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5510 0004 04 - 18 1021 Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion - Web - Links PDF
5510 0004 04 - 18 1021 Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion - Web - Links PDF
principles of
ship propulsion
Future
in the
making
3
This paper is divided into five chapters The operating conditions of a propeller implemented to reduce the attained in-
which, with advantage, may be read in according to the propeller law are de- dex are discussed. Finally, requirements
close connection to each other, provid- scribed for free sailing in calm weather. for minimum propulsion power are con-
ing the reader with an understanding of The influence of the propeller size and sidered.
how the hull and propeller affect the en- speed is considered along with different
gine running conditions and vice versa. philosophies for optimising hull and Chapter 5 is an addition to this revised
The chapters can also be read inde- propeller interactions. edition as well. Here, examples are giv-
pendently. Therefore, some important en of the application of the engine se-
information mentioned in one chapter Chapter 3 explains the basic principles lection spirals. The examples underline
may appear in another chapter as well. related to diesel engines. Two engine the importance of optimum matching of
selection spirals for, respectively, fixed engine and hull in order to fulfil environ-
The present edition of the paper has and controllable pitch propellers are in- mental regulations.
been substantially revised compared to troduced. Also, the principles of the en-
previous editions. Among other topics, gine layout diagram are explained, In general, the interdependencies be-
a description has been included of the along with the link to the propeller curve tween different hull, propeller, and en-
environmental regulations implemented and a description of the principles be- gine related parameters described
over the past years as well as their ef- hind optimum matching of engine and throughout the chapters are complex,
fect on modern ship propulsion plants. propeller. and several different paths for optimis-
This is reflected in the new chapters 4 ing the ship can be taken by the ship
and 5, as well as in numerous updates The engine load diagram, the effect of designer, all depending on the priorities
to chapters 1 to 3. heavy running, and the necessity of a of the project. This also explains why
light running margin are explained. Spe- two tender designs for the same ship
Chapter 1 describes the most elemen- cial considerations are given to the pos- never look the same.
tary terms used to define ship sizes and sibilities for including a shaft generator
hull forms such as, for example, the for both propeller types. It is considered beyond the scope of
ship’s displacement, deadweight, this publication to explain how propul-
draught, length between perpendicu- Chapter 4 is added in this revised edi- sion calculations, i.e. power predictions
lars, block coefficient, etc. Other terms tion. The chapter describes some of the as such are carried out, as the calcula-
described include the calm water resis- environmental regulations governing tion procedure is complex. The reader
tance, which consist of frictional, resid- shipping. An overview of the possible is referred to the specialised literature
ual and air resistance, along with the in- measures allowing for fulfilment of vari- on this subject, for example as stated in
fluence of these resistances in service. ous rules are given. the final section “References”.
Content
Chapter 1 6. Select engine for CPP p. 42
Ship definitions and hull resistance p 5 7. Engine load diagram for CPP and
Hull dimensions and load lines p. 5 considerations of PTO p. 42
Size determining factors p. 7 8. Compliance with regulations p. 42
Displacement, deadweight and Engine tuning p. 43
lightweight p. 7 Rpm extended load diagram p. 43
Coefficients related to the hull p. 7 Constant ship speed curves p. 44
Ship types with engine applications in Power functions and logarithmic scale for
overview p. 9 engine diagrams p. 45
Efficiencies affecting the total fuel Chapter 4
consumption p. 9 Environmental regulations p 46
Resistance and influencing Sulphur oxides p. 46
parameters p. 10 Nitrogen oxides p. 47
Components of resistance p. 10 Exhaust gas recirculation p. 48
Parameters influencing resistance and Selective catalytic reduction p. 48
optimisation hereof p. 12 Emission control areas p. 49
Added resistance in various Energy efficiency design index p. 50
conditions p. 13 EEDI reducing measures p. 51
Resistance margins in a slow steaming EEDI and light running margin p. 52
environment p. 14 Minimum propulsion power p. 52
Chapter 2 Chapter 5
Propeller propulsion p 15 Examples of engine selections for selected
Definitions of parameters p. 15 ship types p 53
Propeller types and geometry p. 16 Example 1 - MR tanker p. 53
Flow conditions p. 18 Example 2 - container carrier p. 57
Propeller coefficients p. 19 Example 3 - ro-ro cargo p. 60
Slip p. 21 Closing remarks p. 64
Cavitation p. 21 References p. 64
Efficiencies and influencing List of abbreviations p. 65
parameters p. 21
Influence of propeller diameter and pitch/
diameter ratio example p. 24
Different approaches for optimising the
propulsive efficiency p. 24
Energy saving devices p. 25
Propeller law and power/speed
curves p. 26
Acceleration, barred speed range,
manoeuvring speed and propeller
rotation p. 26
Manoeuvring speed p. 28
Direction of propeller rotation p. 28
Manufacturing accuracy of the propeller
p. 28
Chapter 3
Engines for marine propulsion plants p 29
Two-stroke crosshead diesel cycle
engines p. 29
Engine efficiency parameters p. 30
GI and LGI dual fuel engines p. 30
Engine selection spiral for
FP-propeller p. 32
2. Light propeller curve p. 33
3. Propulsion margins, including light
running margin p. 33
4. Engine layout diagram with SMCR,
derating p. 35
5. Select engine p. 36
6. Passage of the barred speed
range p. 37
7. Engine load diagram & considerations
of PTO power p. 38
8. Compliance with regulations p. 40
Engine selection spiral for
CP-propeller p. 40
2. Possible propeller operation for CPP &
required power p. 41
3. CPP operating principles for inclusion
of PTO p. 41
4. Propulsion margins for CPP p. 41
5. Engine layout diagram with SMCR for
CPP p. 42
5
Chapter 1
Ship definitions and hull resistance
Breadth
Another important factor is the hull’s
largest breadth on the waterline BWL ,
see Fig. 1.02.
Waterline plane AM T
Depth
AWL
The depth describes the distance from
the keel to the underside of a given
L PP
deck of the ship and is typically denot- L WL
ed D. The moulded depth describes the B
WL
distance from the keel to the freeboard
deck measured at the ship side.
Volume of displacement :
Load lines
Waterline area : A WL
Painted halfway along the ship’s side is
the load line mark (also known as the Block coefficient, LWL based : CB,WL =
Plimsoll Mark after its inventor), see Fig. LWL × BWL × T
1.03. The lines and letters of the load AM
Midship section coefficient : CM =
line mark, which conform to the free- BWL × T
board rules laid down by the IMO and
local authorities, indicates the draught Longitudinal prismatic coefficient : CP =
AM × LWL
to which the ship may be loaded. The
term freeboard refers to the minimum AWL
Waterplane area coefficient : CWL =
distance from the lowest watertight LWL × BWL
deck of the ship to the waterline, i.e.
when fully loaded, the load line.
