth, being the only planet in the solar system with properties
necessary to support life.
 Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries matter and
energy flow.
 Identify the layers of the earth (crust, mantle, core)
 Differentiate the layers of the earth.
 Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties.
 Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
 Describe the characteristics of Earth necessary to support life.
 Recognize the Earth as a system composed of subsystem.
 Describe the Earth’s interior (in terms of crust, mantle, core)
 Compare the Earth’s layers
 Identify some common rock-forming minerals.
 Classify and describe the three basic rock types.

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 Chapter 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH’S AND ITS
SUBSYTEM

Lesson 1 – Characteristics of Earth that supports life

How planet Earth supports life?

To enable life, this most special of attributes,
planet Earth has a number of ideal features. It is unique
among planets in our solar system for having water in its
liquid form at the surface, in an amount conducive
to life evolving.
What makes the Earth habitable?
It is the right distance from the Sun, it is protected
from harmful solar radiation by its magnetic field, it is kept warm by an insulating
atmosphere, and it has the right chemical ingredients for life, including water and carbon.
Earth's amazing gaseous atmosphere is responsible for making life possible on this, the
third planet from the Sun. Our atmosphere contains water vapor which helps to moderate
our daily temperatures. Our atmosphere contains 21% oxygen, which is necessary for us to
breathe, 78% nitrogen.

Earth is the only planet in the solar system capable of supporting life. Complex and
brilliant combination of gases, composition and structure of earth are some of the reasons
why it can sustain life.

What is it
Earth is a well-equipped as a planet and ideally places in our solar system and
galaxy to support life as we know it. The product of some 4.6 billion years of cosmic
construction, our planet is flush with life thanks to a fortuitous set of condition.
The presence of liquid water on the surface of the Earth is what makes it a unique
planet in the solar system. Its present everywhere and anywhere on Earth. Water covers
75% of the Earth’s surface. In the atmosphere, ground, freshwater lakes, rivers, stream,
ocean and even in the polar ice cap, water is present. A living thing has water as one of its
bodily components. Humans, animals and plants need water to survive. Water is essentially
important for the many life functions carried out by cells, tissues and organs. It helps
dissolve certain nutrients and carry them throughout an organism. Dissolving of bodily
waste is also made possible by the presence of water.

2
 Earth orbits in the so-called “Goldilocks
zone”, where the planet receives enough energy
to allow water to exist as a liquid on its surface.
Too far, and the vital compound stays locked up.
Too close, and the water would rapidly
evaporate in to the atmosphere. These made
Earth “just right” for life as we know it.

The gravitational force of the Earth keeps most gases close to its surface. These
gases make up the atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere contains a suitable mix of gases that
makes it possible to sustain life. Its atmosphere also traps heat and protects the Earth from
the damaging rays of the Sun.

The Earth’s one and only satellite, the moon, also plays an important role for life.
Tides are created because of the moon’s gravitational pull. It does not only affect the
geological features of earth but also the biological features of the earth. A lot of animals
depend on the position of the moon for migration, navigation and for sustenance.

What makes the Earth habitable?

The following are the factors that make our planet capable of sustaining life.

1. Distance of earth from the sun

The earth and the sun are equally important
because without the sun’s heat and light,
the earth would be a lifeless ball of ice-
coated rocks. It regulates the temperature
of water bodies, weather patterns and
provide energy to the growth of plants. The
distance of the earth from the sun makes it
a perfect reason for life because it receives
the perfect amount of heat and light and
light to allow life to be created and to
support it.

2. Light on the earth

Earth is the only planet that uses the sun’s light
as useful as a source of energy. That energy is
used to convert elements, by living things, into a
useable form. A plant uses the energy provided
by the sun to drive photosynthesis and provide
food to grow. As a by-product, oxygen is
released which human beings and animals uses
as an energy source of our own.

3
3. Earth’s atmosphere
It is the layers of gases surrounding the earth
that consists of exosphere, thermosphere,
mesosphere, stratosphere and troposphere.
The air content and favorable atmospheric
pressure also supported life of most
creatures. The air content of carbon dioxide
on the Earth is less than that of planets like
Venus and Mars. Hence, the less air content of
carbon dioxide helps to moderate the Earth’s
temperature and is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis to produce
oxygen.
4. Ozone layer of the earth
It is the ozone layer that is part of the Earth’s
atmosphere situated in are known as
stratosphere, which makes protecting life on
Earth from potentially harmful effects of
shorter wavelength and highly hazardous
ultraviolet radiation (UVR) from the sun.

5. Favorable climatic condition

The earth has a suitable climate for the existence of all forms of life because of
moderate amount of carbon dioxide, which is the driving factor for the survival
of life forms. Most living things are limited to a temperature range of minus 15˚C
to 115˚C. Given this temperature range, H2O may still exist in liquid form being
crucial to life. Among the other planets, only Earth’s surface has this
temperature range.