Fig. 1.02: Hull coefficients
Size determining factors Table 1.01 indicates the rule-of-thumb In the case cited above, the block coef-
relationship between the ship’s, dead- ficient refers to the length on waterline
Displacement, deadweight and weight tonnage (summer freeboard/ LWL . However, shipbuilders often use
lightweight scantling draught) and lightweight ton- block coefficient CB,PP based on the
When a ship in loaded condition floats nage. length between perpendiculars, LPP, in
at an arbitrary water line, its displace- which case the block coefficient will, as
ment is equal to the relevant mass of The designation “payload” describes a rule, be slightly larger because LPP is
water displaced by the ship. Displace- the weight that can be loaded onto the normally slightly shorter than LWL .
ment is thus equal to the total weight, ship, excluding bunkers and supplies
of the relevant loaded ship, normally in necessary for the ship’s propulsion.
seawater with a mass density of 1.025 CB,PP = ∇
t/m3. Gross and net tonnage Lpp × BWL × T
Without going into detail, it should be
Displacement comprises the ship’s mentioned that there are also such
lightweight and its deadweight, where measurements as the dimensionless Table 1.01 shows typical block coeffi-
the deadweight is equal to the ship’s gross tonnage (gt) and net tonnage (nt), cients for different categories of ships,
loading capacity, including bunkers and which are calculated on the basis of the indicating a strong correlation between
other supplies necessary for the ship’s ship’s volume and a multiplier defined ship speed and block coefficient.
propulsion. The deadweight at any time by the IMO in the International Conven-
thus represents the difference between tion on Tonnage Measurement of Ships. Water plane area coefficient
the actual displacement and the ship’s Gross tonnage describes the entire en- The water plane area coefficient CWL
lightweight, all given in tons. closed ship space, whereas net ton- expresses the ratio between the ships’s
nage covers only the cargo spaces. waterline area AWL and the product of
These measurements often form the the length LWL and the breadth BWL of
deadweight = displacement – lightweight basis for different regulatory require- the ship on the waterline, see Fig. 1.02.
ments from the IMO.
AWL
Gross and net tonnage should not be CWL =
The word “ton” does not always ex- confused with the older pre-convention LWL × BWL
press the same amount of weight. Be- terms gross register tons (grt), and net
sides the metric ton (1,000 kg), there is register tons (nrt) where 1 register ton
the English ton (1,016 kg), which is also corresponds to 100 English cubic feet, Generally, the water plane area coeffi-
called the “long ton”. A “short ton” is or 2.83 m3. cient is some 0.10 higher than the block
approx. 907 kg. coefficient.
Coefficients related to the hull
The deadweight tonnage (dwt) is based The measures of length, breadth,
on the ship’s loading capacity including draught and depth as well of weights CWL ≅ CB + 0.1
the fuel and lube oils, etc. required for can with some additional measures be
the operation of the ship. It is often used for calculating some dimension-
used as an indication of size, referring less coefficients.
to the loading capacity when the ship is This difference will be slightly larger on
loaded to its scantling draught, i.e. to Block coefficient fast ships with small block coefficients
the summer load line. Various form coefficients are used to where the stern is also partly immersed
express the shape of the hull. The most in the water and thus becomes part of
Sometimes, the deadweight tonnage important of these coefficients is the the ”water plane” area.
may also refer to the ship’s loading ca- block coefficient CB, which is defined
pacity at the design draught, if so, this as the ratio between the displacement
will be mentioned. volume ∇ and the volume of a box with
dimensions LWL x BWL x T, see Fig. 1.02.
The lightweight of a ship describes the
weight of the ship itself in light condi-
tion, i.e. without load on the ship. The CB,WL = ∇
lightweight tonnage (lwt) is normally not LWL × BWL × T
used to indicate the size of a ship.
8 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Midship section coefficient The prismatic coefficient describes Relations between LCB and speed can
A further description of the hull form is how voluminous the fore and aft parts be formulated for LCB. When measured
provided by the midship section coeffi- of the ship are. A low prismatic coeffi- positive fore midships: For a ship de-
cient CM, which expresses the ratio be- cient indicates a voluminous midship signed for high speeds, e.g. container
tween the immersed midship section section compared to the fore and aft ships, the LCB will, normally, be nega-
area A M (midway between the foremost parts. tive, whereas for slow-speed ships,
and the aftmost perpendiculars) and such as tankers and bulk carriers, it will
the product of the ship’s breadth BWL Fineness ratio alias length/displace- normally be positive. The LCB is gener-
and draught T, see Fig 1.01. ment ratio ally between −3% and +3%.
The length/displacement ratio or fine-
ness ratio, CLD, is defined as the ratio Longitudinal centre of flotation
AM
CM = between the ship’s waterline length LWL , LCF is the geometrical centre of the
BWL × T and the length of a cube with a volume waterplane area, which does not nec-
equal to the displacement volume. essarily coincide with the midship posi-
tion, due to the ship usually not being
In general, the midship section coeffi- symmetrical around this point in the
cient for merchant (displacement) ships LWL longitudinal direction. The ship trims
CLD =
is high, in the order of 0.95-0.99. Low about this point and not LCB.
values are found for fast ships such as
container ships, whereas high values
are found for the slower bulkers and Longitudinal centre of buoyancy
tankers. Fast ferries and naval ships LCB expresses the position of the cen-
can have significantly lower values. tre of buoyancy and is defined as the
distance between the centre of buoy-
Prismatic coefficient ancy and the midpoint between the
The longitudinal prismatic coefficient ship’s foremost and aftmost perpendic-
CP expresses the ratio between dis- ulars, termed “midships”. The distance
placement volume ∇ and the product of is normally stated as a percentage of
the midship frame section area A M and the length between the perpendiculars.
the length of the waterline LWL , see also
Fig. 1.02. Whether LCB is positive fore of the
midpoint between perpendiculars, mid-
ships, or abaft midships is not strin-
∇ ∇ CB,WL
CP = = = gent. The Holtrop Mennen, Ref. [1.3],
AM × Lwl CM × BWL × T × LWL CM power prediction method defines LCB
positive fore of midships, whereas the
method of Ref. [1.2] defines LCB posi-
tive abaft midships.
9
Ship types with engine applications As seen in Table 1.01, two-stroke en- four-stroke engines, the higher rpm of
in overview gines are broadly used as main propul- the engine requires a reduction gear-
sion engines. Two-stroke diesel cycle box. Propeller and engine matching is
Depending on the nature of their cargo, engines have the highest efficiencies elaborated in Chapter 3.
and also the way the cargo is handled, amongst mechanical means of propul-
ships can be divided into different cate- sion, see Chapter 3. Efficiencies affecting the total fuel
gories, some of which are mentioned in consumption
Table 1.01 along with typical number of This is reflected in the fact that two-
propeller(s) as well as engine type. stroke engines practically are the only The total fuel power, Pfuel (power deliv-
engine of choice for ship types where ered through the fuel), required for pro-
The three largest categories of ships fuel prices represent the main running pelling a ship through water is gov-
are container ships, bulk carriers (for costs, for example tankers, bulk carri- erned by the fuel equation. This section
bulk goods such as grain, coal, ores, ers and container ships engaged in lin- describes the parameters included in
etc.) and tankers, which again can be er traffic between the continents. the equation, and references are made
divided into more precisely defined to other parts of this paper where these
sub-classes and types. For specialised ships, such as ferries are explained in detail.
and cruise ships, other parameters can
Furthermore, Table 1.01 includes gen- constitute the main economic factors.
eral cargo ships, where different kinds The higher power density and lower RT × V
Pfuel = “Fuel equation”
of cargo is brought onboard in pieces, height of four-stroke engines can make ηH × ηO× ηR × ηS × ηE
and roll-on/roll-off (ro-ro) ships carrying them more attractive in such cases.
lorry trailers and other cargoes that can
be rolled on board. Rolling cargo in the For large ocean-going ships, fixed pitch The resistance of the hull, RT, is influ-
form of cars and lorries are also com- propellers (FPP) are the most common enced by multiple parameters as de-
bined with passenger transport in ro- choice, whereas controllable pitch pro- scribed in the section “Resistance and
pax ships. pellers (CPP) are often utilised for influencing parameters”. In general, the
smaller ships calling on smaller ports resistance is proportional to the speed
Table 1.01 provides only a rough out- which demand increased manoeu- to the power of i = 2 to 3, R ∝ k × Vi.
line. In reality, there are many sub-types vrability. In the case of a two-stroke This means that when increasing the
of ships, as well as combinations of main engine, it is possible to couple the speed with the power of 1 (linearly), the
these sub-types, i.e. ships carrying ro- propeller directly to the main engine, as power required will increase with the
ro cargo in the hull and containers an engine with an rpm matching the speed to a higher power, P ∝ k × Vi+1.
stacked on deck. propeller optimum can be found. For
These relations are further discussed in Resistance and influencing parame- Water with a speed of V and a density
Chapter 2, section “Propeller law and ters of ρ has a dynamic pressure of:
power/speed curves”.