6. Water

Water is very important for life because it

contains the oxygen needed for life and
allows life-providing molecules to move
around easily. This matter dissolves and
transports materials in and out of the cell.
Only Earth has the right chemical
materials like liquid water that could
support life.

7. Greenhouse Gases

4
 Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be frozen, more than 60 ⁰ F colder.
As mentioned above, the atmosphere is capable of trapping heat because of
greenhouse gases. Examples of greenhouse gases are water vapor, methane, and
carbon dioxide.

8. It is protected by the plate tectonics from the very hot temperature of the
core

The earth’s core causes the convection

currents in the mantle causing the
overlaying lithosphere to move.
However, the surface is protected from
heat from the core by the lithospheric
plates.

9. Earth’s gravitational pull

Think for a second why water flows from up to
downwards – why it doesn’t float in the air?
What holds our atmosphere? Why can we walk
on the earth’s surface and not float in the air?
That is because of the sun’s gravitational pull. It
keeps our planet orbiting around it and the earth
firmly holding everything from topography to all
forms of life.

What’s I have learned!

Directions: Answer the following questions below. (5 points each)

1. Among all the planets of the solar system, what makes the Earth unique?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. How does the distance of the earth from the sun affect its capability to sustain life?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

5
 3. Without light from the sun, what would happen to life on earth? Why do you think
so?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. What would happen to life on earth if the ozone layers continue to deplete?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Do living things need water to survive? Why?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

What I can do
Crash landing!
A meteoroid has hit your spaceship! Luckily, you are passing through the Suna
System, which consist of sun-like star surrounded by seven planets, some of which have
moons. Your ship has barely enough fuel and guidance ability to allow you to select a
nearby place to crash-land. Below are profiles of each of the planets and moons in the Suna
System. The information is sketchy, but it’s all your sensors had time to collect before going
off-line due to damage caused by the meteoroid. Which of these planets should be your
choice for crash landing? Support your answer. Write it on a separate sheet of paper.

Planet 1 (closest to the star) Planet 2

Mass: 1. 5 (Earth’s mass is 1)
Tectonics: Active volcanoes and seismic
activity detected.
Atmosphere: CO2, N and H2O
Average temperature: 700 degrees Celsius
Description: Thick clouds surrounded the
planet. No surface is visible through the
Mass: 1.5
Tectonics: Active volcanoes and seismic
activity detected
Atmosphere: N, O2 and ozone layer
Average temperature: -2 degrees Celsius
Description: extremely cold ocean, mostly
covered with ice. There are a few open

6
clouds. waters in the southern part of the globe.

Planet 3 Planet 4
Mass: 0.5 Gas giant with a large moon
Tectonics: No activity detected. Moon: it has Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Atmosphere: Thin CO2 atmosphere detected. atmosphere.
Average temperature: 10 degrees Celsius Many volcanoes and hot springs on surface.
Description: There are ice caps in the polar Temperatures in hot spots can be up to 600
region of the planet, the riverbeds are dry, degrees Celsius. Other spots away from
and there are many craters seen from the volcanic heat can get as low in temperature
orbit. as 145 degrees Celsius.
Planet 5 Planet 6
Mass: 1 Gas giant with four, large, rocky satellites
Tectonics: Active volcanoes and seismic (moons). Moons have no appreciable
activity detected. atmosphere. Ice is detected in one of them.
Atmosphere: CO2, H2O
Average temperature: 30 degrees Celsius
Description: Liquid water ocean cover most
of the surface. Volcanic island chains make
up most of the dry land.
Planet 7 (furthest from the star)
Gas giant with two large moons.
Moon 1: Thick methane atmosphere with
enough pressure to keep a potential
methane ocean liquid underneath.
Moon 2: Covered in water ice. Ice appears
cracked and re-frozen in parts, indicating a
potential liquid ocean underneath. Surface
temperature is -100 degrees Celsius.

7
Lesson 2 - EARTH SUBSYSTEM

A system is composed of a complex whole interacting part. A good example is an

organ system. For example, the digestive system is composed
of several organs with specific functions that contribute to the
whole system. As we study Earth as system, we see it as a
dynamic planet with many separate but interactive parts or
spheres. Our main task is to study how each part or
subsystem contributes to the well-being or destruction of the
Earth as a whole.

1. GEOSPHERE
The Geosphere describes all of the rocks, minerals and ground
that are found on and in Earth. This
includes all of the mountains on the
surface, as well as all of the liquid rock
in the mantle below us and the
minerals and metals of the outer and
inner cores. The continents, the ocean floor, all of the rocks on the
surface, and all of the sand in the deserts are all considered part of
the geosphere. Basically, if it looks like solid ground, it's part of the
'ground' sphere.

2. HYDROSPHERE
Planet Earth has been called the "Blue Planet" due to the abundant water on its
surface Over 70 percent of the surface area of the earth is covered by water. All the earth’s
water, solid or in liquid form, those that are contained in glaciers, rocks, soil and the air,
comprise the earth’s hydrosphere.

 SOURCES OF WATER
OCEAN
A big portion of earth’s water is found in ocean. The oceans cover more than 70
percent of the Earth's surface and contain 97 percent of the Earth's water. If the ocean's
total salt content were dried, it would cover the continents to a depth of 5 feet. Together
with the atmosphere, oceans regulate global temperatures, shape weather and climate
patterns, and cycle elements through the biosphere.

Ocean Structure and Composition

8
 Like the atmosphere, the oceans are not uniformly mixed but are structured
in layers with distinct properties. Pressure increases with depth as the weight of the
overlying air and water increase. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 pounds
per square inch, and pressure increases by an additional atmosphere for every 10
meters of descent under water.
The Epipelagic, or sunlight zone (so called
because most visible light in the oceans is
found here) comprises the first 200 meters
below the surface, and is warm and mixed
by winds and wave action.
At a depth of about 200 meters, the
Continental Shelf (the submerged border
of the continents) begins to slope more
sharply downward, marking the start of
the Mesopelagic, or twilight zone. Here
water temperature falls rapidly with depth
to less than 5°C at 1,000 meters. This sharp transition, which is called the
thermocline, inhibits vertical mixing between denser, colder water at depths and
warmer water nearer the surface. About 18 percent of the total volume of the oceans
is within this zone. Below 1,000 meters, in the Bathypelagic, or midnight, zone,
water is almost uniformly cold, approximately 4°C. No sunlight penetrates to this
level, and pressure at the bottom of the zone (around 4,000 meters depth) is about
5,880 pounds per square inch. Little life exists at the Abyssopelagic (abyssal) zone,
which reaches to the ocean floor at a depth of about 6,000 meters. Together, these
cold, deep layers contain about 80 percent of the total volume of the ocean. The
deepest layer of the ocean is the Hadal Zone or Trench Zone. The deepest trench on
earth is Mariana Trench, also called Marianas Trench, lies in the floor of the western
North Pacific Ocean.

INLAND WATERS
Household, commercial and agricultural water supply mainly come from inland
bodies of water. Two major inland waters are described below.
1. Rivers- A volume of a fresh flowing water across the surface of the land usually to
the sea. Rivers flow in channels.
2. Lakes- A reservoir of relatively still water that is surrounded by land. It is formed
from the accumulation of large amounts of water in natural or artificial
depressions on the surface of the land. Other inland waters include
ponds, spring, stream, wetlands, floodplains and reservoirs.

GROUNDWATER

9
 It is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock. It
is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks
called aquifers. It results from the accumulation of water penetrating through small
openings called pores in the rocks or soil. This process is known as percolation.
Groundwater supplies drinking water, used for irrigation to grow crops and an
important component in many industrial processes.

MASSIVE BODY OF ICE

About 2 percent of earth’s waters is in the form of solid, a massive body of ice called
glaciers. Deposited snow that falls during winter season piles up yearly. This
accumulated snow transforms the lower layers into solid ice.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

(WATER CYCLE)
Water on earth is
continuously moving. It is
endlessly circulating through the
hydro- logic cycle. As water goes
in a cycle, it changes its states.
From liquid to ice to gas and back
again.
Sun heats water causing
the water to evaporate. Rising air
currents take the water vapor up
in the atmosphere. The vapor
rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents
move the cloud. Cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Most
of the precipitation return to the oceans.

3. ATMOSPHERE
A very huge envelope of air that surrounds the earth and pulled by the gravitational
force of the earth is called atmosphere. The earth’s atmosphere is primarily composed of
78 percent nitrogen and 21 percent of oxygen. Other gases like argon, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrogen, helium and other inert gases make up the remaining 1
percent. Reaching as far as 100 kilometers above the surface of the Earth, the atmosphere
is a thin, gaseous envelope that sustains life. It provides the air we breathe and protects us
from the sun’s intense heat and dangerous radiation. The energy exchange continually
occurs between spaces, the atmosphere and Earth’s surface produce weather and climate.
If Earth had no atmosphere, life could not exist.

10
Troposphere
The troposphere is the bottom 12 to 18 km of the atmosphere where wind, clouds
and water vapor are found. This is also where weather phenomena occur.

Stratosphere
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. In this region, the air grows warmer,
although not uniformly, as one goes higher to around 47 km above sea level.