The magnitude of resistance on the
The design speed of the ship is typical- ship’s hull, RT, is naturally paramount p dyn= ½ × ρ × V2 “Bernoulli’s law”
ly set according to the desire of the for the power required to move the ship
owner, if not limited due to regulations. (as seen in the fuel power equation) and
In the fuel equation, the product of the hereby the fuel consumption.
resistance and speed is divided by the Thus, if water is being completely
efficiencies of all of the components in- The following section will explain the stopped by a body, the water will react
volved in propelling the ship - remem- physical phenomena giving rise to the on the surface of the body with the dy-
bering all the efficiencies to consider is different components of the total calm namic pressure, resulting in a dynamic
easy, as the indices combined spells water resistance, also termed the force on the body.
HORSE. source resistances, and quantify their
contribution to the total resistance. This relationship is used as a basis
ηH is the hull efficiency. It takes into ac- when calculating or measuring the
count the difference in the effective Components of resistance source-resistances R of a ship’s hull, by
(towing) power and the thrust power A ship’s calm water resistance is partic- means of dimensionless resistance co-
that the propeller must deliver to the ularly influenced by its speed, displace- efficients C. Thus, C is related to the
water because the hull accelerates the ment, and hull form. The total resis- reference force K, defined as the force
water and the propeller sucks water tance RT consists of many that the dynamic pressure of water with
past the hull. This is further elaborated source-resistances R, which can be di- the ship’s speed V exerts on a surface
in Chapter 2, section “Flow conditions”. vided into three main groups, viz.: which is equal to the hull’s wetted area
AS. The rudder surface is also included
ηO is the open water efficiency of the 1) Frictional resistance, RF in the wetted area. The general data for
propeller (not behind the hull), giving resistance calculations are thus based
the efficiency of the propeller working 2) Residual resistance, RR on the following two important rela-
in a homogeneous wake field with flow tions:
perpendicular to the propeller and is 3) Air resistance, R A
further investigated in Chapter 2, sec- Reference force: K = ½ × ρ × V2 × AS
tion “Efficiencies and influencing pa- The influence of frictional resistance
rameters”. depends on the wetted surface of the Source resistances: R = C × K
hull, whereas the magnitude of residual
ηR is the relative rotative efficiency of resistance describes the energy lost by On the basis of many experimental tank
the propeller, accounting for the chang- the ship setting up waves, eddies and tests, and with the help of pertaining di-
es in water flow to the propeller behind by the viscous pressure resistance, mensionless hull parameters, methods
the ship relative to the open water flow which all depend on the hull lines. For have been established for calculating
conditions, as further described in slow moving ships such as tankers and all the necessary resistance coeffi-
Chapter 2, section “Rotative efficiency”. bulkers, the frictional resistance is often cients C and, thus, the pertaining
of the greatest influence (70-90%) source-resistances R at an early proj-
ηs accounts for the efficiency of the whereas for fast going ships, such as ect stage without testing, Ref. [1.2] and
shaft connecting the main engine and panamax container carriers, the fric- [1.3].
propeller. It depends on the length of tional resistance may account for as lit-
the shaft, whether gearing is necessary, tle as half of the combined resistance. In practice, the approximate calculation
etc. This is further described in Chapter of a particular ship’s resistance, which
2, section “Shaft efficiency”. Air resistance normally represents is required for the initial dimensioning,
about 2% of the total resistance, how- is often verified and optimised by test-
ηE describes the efficiency of the en- ever, with a significant increase up to ing a model of the ship in a towing tank.
gine, depending on type of design and approx. 10% for ships with large super-
a variety of other parameters described structures such as container ships with
in Chapter 3. containers stacked on deck. If wind re-
sistance is considered, the figures may
increase.
11
RA
V
Ship speed V
RW
RE V
V
RF
1% of V
Air resistance, R A
In calm weather, air resistance is, in
principle, proportional to the square of 5.0
the ship’s speed, and the cross-sec- 103 C Total resistance
tional area of the ship above the water-
line. It is important to distinguish air re- Steering resistance
103 R
sistance from wind resistance, air 4.0
½pV2S Air resistance
resistance only accounts for the resis-
tance from moving the ship through the Wave resistance
air with no wind. 3.0
Residual resistance
The air resistance can, similar to the
foregoing resistances, be expressed as
R A = CA × K A . Using a drag coefficient 2.0
Viscous pressure
CA and an area of the ship above the resistance
water line A air, the resistance can be ex-
pressed as: Additional frictional
1.0 resistance due to
curvature of body Frictional resistance
Frictional resistance
(Flat plate)
RA = ½ × ρair × CA × Aair × V2 0
0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 Fn
20.000 teu container
Panamax container
Typically, the drag coefficient can be Ro-pax
Bulk carrier
estimated at approx. CA ≈ 0.9 depend-
ing on the shape of the superstructure,
whereas the area above the waterline,
on which the wind acts, must be calcu- Fig. 1.05: Components of the total resistance as function of the Froude number from Ref. [1.2]
lated because the area depends on the
wind direction. Further investigations
on air resistance have been done in
speed, kn
Ref. [1.4].
Length, m 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Parameters influencing resistance 100 0.23 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.43
and optimisation hereof 150 0.19 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.30 0.32 0.35
Numerous parameters influence the to- 200 0.16 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.26 0.28 0.30
tal calm water resistance of a ship, and
250 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.27
the nature of the influence can differ
300 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25
significantly depending on the speed of
the ship. The following section provides 350 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.19 0.21 0.23
an overview of the influencing parame- 400 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.21
ters and a brief introduction to their re-
lation. For in-depth understanding the Table 1.02: Froude number as function of the hull length and ship speed
reader is advised to consult special lit-
erature such as Ref. [1.2].
ceed approx. Fn = 0.16 to 0.17, as can
The Froude number V be seen in Fig. 1.05 from Ref. [1.2].
Fn =
The Froude number is a dimensionless g × LWL From this figure it is also clear that the
coefficient especially important for the friction is practically the only influenc-
resistance of ships. Ships with a similar ing parameter at Fn < 0.15.
Froude number will experience similar The total resistance, and thus fuel con-
relative amounts of source resistance sumption, increases when the Froude In order to exemplify the influences of
(relation between CF, CR, CA ,) despite number increases. This is because the the different terms in the Froude num-
not being the same size and moving at wave making resistance increases sig- ber, a parameter sweep is displayed in
different speeds. nificantly when the Froude numbers ex- Table 1.02.