Mesosphere
Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. In this region, the air goes colder again
almost uniformly as one goes up higher. The average rate of the temperature decrease is
about 3.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer ascent. In this layer, meteors are burned into
smaller fragments.

Thermosphere
Above the mesosphere up to around 1000 km above sea level is the thermosphere.
In this region, the air is very thin and is intensely heated by the sun’s rays. The temperature
rises drastically when solar activity increases. This region of the atmosphere is bombarded
with highly charged particles. These atoms and molecules form fascinating auroras.

Exosphere

11
 It is the uppermost region of the atmosphere as it gradually fades into the vacuum of
space. The air in the exosphere is extremely thin - in many ways it is almost the same as the
airless void of outer space.
4. BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is where all forms of life exist.
Since life exist in the air, in water and on the ground,
its boundaries overlap other “sphere” because life can
be found everywhere on earth. The biosphere is
sometimes thought of as one large ecosystem — a
complex community of living and nonliving things
functioning as a single unit.

5. CRYOSPHERE
The cryosphere contains the
frozen parts of the planet. It includes
snow and ice on land, ice caps,
glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice. This
sphere helps maintain Earth’s climate
by reflecting incoming solar radiation
back into the space.

What I have learned!

Directions: Identify the subsystems, its component and its interaction with each other in
the picture below. Write your answer in the table provided below the picture.

12
 Subsystem Components Interaction with another
subsystem

What I can do!

Directions: Create graphic organizer that shows the significance of the 5 subsystem and
how they are interconnected to each other. Use a separate short bond paper
for your graphic organizer.

Your output will be evaluated based on the rubrics below:

Category Exemplary Proficient Unsatisfactory

(10 points) (8 points) (5 points)
Arrangement Main concept easily Main concept easily Main concept not
of concepts identified; sub-concepts identified; most sub- clearly identified;
branch appropriately concepts branch sub-concepts don’t
from main idea. from main idea. consistently branch
from main idea.
Linking lines Linking lines connect Most linking lines Linking lines not
related terms/points in connect properly; always pointing in
correct direction; most linking word correct direction;
linking word accurately accurately describe linking word don’t
describe relationship relationship clarify relationship
between concepts. between concepts. between concepts.

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Content Reflects essential Reflects most of the Contains extraneous
information; is logically essential information; is not
arranged; concepts information; is logically arranged;
succinctly presented; generally logically contain numerous
no misspelling or arranged; concepts spelling and
grammatical error. presented without grammatical errors.
too many excess
words; fewer than
three misspelling or
grammatical error.

Text and Easy to read/ Most text is easy to Font too small to read
design appropriately sized; read; Design is fairly easily; clustered
clean design; high clean, with a few design; low in visual
visual appeal; color exceptions; diagram appeal; choice of
used effectively for has visual appeal; colors lack visual
emphasis. uses color effectively appeal and impedes
most of the time. comprehension.

Lesson 3 – Earth’s internal structure

INNER PART OF THE EARTH

The planet Earth is made up of different layers: the very thin, brittle crust, the
mantle, and the core; the mantle and core are each divided into two parts. Although the
core and mantle are about equal in thickness, the core actually forms only 15 percent of the
Earth's volume, whereas the mantle occupies 84 percent. The crust makes up the
remaining 1 percent.

14
Crust
The crust is the outermost part of the earth and is very thin compared to the other
layers. It is a part where the living organisms dwell in. It forms a very thin continuous layer
that extends underneath the ocean and continents.

2 KINDS of CRUST
1. Continental crust- is mostly composed of
different types of granites. Geologists often
refer to the rocks of the continental crust as
“sial” which stands for silicate and aluminum,
the most abundant minerals in continental
crust. Cratons are the oldest and most stable
part of the continental lithosphere and are
found deep in the interior of most continents.
2. Oceanic crust- is mostly composed of different types of basalts. Rocks of the oceanic
crust are referred to as “sima” which stands for silicate and magnesium, the most abundant
minerals in oceanic crust.

The Mantle
It is the mostly-solid bulk of Earth’s interior. The mantle lies between Earth’s dense,
super-heated core and its thin outer layer, the crust. It is made up of silicates, magnesium
oxide, iron, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The mantle is divided into two
layers: the upper mantle and the lower mantle.

The Core
It is the dense center and hottest part of earth. The core is made almost entirely of
iron and nickel.
The Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary between the core and the mantle.
The core is made of two layers:
a) Outer Core - borders the mantle. Bullen discontinuity is the hottest part of the
core.
b) Inner Core- is a hot, dense ball of iron. The temperature of the inner core is far
above the melting point of iron.
Bullen discontinuity is the boundary separating these two layers.

15
What I learned!

Directions: Label the diagram to show the layered internal structure of the Earth. On the
table below, write the characteristics pf each layer in 3-5 sentences.

Layer Name characteristic

16
 C

What I can do!

Directions: Answer the following questions below.

1. What does the inner Earth look like?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What happens to the temperature as one goes deeper into the inner core of the
Earth?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Which is more buoyant – a continental plate or oceanic plate? Which would subduct
if it were to collide with each other? Explain your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. How do scientists know what they know about the earth’s internal structure if no
one has traveled there?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

17
Chapter II: Earth Materials and Processes

Earth materials include minerals, rocks, soil and water. These are the naturally
occurring materials found on Earth that constitute the raw materials upon which our
global society exists. Earth materials are vital resources that provide the basic
components for life, agriculture and industry.
Earth's surface is the only habitat available to the human race. Understanding
the processes by which that habitat has been created and continually altered
is important to determine the causes of environmental degradation, to restore what is
degraded, and to guide policy decisions toward a sustainable Earth surface.

LESSON 1: ROCKS AND MINERALS

Have you ever seen rocks close enough and wondered what
they are made of? Believe it or not, the rocks that you see are actually
made up of crystalline materials, called minerals. But what are
minerals? Are they the same as the minerals we get from food in
order to grow and perform bodily functions? In this section, we will
discuss what minerals and understand their role in the formation of
rocks, the processes that lead to their formation, and their
importance in our everyday lives.

Rocks
Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock. The types and
abundance of minerals in a rock are deter-mined by the manner in which the rock was
formed. Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms
74.3% of the Earth's crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock.
Rocks are classified according to the characteristics:
1. mineral and chemical composition,
2. permeability,
3. the texture of the constituent particles,
4. and particle size.
These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks.
Over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by
the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce three general classes of
rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

18
The Rock Cycle
Rocks undergo processes that transform
them from one type to another (igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic). The processes that
these rocks undergo would dictate the type that
they will be transformed in to and is a factor of the
environment where the rocks are located. To help
you understand the rock cycle better, you can think
of it as similar to the water cycle. With each
component (e.g., water, water vapor, and clouds)
and the processes that transform them (e.g.,
evaporation, condensation, and precipitation), the
whole cycle proceeds with no beginning or ending
point (hence, a cycle) and at the same time, can go
forward or be reversed. The following table will help
us understand the rock cycle better by going
through each component and rock type and the
processes involved in their transformation.

TYPES OF ROCKS

 IGNEOUS
• rocks formed from the crystallization of magma
or lava
• magma: molten rock with associated solid
materials and gaseous phases (e.g., sulfur dioxide
or water vapor)
• lava: magma that has breached the surface
• it takes around 600-11,000 Celsius to melt
common rock-forming minerals
• crystallization or cooling: the process that transforms magma into solid igneous rock
• types: volcanic rocks (formed on the surface) or plutonic rocks (cooled beneath the
surface)
• textures: features (e.g., mineral/grain size) observed in rocks that are dependent on the
environment where they are formed
• classification based on texture
 phaneritic texture: rocks having mineral grains that are easily identified with the
naked eye or with the help of a hand lens
 aphanitic texture: rocks having mineral grains that are difficult to be identified
with the naked eye
• classification based on mineral composition

19
  ultramafic rocks: characterized by the abundance of ferromagnesian minerals
and are usually dark green to black in color; comprise majority of mantle
material, making them the most abundant rocks in the Earth by volume; e.g.,
dunites and pyroxenites
 mafic rocks: produced by mid-ocean ridges; e.g., gabbro and basalt
 intermediate rocks: no longer ultramafic nor mafic but not yet achieving felsic
composition; e.g., diorite and andesite
 felsic rocks: dominated the continental crust and represented the final stages of
crust formation; e.g., granite and rhyolite
Igneous rocks form from the cooling of melted rock (either lava or magma) into solid form.
 If the cooling occurs underground, the rock is an intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock.
 If the cooling occurs on the earth's surface, the rock is an extrusive or volcanic rock.
 Molten material within the Earth is called magma; it is “lava” once it has erupted
onto the surface.

 SEDIMENTARY
• sediments are broken down rocks (physically or
chemically) that constitute sedimentary rocks
• sedimentary processes

 weathering: the process of breaking down

rocks physically or chemically
 erosion: the process of eating away rocks
from their source
 transport: the movement of the sediments from one place to another
 deposition: the settling of the sediments in an area before they are finally
lithified to form sedimentary rocks
 diagenesis: the group of processes-compaction, cementation, recrystallization,
and bioturbation- responsible for the transformation of sediments into
sedimentary rocks

• classification

 detrital sedimentary rocks: dominated by the resistant minerals and rock

fragments such as quartz and clay minerals; further classified into
conglomerates/breccias, sandstones, siltstones, clay stones
 chemical sedimentary rocks: derived from the precipitation of solutions rich in
mineral components.
 Sedimentary rocks are either detrital or chemical. a. Detrital rocks are formed by
the compaction of separate particles, or sediments, into a rock. b. Chemical
sedimentary rocks form from minerals that have been dissolved in water and
precipitate out, forming a solid rock.