13
When considering the formula for the Influence of block coefficient Added resistance in various
Froude number, it becomes evident The block coefficient describes the conditions
that by increasing the length of the overall fullness of the hull. It is a good Shallow water
ship, the value of the Froude number and easy-to-calculate indicator of a In general, shallow water will have no
will decrease. Of course, this does not hull’s resistance and capabilities with influence when the water depth is more
come without a price, as it increases regard to speed. However, the other than 10 times the ship draught. Shallow
the wetted surface area of the ship, and parameters described in this section water may increase the resistance of
hereby the frictional resistance. may have a relatively larger influence, the ship significantly for a variety of
Depending on the speed of the ship, specifically on the resistance, than rather complex reasons listed below.
this increase in absolute frictional resis- small changes to the block coefficient. The reader is advised to consult special
tance may in some cases be meaning- In general, fast ships, for which the literature e.g. Ref. [1.5].
ful. wave making is the primary resistance
parameter, demand small block coeffi- The pressure set up by the ship’s mo-
Typically, the length of the ship is the cients, whereas slower ships, for which tion through the water will be greater as
most costly parameter to adjust with the friction against the hull is the main the flow of the water is restricted, there-
regards to capital costs, but consider- resistance parameter, are most effec- by retarding and increasing the size of
ing the EEDI regulations as described tive with a higher block coefficient. the wave system set up by the ship,
in Chapter 4 an increased length can and resulting in added resistance. This
be necessary if a specific speed is re- Influence of the fineness ratio alias effect is primarily for Fn > 0.2.
quired for a special trade. length/displacement ratio
The fineness ratio describes the length In addition, water will flow back around
On the other hand, fuller container of the ship relative to the displacement, the ship due to the restriction of the
ships with larger block coefficients are and influences the resistance, especial- waterway caused by the presence of
seen now, as the speed of such ships ly for faster ships. When increasing the the ship (similar to an increase in veloc-
has dropped significantly. fineness ratio for constant displace- ity due to a local obstruction in a pipe).
ment the residuary resistance decreas- Furthermore, the propeller will to some
Influence of wetted surface area es. However, at the same time the wet- extent suck water faster past the ship
The wetted surface area is paramount ted surface area is increased. The surface than in deep water. Both these
for the frictional resistance of the ship, optimum length of the specific hull, with effects increase flow velocities and,
which is seen to be predominant at its specific design speed, must be therefore, also the resistance.
Fn < 0.15 in Fig. 1.05. found with due consideration to the lim-
itations imposed by canal passages, In addition, the so-called squat effect
By increasing the block coefficient, the harbours, production costs etc. may occur. The squat effect means that
wetted surface area is reduced relative the pressure underneath the ship is re-
to the cargo amount that can be car- Influence of the prismatic coefficient duced as the limited gap between the
ried, which is why slow-going ships The prismatic coefficient is an import- seabed and the ship results in friction
such as tankers and bulkers have a ant measure for describing how well on the water under the hull. The result
high block coefficient. the ship displaces the water while mov- is that water will flow to the side instead
ing through it. The optimum for the of underneath the ship. The squat ef-
The wetted surface area can be esti- prismatic coefficient changes greatly fect results in a larger than normal
mated by Mumford’s formula, see sec- with the Froude number of the ship, draught and hereby increased resis-
tion “Frictional resistance, RF“. and the reader is advised to consult tance. This is also primarily seen at ele-
specialised literature. vated Froude numbers.
14 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Chapter 2
Propeller propulsion
The traditional agent employed to move In all operating conditions the propeller Volume ships carrying low-density car-
a ship is a propeller. It is typically ap- must be fully submerged in the water. go, such as ro-pax ships, can typically
plied as a single-screw plant or, some- Especially for bulkers and tankers, of- have even larger d/T ratios as they have
times, as a twin-screw plant. In rare ten operating in ballast condition, this a very constant displacement. Such
cases more than two propellers can be sets a limit on the propeller diameter. large ratios will require consideration to
found on naval ships and high speed See Table 2.01 for a comparison of a the design of the aft ship.
ferries. rule-of-thumb typical maximum draught
T and diameter d ratios. Pitch diameter ratio
This chapter starts by giving a series of The pitch diameter ratio p/d expresses
definitions on the geometry of the pro- Container ships operate with a more the ratio between the propeller’s pitch
peller, followed by considerations on constant displacement, as the mix be- (angle) p and its diameter d, see Fig.
the flow conditions around a propeller. tween empty and full containers today 2.01. The pitch p is the distance the
Next, the parameters affecting the pro- is almost constant regardless of jour- propeller “screws” itself forward
peller efficiency are investigated, along ney. This allows for increasing the pro- through the water per revolution, pro-
with philosophies for optimising the hull peller size. vided that there is no slip, see “Slip”.
and propeller interactions. In conclu-
sion, acceleration performance and
manoeuvring are discussed.
Pitch p
Definitions of parameters
Slip
Diameter
With a view to obtaining the highest ef-
ficiency and lowest fuel consumption,
the largest possible propeller diameter, 0.7 × r
d, will normally be preferred.
d
Furthermore, the propeller size is limit- Bulkers and tankers d/Td ≈ 0.65
ed by the distance between the propel-
Container ships d/Td ≈ 0.75
ler-tip and the bottom of the hull, as a
propeller being too close to the hull can Volume ships, high speed (i.e. ro-pax) d/Td ≈ 0.85
Propeller Efficiency
ηo
55.5%
3 blades
55.0% 4 blades
54.5%
5 blades
54.0%
105 r/min
6 blades 105 r/min
53.5%
105 r/min
53.0% 105 r/min
52.5%
52.0%
Main engine SMCR = 20,000 kW × 105 r/min
Single screw fixed pitch propeller
51.5%
51.0%
6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4
Propeller Diameter [m]
Fig. 2.02: Propeller efficiency and blade number. Notice that rpm is constant and therefore the
diameter must be increased to achieve optimum
As the pitch varies along the blade’s ra- The lower limit of the blade number is Propeller types and geometry
dius, the ratio is normally calculated for typically set by the varying magnitudes
the pitch at 0.7 х r, where r = d/2 is the of the forces experienced by the blades Fixed pitch propellers
propeller’s radius. The optimum pitch when moving through the “shadow” of Propellers of the fixed pitch (FP) type
depends on the rate of revolution and the hull when in top, and in the less re- are cast in one block and are normally
propeller diameter. stricted flow at the bottom. The flow made of a copper alloy. The position of
conditions behind the hull are typically the blades is once and for all fixed, with
Disk area coefficient described as the “wake field”, see the a given pitch. This means that when
The disk area coefficient (sometimes section “Flow conditions”. A sufficient operating in, for example, heavy weath-
referred to as expanded blade area ra- number of blades are required to er conditions, the propeller perfor-
tio) defines the developed surface area smoothen the load. mance curves, i.e. the combination of
of the propeller in relation to its disk power and speed (rpm) points, will
area. This area must be sufficiently Ships with a relatively large power re- change according to the external con-
large to avoid harmful cavitation that quirement and heavily loaded propel- ditions, see “Light running margin” in
can lead to erosion, see “Cavitation”, lers, e.g. fast single-screw container Chapter 3.
but not too large, as this will increase ships, may need 5 or 6-bladed propel-
the frictional drag on the propeller. A lers in order to have a sufficient area for FP-propellers are simple and allow for
ratio of 0.40 to 0.60 is typical for nor- transferring the load without cavitating. the highest number of blades and blade
mally loaded 4-bladed propellers. High- area ratio. However, the drawback is
ly loaded single screw container ships The optimum propeller speed depends that the engine must be stopped and
can see values as high as 1.0. In order on the number of blades. Thus, for the reversed if reversal of the propeller is
to accommodate this, the blade num- same propeller diameter, a 6-bladed needed for deaccelerating the ship or
ber must be increased. propeller has an about 10% lower opti- to go astern. Note that the electronical-
mum propeller speed than a 5-bladed. ly controlled two-stroke engine mirrors
Blade number the engine valve timing in astern, and is
Propellers can be manufactured with 2, For vibrational reasons, propellers with therefore equally capable of running
3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 blades. In general, the certain numbers of blades may be astern as ahead.
fewer the number of blades, the higher avoided in individual cases in order not
the propeller efficiency will be. Howev- to give rise to the excitation of natural
er, for reasons of strength and vibra- frequencies in the ship’s hull or super-
tions, 4, 5 and 6-bladed propellers are structure, Ref. [2.1].
normally used on merchant ships, with
4 blades being the most common.