20
 METAMORPHIC

• metamorphism: the transformation of one rock (igneous,

sedimentary, or metamorphic) to a metamorphic rock
• the unique thing about metamorphic rocks is that the
processes take place in the solid state
• factors that induce metamorphism
 -heat: rocks exposed to an increase in temperature
(e.g., when an intruding magma is nearby; without
melting) will undergo recrystallization in order to
form larger crystals
 pressure: rocks undergoing pressure are subject to deformation in the same way
when we compress or stretch some materials
 chemically-active fluids: when under pressure and increased temperature, water
or any other fluid dissolve minerals which may not possibly happen under
normal surface conditions

• classification

 foliated metamorphic rocks: subjected to differential pressure which becomes

evident in the rock as alignment of minerals, rock fragments, and structures;
further classified into slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss
 non-foliated metamorphic rocks: may be difficult to distinguish from igneous
rocks in the absence of foliation; most common examples: marble and quartzite
 Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are subjected to intense heat and
pressure, usually deep below the earth's surface. These conditions change the
original minerals of the rock into new minerals.

How rock type can be changed? Rock can be changed through the processes of
weathering, heating, melting, cooling, and compaction. Any one rock type can be changed
into a different rock type as its chemical composition and physical characteristics are
transformed. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human
civilization.

Minerals
 A mineral is naturally occurring. It should be made by natural processes without the
aid of any organism.
 A mineral is inorganic. The process to produce a mineral by natural means is
extended further by making sure that no organic material (or what was once pan of
an organism) be considered a mineral.
 A mineral is a homogenous solid. It is uniform in appearance and is in the solid state
of matter.
 A mineral has a definite chemical composition.
 A mineral must also possess uniformity in its chemical composition. This means that
a mineral should have definite chemical constituents’ minerals that share a common
chemical composition are considered polymorphs.

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  A mineral has an ordered internal/ crystalline structure.
 A crystalline material is something that has its elemental components arranged in
an ordered fashion. This means that the material repeats this order in a three-
dimensional framework that can extend virtually in to infinity.
 Minerals are the fundamental components of rocks.
 They are naturally occurring inorganic substances with a specific chemical
composition and an orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal
structure.
 Silicate minerals are the most abundant components of rocks on the Earth's surface,
making up over 90% by mass of the Earth's crust.
 The common non-silicate minerals, which constitute less than 10% of the Earth's
crust, include carbonates, oxides, sulfides, phosphates and salts. A few elements may
occur in pure form. These include gold, silver, copper, bismuth, arsenic, lead,
tellurium and carbon.
Rock Forming Minerals: The physical properties of minerals, such as their hardness,
luster, color, cleavage, fracture, and relative density can be used to identify minerals.
Common rock-forming minerals: These are specimens of minerals from the
University of Auckland's collection. Along with the common rock-forming minerals,
including apatite, corundum, diamond, fluorite, topaz and talc to illustrate minerals used in
Moh's Scale of Hardness.

COMMON ROCK-FORMING DESCRIPTION

MINERALS
Apatite Apatite is a phosphate mineral (and is the most abundant
phosphorous-bearing mineral). The name actually covers
three different minerals (fluorapatite, chlorapatite and
hydroxylapatite) depending on the predominance of either
fluorine, chlorine or the hydroxyl group. These ions can
freely substitute in the crystal lattice and all three are
usually present in every specimen, although some
specimens have close to 100% in one or other. The three
are usually considered together due to the difficulty in
distinguishing them in hand samples using ordinary
methods.

Apatite is widely distributed in all rock types

( igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic), but usually as
small disseminated grains, or cryptocrystalline fragments.
Large, well-formed crystals can be found in certain contact
metamorphic rocks.

Augite Augite is a member of the pyroxene group of simple

silicates, in which the SiO 4 tetrahedra are linked by
sharing two of their four corners to form continuous

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 chains. For this reason, they are often referred to as single
chain silicates.

Pyroxenes are subdivided into those with orthorhombic

symmetry (orthopyroxenes), and those with monoclinic
symmetry (clinopyroxenes), with augite being the most
common of the clinopyroxenes.

Augite is commonly found in igneous rocks such

as gabbros, basalts and andesites, and high
grade metamorphic rocks (granulites).

Biotite Biotite is a member of the mica group of silicates (sheet

silicates), like chlorite and muscovite. It occurs in more
geological environments than any of the other micas. It is a
common rock forming mineral, being present in at least
some percentage in many igneous rocks
(e.g. granite and rhyolite), and metamorphic rocks
(e.g. schist, gneiss).

Calcite Calcite is the only common non-silicate rock forming

mineral, being instead calcium carbonate. It has two
refractive indices causing a significant double refraction
effect - when a clear calcite crystal is placed on an image, a
double image is observed; See the sample below.

Calcite will fizz when dilute hydrochloric acid is placed on

it. It may be fluorescent, phosphorescent,
thermoluminescent and triboluminescent (see fluorite for
definitions of these properties).

Calcite is one of the most ubiquitous minerals, being an

important rock forming mineral in sedimentary
environments. It is an essential component of limestones,
and occurs in other sedimentary rocks. It also occurs
in metamorphic and igneous rocks, and is common in
hydrothermal environments. Calcite is a common vein
filling mineral in many rock types.

Chlorite Chlorite is a member of the mica group of minerals (sheet

silicates), like biotite and muscovite.

Chlorite is widespread in low grade metamorphic rocks

such as slate and schist, in sedimentary rocks, and as a
weathering product of any rocks that are low in silica

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 (especially igneous rocks).

Corundum Corundum is the second hardest natural mineral known to

science (1/4 the hardness of diamond). Gem varieties are
sapphire and ruby.

Corundum may occur on a large scale in some pegmatites.

It is also found in silica-poor hornfelses (a contact
metamorphic rock).

Diamond Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring mineral,

topping Mohs' Scale of Hardness with a relative hardness
value of 10.

Diamond is a polymorph of the element carbon,

and graphite is another. While the two share the same
chemistry, C (elemental carbon), they have very different
structures and properties. Diamond is hard, graphite is soft
(the "lead" of a pencil). Diamond is an excellent electrical
insulator; graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
Diamond is the ultimate abrasive (its most important use),
graphite is a very good lubricant. Diamond is transparent,
graphite is opaque. Diamond crystallizes in the isometric
system; graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.
However, at surface temperatures and pressures graphite
is the stable form of carbon. In fact, all diamonds at or near
the surface of the Earth are currently undergoing a
transformation into graphite, although this reaction is
extremely slow.

Facts about diamond:

 Diamond is transparent over a larger range of
wavelengths than any other substance, from the
ultra-violet into the far infra-red.
 Diamond conducts heat better than any substance -
five times better than the next best element, silver.
 Diamond has the highest melting point of any
substance (3820 degrees Kelvin).
 Diamond's atoms are packed closer together than
the atoms of any other substance.

Diamond is only formed at high pressures. It is found in

kimberlite, an ultrabasic volcanic rock formed very deep in

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 the Earth's crust. The extreme pressures needed to form
diamonds are only reached at depths greater than 150km.
Fluorite Fluorite is frequently fluorescent, i.e. it will glow under
ultra-violet light. This occurs because certain electrons in
the mineral absorb the energy from the ultra-violet light
and jump to a higher energy state. The fluorescent light is
emitted when those electrons jump down to a lower
energy state and emit a light of their own.

Rare examples of fluorite may exhibit phosphorescence, i.e.

they will continue to glow when removed from the ultra-
violet light source. This occurs because electrons in the
mineral have stored energy from the ultra-violet light
which they then emit on a delayed basis.

Rare examples of fluorite may exhibit

thermoluminescence, i.e. they will glow when heated. This
occurs because the mineral may contain chemical bonds
that emit light when thermal energy (heat) is applied.

Garnet Garnet is a more complex orthosilicate (than olivine, for

example) in which the SiO 4 tetrahedra are still
independent.

Garnet is commonly found in highly metamorphosed rocks

and in some igneous rocks. They form under the same high
temperatures and / or pressures that form those types of
rocks. Garnets can be used by geologists to gauge the
temperature and pressure under which a particular
garnet-bearing rock formed.

Gypsum Gypsum has a very low thermal conductivity (hence its use
as an insulating filler). A crystal of gypsum will feel
noticeably warmer than, for instance, a crystal of quartz.
Gypsum is one of the more common minerals in
sedimentary environments. It is a major rock forming
mineral that produces massive beds, usually from
precipitation out of highly saline waters.

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Hornblende Hornblende is a member of the amphibole group of more
complex silicates, in which the tetrahedra are linked to
form a continuous chain twice the width of the pyroxene
chains. For this reason they are often referred to as double
chain silicates. Like the pyroxenes, they can be subdivided
into those with orthorhombic symmetry
(orthoamphiboles) and those with monoclinic symmetry
(clinoamphiboles). Hornblende is the most common of the
clinoamphiboles.

Hornblende is commonly found in metamorphic rocks

such as schists and gneisses, and igneous rocks such
as diorites and dacites.