17
Rotation
Forward
Boss
Boss
Special geometry propellers - the Kap- This “dragging” along of water on the the propeller’s disk area and equal to
pel propeller ships surface is what creates the fric- the speed of advance of the propeller),
The Kappel propeller applies a special tional resistance discussed in “Resis- is VW lower than the ship’s speed V.
design where the tip of the blade is tance and influencing parameters” in
curved towards the suction side of the Chapter 1.
blade (i.e. in the forward direction),
which minimise the size of the tip vorti- The thickness of the boundary layer in- The effective wake velocity at the pro-
ces, see “Open water efficiency”. This creases with the distance from the fore peller is therefore equal to VW = V – VA
design is able to reduce the required end of the hull. The boundary layer is and may be expressed in dimension-
engine power by 3-6%, especially for therefore thickest at the aft end of the less form by means of the wake fraction
rather loaded propellers, see Fig. 2.05. hull, Ref. [2.1]. This means that the coefficient w, by Taylor defined as:
pressure is lower on the aft body of the
Flow conditions ship compared to the fore part, result-
ing in the viscous pressure resistance VW V - VA VA
w= = =1-
Boundary layer and wake described in Chapter 1. V V V
When the ship is moving, the friction of
the hull will create a so-called boundary Additionally, the ship’s displacement of
layer around the hull. In this boundary water will set up wake waves both fore The value of the wake fraction coeffi-
layer, the velocity of the water on the and aft. cient depends on the shape of the hull
surface of the hull is equal to that of the (related to the 3D effects of the hull’s
ship, and reduces with the distance The combined effects implies that the frictional resistance), and it can greatly
from the surface of the hull. At a certain propeller will be working in a wake field. influence the working conditions and,
distance from the hull, and, per defini- hereby, the efficiency of the propeller.
tion, equal to the outer “surface” of the Wake fraction coefficient, w The larger the block coefficient, the
boundary layer, the water velocity is un- Mainly due to the boundary layer, the larger the wake fraction coefficient.
affected by the ship, see Fig. 1.04. water flowing to the propeller will have Typical values of w are shown in Table
an effective wake velocity VW which has 2.02 (p. 22), a first estimate can be giv-
the same direction as the ship’s speed en by w = 0.5 × CB - 0.05, Ref. [2.2]. For
V, see Fig. 1.04. This means that the ve- large d/T ratios (propeller diameter to
locity of arriving water VA at the propel- draught of the ship) the size of the wake
ler (given as the average velocity over fraction will be reduced.
VW VA
V
V
F
T RT
PD
PT PB PE
Thrust deduction coefficient, t The thrust deduction coefficient t can Advance number
The action of the propeller causes the be calculated by models set up in spe- The advance number is a dimension-
water in front of it to be “sucked” to- cial literature, Ref. [1.2] and [1.3] or by less expression of the propeller’s speed
wards the propeller. This results in ex- CFD simulations. of advance, VA:
tra resistance on the hull normally
called “augment of resistance” or, if re- Typical values of t are shown in Table
lated to the total required thrust force T 2.02 (p. 22), a first estimate can be giv- VA
J=
on the propeller, “thrust deduction frac- en by t = 0.27 × CB or by t = 0.60 × w, n×d
tion” F, see Fig. 2.06. This means that again considering that the value of t will
the thrust force T on the propeller has reduce for large d/T ratios.
to overcome both the ship’s towing re- For a given propeller pitch the advance
sistance RT and the extra resistance on Propeller coefficients number expresses the angle of the in-
the hull due to the sucking action of the coming water flow relative to the pro-
propeller. Propeller performance is described in peller blades, see Fig. 2.07. For a given
systematic model tests, but to facilitate propeller and pitch, knowledge of the
The thrust deduction fraction F may be the practical use of these tests, certain advance number is sufficient to deter-
expressed in dimensionless form by dimensionless propeller coefficients mine propeller thrust, torque and effi-
means of the thrust deduction coeffi- have been introduced in relation to the ciency.
cient t: diameter d, the rate of revolution n, and
the water’s mass density ρ. Thrust coefficient
Thrust force T, is expressed dimension-
F T - RT RT
t= = =1- less, with the help of the thrust coeffi-
T T T cient KT:
T
KT =
ρ × n2 × d4
20 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Thrust
Pitch
Speed of advance VA
Ch
or
d
lin
Rotational velocity
Angle of attack
nxd
Re
lati
ve
vel
oc
ity
Torque coefficient Thrust loading coefficient to the dynamic pressure of the incom-
The propeller torque Q = PD / (2πn) is The thrust loading coefficient describes ing water flow to the propeller, i.e.
expressed dimensionless with the help the loading degree of the propeller, as thrust is divided by the speed of ad-
of the torque coefficient KQ: the pressure of the propeller is related vance and diameter squared:
T
Q π d2
KQ = ppropeller 4 T 8KT
ρ × n2 × d5 Cth = p = = =
dynamic 1 ρV 2 1 ρV π d2 π J2
2 A 2 A 4
21
PT T × VA KT J Usable power
ηO = = = × 0.2
PD Q × 2π × n KQ 2π
0.0 VA
Depending on the propeller loading and 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 J (= n x d )
design, an efficiency of ηO = 0.55 - 0.70
Analysis of propeller losses according to Peters/Mewis
is typically attained. Wag. B 4.55 with p/d=1.0
The axial losses account for most of Fig. 2.08: Propeller losses. Note that this is only an example, various combinations of speed and
the loss at low J and frictional losses at pitch exist in different propeller-series. Courtesy of HSVA, Ref. [2.3]
Velocities Efficiencies
1–t
Ship’s speed ....................................... : V Hull efficiency ...................................... : ɳH =
1–w
Arriving water velocity to propeller...... : VA Propeller efficiency - open water ........ : ɳO
(Speed of advance of propeller) Relative rotative efficiency ................. : ɳR
Effective wake velocity ....................... : VW = V – VA Shaft efficiency ................................... : ɳS
V – VA
Wake fraction coefficient..................... : w = Engine efficiency ................................. : ɳE
V
Propeller efficiency - behind hull ........ : ɳB = ɳO x ɳR
Forces Propulsive efficiency .......................... : ɳD = ɳH x ɳB
Towing resistance ............................... : RT Total propulsive efficiency .................. : ɳprop
Thrust force ......................................... : T PE PE PT PD
ɳprop = = x x = ɳ H x ɳ B x ɳ S = ɳ H x ɳO x ɳR x ɳ S
Thrust deduction fraction .................... : F = T – RT PB PT PD PB
T – RT
Thrust deduction coefficient ............... : t = Total efficiency ................................... : ɳtot
T
ɳtot = ɳprop x ɳE = ɳH x ɳO x ɳR x ɳS x ɳE
Power
Effective (Towing) power .................... : PE = RT x V
Thrust power delivered
by the propeller to water ..................... : PT = PE / ɳH
Power delivered to propeller .............. : PD = PT / ɳB
Brake power of main engine .............. : PB = PD / ɳS
Table 2.03: Collection of equations relevant for ship propulsion and efficiencies
24 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
The blue curve shows that if a bigger Fig. 2.09: Example of influence of diameter and pitch
propeller diameter of 7.4 m is possible,
the necessary shaft power will be re-
duced to 8,690 kW at 94 rpm, i.e. the
bigger the propeller, the lower the opti-
mum propeller speed.
For the same engine the bigger propel- Different approaches for optimising On the other hand, the propeller of the
ler though reduce the extent to which the propulsive efficiency single-screw ship will be higher loaded
the engine can be derated. This influ- As described above, many different as- than on the twin-screw ship, which in
ence on the engine efficiency is some- pects affect the overall efficiency of the itself decreases its efficiency. Further-
times not considered when designing propulsion plant (including the engine). more a high disk area coefficient and
the propulsion plant and, depending on These aspects may also affect the hull hereby greater blade number must be
the specific project, it can be well worth resistance. Therefore, the designer employed in order to avoid cavitation,
sacrificing 0.5% of propeller efficiency must find a balance, and as great vari- further decreasing the efficiency of the
for gaining a larger increase in engine ety exists among ship types and de- propeller for the single-screw ship.
efficiency, see Chapter 3. signers, one size does not fit all, and
different approaches can lead to the In this case, the greatly improved pro-
Depending on the hull geometry, the same combined efficiency. peller efficiency of a twin-skeg ship will
maximum propeller diameter is some- not only level out the other losses, but
times not the limiting factor. For some A short example of such considerations usually lead to an overall increase in
reason, there might be an engine limita- can be given for a large ≈ 20.000 teu propulsive efficiency.
tion with regard to the lowest possible container ship, where different designs
rpm instead. In such cases, as the red exist with one and two propellers, typi-
curve shows, it may still be worth ap- cally twin-skeg. A single-screw ship will
plying the largest possible propeller, offer the best efficiency of the engine
and instead decrease the pitch in order as the engine is larger. Furthermore, the
to increase engine rpm. The benefit of single-screw ship will have the smallest
the larger propeller will typically be sig- wetted surface area, hereby reducing
nificantly larger than the small decrease the frictional hull resistance.
in efficiency from the lower pitch.
25
Fig. 2.10: Possibilities for combining energy saving devices, including individual saving potential
Energy saving devices Fig. 2.10, illustrates the savings that can When choosing the optimum energy
be gained by employing the devices in- saving device (or a combination hereof),
Energy saving devices is a term cover- dividually. It is important to note that the operating conditions of the ship
ing different devices designed for opti- savings cannot just be added. An indi- must be considered.
mising the flow to, around or after the vidual analysis of the effect in the spe-
propeller. The devices are primarily de- cific wake of the hull must be per- For instance, the Kappel propeller pro-
signed to alter the wake field or elimi- formed. Experience has shown that it is vides the largest savings for highly
nate the losses arising on the propeller, unlikely to achieve combined savings of loaded (high Cth) propellers. The wake
see “Open water efficiency”. Table 2.04 more than 10% compared to a stan- equalising duct (and similar duct sys-
categorises different devices according dard design. tems) works best for ships with large
to their working principle. block coefficients, as it equalises and
reduces the wake fraction coefficient.
Rotational losses and separations in the aft body Wake equalising duct 3-8%
Table 2.04: Working principles of various energy saving devices including individual saving potential, Ref. [2.4]
26 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Table 2.05: Example ships with exponents to the power curve, P = k × Vn, depending on the speed of the ship. The approximate exponent of the power
equation corresponding to the speed is stated in parentheses, Ref. [2.5]
Contra-rotating propellers have high required power and hereby fuel con- is introduced before the discussion of
costs, not only due to the cost of two sumption proportional to the cubic of shaft acceleration past a barred speed
propellers, but also the complex me- the speed, P ∝ k × V3. range (BSR).
chanical construction required for pow-
ering both propellers. In addition, care- This proportionality is termed the Pro- Application of a CP-propeller will pro-
ful maintenance is required. peller law, and despite it being termed vide more flexibility with respect to
a law that the required power is propor- achieving good acceleration perfor-
In general, hub vortex reducing mea- tional to the cubic of the speed, it is mance. This is not treated further in this
sures (see Table 2.04) provide a rather only an assumption applicable at lower section, see the engine selection spiral
simple, maintenance-free (other than Froude numbers. At elevated Froude for CP-propellers in Chapter 3.
cleaning) solution and are amongst the numbers, where the wave making resis-
most popular. These factors also apply tance must be taken into account, the Ship acceleration
for pre-swirl fins and twisted rudders. required power can be proportional to Ship acceleration capability is mostly
the speed to a power of four or even governed by the power to displacement
For all energy saving devices, their po- larger, P ∝ k × V4. This is exemplified in ratio of the ship, PB / Δ. In other words,
tential savings must always be evaluat- Table 2.05 for different ships. how much power there is to push a ship
ed against the added wetted surface with a certain displacement.
and the resistance created by its pres- Explanations regarding the concept of
ence. This is accounted for in Fig. 2.10. a heavy running propeller and light run- The trend towards increasingly larger
Additionally, when evaluating stated ning margin in Chapter 3 will be based ships is rooted in the fact that a large
saving potentials for specific devices, on the propeller law, P ∝ V3. ship, compared to a smaller one, has
the designer must take care whether less wetted surface relative to the car-
the savings are attained at model or full Acceleration, barred speed range, go capacity, and thereby less resis-
scale, as scaling effects can occur. manoeuvring speed and propeller tance and fuel consumption relative to
rotation cargo capacity. Therefore, the large
Propeller law and power/speed ship will be equipped with less engine
curves Acceleration is an important parameter power relative to its displacement than
for the manoeuvring performance of the small ship. As a result, the large
As explained in Chapter 1, the resis- the ship. In addition, there is a link be- ship will accelerate slower than the
tance of a ship can be expected to in- tween acceleration performance and small ship.
crease by the square of the speed, ship performance under increased re-
R = ½ × ρ × AS × C × V2 at lower Froude sistance: If the ship can produce a high Focus on lowering the fuel consump-
numbers thrust force for acceleration at low ship tion and still tighter EEDI requirements
speed, it can also produce a high thrust may result in ships with quite low pow-
v force for overcoming high resistance at er-to-displacement ratios compared to
Fn = low speed in heavy weather conditions. earlier designs. It must be assured in
g × LWL
the design phase that a ship has suffi-
Two important aspects of acceleration cient power for safe manoeuvering in all
where the resistance is purely frictional. are acceleration of the ship itself, and relevant conditions. The IMO Minimum
As power is the force of resistance shaft acceleration past a barred speed Propulsion Power requirements ad-
times speed, P = V × R, this results in a range. The bollard pull propeller curve dress this issue, see Chapter 4.