Ilmenite Ilmenite is the most important ore of titanium. It is similar

in appearance to magnetite, but has a different crystal
form and if it is magnetic then it's not as strongly so as
magnetite. It will become magnetic when heated.

Ilmenite is a common accessory mineral in

many igneous rocks and also found as a detrital mineral (in
sands).

Magnetite Magnetite is a natural magnet, hence its name. This is a

distinguishing characteristic of the mineral.

Magnetite is a common accessory mineral in igneous rocks

and is also found as a detrital mineral, particularly on the
beaches west of Auckland (black sand).

Muscovite Muscovite is a member of the mica group of silicate

minerals (sheet silicates) in which the base of all of the
SiO 4 tetrahedra lie in one plane and three corners of the
base are shared with the neighbouring tetrahedra. This
creates a strongly layered sheet-like structure, hence the
term sheet silicate (the sheets are weakly bound together
by layers of potassium ions).
Muscovite, biotite and chlorite are all common mica group
minerals.

Muscovite is commonly found in metamorphic rocks such

as schists and gneisses, sedimentary rocks (as the fine
grained variety sericite), and in igneous rocks such
as granite.

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Quartz Quartz is a complex silicate in which all the oxygen atoms
of the SiO 4 tetrahedra are shared between two tetrahedra,
leading to complex 3-dimensional frameworks. For this
reason, quartz is referred to as a framework silicate.

Quartz is among the most common of all rock forming

minerals and is found in
many metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks, and
those igneous rocks that are high in silica content such
as granites and rhyolites. It is a common vein mineral and
is often associated with mineral deposits.

Talc
Talc is the softest mineral, demonstrated by its position at
the bottom of Mohs' Scale of Hardness with a relative
hardness value of 1. It has a soapy, greasy feel.

Talc is formed by the hydrothermal alteration of ultrabasic

rocks, or low grade thermal metamorphism of siliceous
dolomites.

Most people know talc as the primary ingredient in talcum

powder. However, talc is an important industrial mineral.
Its resistance to heat, electricity and acids make it useful
for lab counter tops and electrical switchboards. It is an
important filler in paints, rubber and insecticides.

Topaz is a common gem stone. Topaz crystals can reach

Topaz very large sizes, with crystals in pegmatites occasionally
measuring several meters long and weighing several
hundred kilograms.

Topaz occurs mainly in felsic igneous rocks such

as granite, granite pegmatite and rhyolite, and is often
found in veins and cavities in such rocks.

Classification and Identification of Minerals

Minerals are classified according to their chemical composition
1. Definite fixed composition,
Quartz is always SiO , and calcite is always CaCO .
2. Form both by inorganic and organic processes

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 For example, calcite (CaCO) is a common vein mineral in rocks, and also a shell-
forming material in many life forms. Calcite of organic origin conforms to the above
definition except for the requirement that it be inorganic
3. "Mineraloids"
While not truly falling into the category of minerals, they are still usually
classified as minerals. Two well-known examples are Mercury, which lacks a crystal
structure due to its liquid state, and Opal, which also lacks a crystal structure as well
as a definitive chemical formula. Despite the fact that these mineraloids lack certain
essential characteristics of minerals, they are classified as minerals in most
reference guides including the acclaimed Dana's System of Mineralogy.

4. Organic minerals are another unique category of minerals

While this term is technically an oxymoron, since the definition of a mineral
requires it to be inorganic, there are several naturally occurring rare organic
substances with a definitive chemical formula. The best example of this is Whewellite.
Most reference guides and scientific sources make an exception to these substances and
still classify them as minerals.

What I have learned!

TEST I: TRUE OR FALSE

Direction: Write T if the statement is true and F if false. Write your answer on the
space provided.

__________1. Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma.

__________2. Rocks are not classified according to its texture and particle size.
__________3. Sedimentary rocks are broken rocks.
__________4. Metamorphic rocks are classified as foliated and non-foliated rocks.
__________5. Rocks can be changed through the process of weathering and erosion.
__________6. Apatite is a member of the pyroxene group of silicates.
__________7. Calcite is the only common non-silicate rock forming minerals.
__________8. Chlorite is a member of the mica group.
__________9. Diamond is the hardest mineral in Mohs’ Scale of Hardness.
__________10. Magnetite is a natural magnet.

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TEST II. ESSAY

Direction: Read and answer the questions given.

1. What are the physical properties of minerals?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________.
2. How are rocks classified?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________.

3. Describe how the following rocks are formed.

a. Igneous rock
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______.
b. sedimentary rock
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______.

c. metamorphic rock
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______.

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Performance task
Directions: Create a tri-fold brochure that shows the uniqueness of Earth among all other
planets in the universe based on what was discussed in this module.

Your output will be evaluated based on the rubrics below:

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