27
ve
be greater as more work must be deliv-
ur
80
ve
ll c
105% SMCR
ered to lift the mass of the car (in the
ur
ve
pu
tc
case of the ship to accelerate the water)
ur
60
ou
y
rd
rc
la l even if the rpm is the same.
la
pe
le
B e
ol
gin ro
40 En
h tp At some point, the bollard pull propeller
Lig
20 curve will demand more power than the
engine can deliver at low rpm as full en-
BSR
0 gine power can only be delivered at full
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 engine rpm. As there is no longer an
Speed [%SMCR]
excess of engine power relative to the
Fig. 2.11: Bollard pull curve. The two-stroke engine can always accelerate a propeller to about bollard pull curve, the propeller will ac-
50% rpm quickly. The BSR in the figure is placed high up in the rpm range and BSR passage may celerate at a slower rate, namely the
not be quick.
rate at which the ship is accelerating. It
is important to note that the propeller in
Bollard pull propeller curve for FPP Shaft acceleration past a barred speed this case will continue to accelerate
Fig. 2.11 shows the bollard pull propel- range for FPP with the acceleration of the ship,
ler curve and the normal light propeller A barred speed range imposed by vi- though not at the maximum rate along
curve as a function of propeller rpm, brations must be passed sufficiently the bollard pull curve.
which for a directly coupled propeller quick in order not to damage the shaft-
equals engine rpm. At the start of ac- ing due to vibrations resulting in exces- With this acceleration of the ship, the
celeration, from zero ship speed, the sive stresses. actual propeller curve will gradually
propeller will be heavy running and op- shift towards the light propeller curve
erating along the bollard pull curve. What is meant by “sufficiently quick” and, at some point, the actual curve will
depends on how high the stresses in be outside the barred speed range, as
The limits of the main engine is illustrat- the shaft are compared to the strength seen on Fig. 2.11. Thereby, the barred
ed on Fig. 2.11 and is described in of the shaft material. speed range is passed, but over longer
Chapter 3. It is clear that due to the time, i.e. not necessarily ensuring a suf-
heavy running of the propeller in bollard Furthermore, the definition of “suffi- ficiently quick passage of the BSR.
pull, 100% rpm cannot be reached in ciently quick” depends on how often
the bollard pull condition due to the the barred speed range will be passed In other words, if the bollard pull curve
limit of the engine power curve. during the expected lifetime of the ship. crosses the power limit of the engine at
For example, a feeder containership an rpm below or within the BSR, the
The exact value of heavy running in bol- with many port calls will pass the BSR may not be passed sufficiently
lard pull condition is difficult to predict barred speed range more frequently quick.
at the ship design stage. In general, a than a large crude carrier that mostly
heavy running factor of 15-20% relative performs ocean crossings. In order to avoid issues with slow pas-
to the light propeller curve have been sage of the BSR, the engine power and
experienced, i.e. an rpm reduction of In general, the barred speed range the propeller characteristics should be
15-20% for the same power. This is must be passed within seconds, not matched accordingly, see the engine
equivalent to approx. a 60-100% in- minutes. selection spiral for FP-propeller plants
crease in power for the same rpm. in Chapter 3. Here, the capability to
The acceleration of the shaft line is pass the BSR sufficiently quick can be
Considering Fig. 2.11, it is brought to governed by the difference in power evaluated by means of the barred
the reader’s attention that an engine delivered by the main engine and the speed range power margin, BSRPM.
with an FP-propeller can always accel- hydrodynamic power required by the
erate to approx. 50% rpm along the propeller. As long as the power provid- In situations with very high resistance
bollard pull curve. At low rpm, the pro- ed by the engine is higher than the on the ship, such as in very rough
peller curve is well within the limits of power required by the propeller, the weather, it may not be possible to ac-
the engine diagram. shaft line will accelerate. celerate the ship to speeds much high-
28 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Manoeuvring speed
Below a certain ship speed, referred to
as the manoeuvring speed, the ma-
noeuvrability of a ship will be insuffi-
cient due to the too low velocity of the
water arriving at the rudder. It is rather
difficult to give a general figure for an Fig. 2.12: Astern water flow
adequate manoeuvring speed of a ship,
but a manoeuvring speed of 3.5 to 4.5
knots is often applied.
ISO 484/1 – 1981 (CE)
Direction of propeller rotation
Class Manufacturing Mean pitch
When a ship is sailing, the characteris-
tics of the wake field means that the S Very high accuracy +/– 0.5%
propeller blades bite more in their low- I High accuracy +/– 0.75%
ermost position than in their uppermost II Medium accuracy +/– 1.00%
position. The resulting side-thrust ef-
III Wide tolerances +/– 3.00%
fect is larger the more shallow the wa-
ter is as, for example, during harbour Table 2.05: Manufacturing accuracy for propeller
manoeuvres.
Therefore, a clockwise (looking from aft In order to obtain the same side-thrust The manufacturing accuracy tolerance
to fore) rotating propeller will tend to effect when reversing to astern, on corresponds to a propeller speed toler-
push the ship’s stern in the starboard ships fitted with a CP-propeller that is ance of max. +/– 1.0%. When also in-
direction, i.e. pushing the ship’s stem to always rotating in the same direction, corporating the influence of the toler-
port, during normal ahead running. This CP-propellers are set for anti-clockwise ance on the wake field of the hull, the
has to be counteracted by the rudder. rotation when sailing ahead. As the side total propeller tolerance on the rate of
thrust effect is strongest when going revolution can be up to +/– 2.0%. This
When reversing the propeller to astern astern, this is the most critical situation, tolerance must also be borne in mind
running as, for example, when berthing see Fig. 2.12. when considering the operating condi-
alongside the quay, the side-thrust ef- tions of the propeller in heavy weather,
fect is also reversed and becomes fur- Manufacturing accuracy of the and can explain why sister ships may
ther pronounced as the upper part of propeller have different propeller light running
the propeller’s slip stream, which is ro- Before the manufacturing of the propel- margins.
tative, strikes the aftbody of the ship. ler, the desired accuracy class stan-
Awareness of this behaviour is very im- dard of the propeller must be chosen
portant in critical situations and during by the customer. Such a standard is,
harbour manoeuvres, also for the pilot. for example, ISO 484/1 – 1981 (CE),
which has four different “Accuracy
It is therefore an unwritten law that on a classes”, see Table 2.05. Typically class
ship fitted with an FP-propeller, the pro- S is almost only used for naval ships,
peller is always designed for clockwise whereas class I is typically used for
rotation when sailing ahead. A directly merchant ships. Class II and III are
coupled main engine will of course rarely used.
have the same rotation.
29
Chapter 3
Engines for marine propulsion plants
Electronically controlled engines Engine efficiency parameters GI and LGI dual fuel engines
Ever since the first engine was built and The efficiency of a two-stroke diesel Engines capable of operating on tradi-
up until the turn of the century, marine cycle engine is affected by many pa- tional bunker oil and alternative fuels
diesel cycle engines were mechanically rameters, but a few main parameters are termed dual fuel engines. At pres-
controlled. This meant that the timing of important for an initial comparison of ent, liquefied natural gas (LNG), which
the fuel injection and the opening of the engines can be identified: primarily consists of methane, is the
exhaust valves were controlled by a dominant alternative fuel, but ethane,
camshaft. Today, most new engines are –– Compression ratio: methanol, and liquefied petroleum gas
electronically controlled. The higher the compression ratio, or (LPG) concepts are also available. LNG
more importantly the corresponding and ethane are injected into the com-
The camshaft-less ME engine enables high expansion ratio, the higher the bustion chamber in gas form, giving
optimising of combustion parameters end-temperature of the air in the cyl- rise to the GI (gas injection) engine type
such as injection timing, injection pres- inder when compressed. This en- affix. LPG and methanol are injected in
sure, and shaping of the profile hereof sures that the heat from the combus- liquid form, giving the type affix LGI
as well as the timing of the exhaust tion is released at a high temperature (liquid gas injection).
valve actuation. The fuel oil injection level, and that a high degree of ex-
pressure is decoupled from the engine pansion of the hot gasses is possible In general, these fuels can be charac-
rpm which allows the pressure to be before the exhaust valve needs to be terised as low-flashpoint fuels, as they
high for the whole load range, ensuring opened. It is the expansion of the hot have a low carbon-to-hydrogen ratio.
optimal efficiency and low soot forma- gasses that produces the power, and The low carbon content of these fuels
tion. the high compression/expansion ra- is also what makes alternative fuels in-
tio of the diesel cycle engine is there- teresting climate-wise, as CO2 emis-
On ME engines, the air amount trapped fore a main contributor to the high ef- sions are also reduced hereby, see
in the cylinder, and later compressed, is ficiency of the diesel cycle engine. Chapter 4.
less dependent on the scavenge air
pressure, as the closing time of the ex- –– Cylinder bore: Due to its current dominance as an al-
haust valve can be varied. This ensures For the same stroke/bore ratio, the ternative fuel, the principle of an LNG
a better acceleration performance larger the bore, the larger the engine. dual fuel engine will be the base for ex-
(during which the scavenge air pressure A larger bore will reduce the relative plaining the two existing concepts for
is lower) compared to MC engines. heat loss, as the surface through combustion of low-flashpoint fuels, see
which heat can escape will be rela- Fig. 3.02 as well:
tively smaller compared to the com-
bustion volume. This improves en- –– The diesel cycle:
gine efficiency. Fuel is ignited and burned in a diffu-
sion flame when injected into the
–– Stroke/bore ratio: combustion chamber. Therefore, this
For a uniflow two-stroke engine, a is also termed a compression ignition
high stroke/bore ratio improves the engine.
efficiency of the scavenging process
and thereby the efficiency of the en- –– The otto cycle:
gine. Air and fuel are premixed, for marine
applications either in or outside the
As mentioned previously, the stroke cylinder. The mixture is then com-
length has an influence on the rate of pressed and later ignited by a release
revolution. Typically, the biggest im- of heat, e.g. a spark in a petrol car
provement to ship efficiency by in- engine, or pilot fuel oil in a marine en-
creasing the stroke length, is not from gine.
the engine itself. Instead the increased
efficiency of the larger propeller that
can be applied with the resulting lower
rpm brings the largest improvement,
see Chapter 2.
31
Diesel Otto
Fig. 3.02: Diesel and otto cycles for dual fuel engines
The diesel and the otto cycles are both cance. For the same reason, acceler- According to the diesel cycle, the gas is
available for two-stroke crosshead en- ation performance and acceptance injected after the compression. In the
gines. The diesel cycle offers a series of external load variation, such as ME-GI engine, the gas is injected at
of advantages: varying propeller load as a result of 300 bar, in order to overcome the pres-
heavy sea are unaffected, because sure in the chamber. This is achieved
–– The diesel cycle is the most efficient knocking is not an issue. by pressurising the LNG to the rated
operating principle pressure and hereafter vaporise it to
–– No reduction of compression ratio. gas form prior to injection.
–– Methane slip is very limited as the in- To avoid knocking, the compression
jected gas is burned directly. ratio of an otto cycle engine is lower The separate paper “Cost-optimised
In an otto cycle engine, the total vol- compared to a diesel cycle engine, design of ME-GI fuel gas supply sys-
ume of the combustion chamber is resulting in a lower efficiency of an tems” explains in detail how a dual fuel
not included in the combustion. otto cycle engine when operating in plant for a diesel cycle engine can be
Hereby not all of the fuel/air mixture traditional diesel cycle mode. outlined.
is burned, which result in significantly The constant compression ratio al-
higher amounts of unburned meth- lows the diesel cycle engine to oper- With regard to layout of the propulsion
ane that escape to the atmosphere. ate with any mixing ratio of traditional plant, a dual fuel diesel cycle engine
This is important as methane has a fuel and LNG, depending on avail- implies no changes to the consider-
global warming potential that is 28- ability in the marked, as well as tradi- ations given in the later engine selec-
36 times as high as CO2, Ref. [3.2]. tional fuel only. tion spirals. In general, engines of a
larger bore or engines with an addition-
–– Any quality of gas can be burned in a In otto cycle engines the gas is injected al cylinder must be applied when oper-
diesel cycle engine. As the injected at a pressure of 6 to 20 bar depending ating according to the otto cycle. This
gas is burned directly, the methane on maker and engine load, as the gas is is due to the lower mep (see p. 45) re-
number of the gas, indicating its re- injected prior to the compression, quired to achieve satisfactory operation
sistance towards engine knocking where the pressure in the cylinder is of this cycle.
(premature ignition), is of no signifi- low.
32 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
ve
timised by experimental towing tank 8,000
ur
v
ur
e
tc
tests, ultimately giving the final propel- PD
c
ou
7,000 y er
ler curve for the project. la l
ne el
n gi prop
6,000 E ht
The combination of propeller speed
and power obtained on the light propel- Lig
5,000
ler curve at the ship’s design speed can
be termed the propeller design point 4,000
(PD), see Fig. 3.04. 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
Shaft speed [rpm]
The influence of the combination of
propeller diameter, ship speed and en-
gine power is further exemplified in the Fig. 3.04: Light
SMCRpropeller
prop. curve with added margins resulting in the engine layout curve
curve
later section “Constant ship speed Light propeller curve
curves”.
+ engine margin
It is important to note that often the Engine margin
3. Propulsion margins, including + sea margin
propeller designer / Alternative
will design propeller
the pro- design
Often, 100%point
utilisation of engine power
light running margin Vessel design speed / Propeller
peller to the operating point including design point
is not desirable for normal operation
Traditionally, first a margin termed the SMCRwhy the propulsion
the sea margin, due to the increased fuel consumption
sea margin followed by an engine mar- point including sea margin can also be and a desire for a power reserve.
gin have been added to the propeller termed the alternative propeller design Therefore, an engine margin is added.
design point (PD) along the light propel- point (PD’), see Fig. 3.04. Historically, 10% has been applied, but
ler curve. This is then shifted left with the engine margin can typically vary
the light running margin to achieve the The location on the engine layout curve between 10 to 30%, depending on the
engine layout curve, see Fig. 3.04. after having added the sea margin and priorities of the project. A high engine
These margins are explained in the fol- the later light running margin is termed margin (EM) is typically preferred for
lowing sections. the service propulsion point (SP). ships in scheduled traffic, in order for
them to be able to catch up delays.
Sea margin
100 + SM
The sea margin (SM) is added to ac- Today, the influence of IMO Minimum
count for added resistance from ex- 100 Propulsion Power Requirements, see
SMCRpower = PDpower ×
pected average wind and waves as ex- 100 - EM Chapter 4, can also lead to higher than
plained in Chapter 1. 100 traditional engine margins in order to
comply with these regulations.
A sensible sea margin must be estab-
lished by the designer for the specific 1
/3
SMCRpower
SMCRrpm = PDrpm x ( )
project, operational profile, and area,
typically in the range of 10 to 30%. His- PDpower
torically, 15% has been applied, and
can be used as a first estimate.
34 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Constant rpm
would stay in a condition as on sea tri-
al. This is not the case. 90% mep
L3
A fouled hull will change the wake field
as described in Chapter 2 section 85% mep
“Wake fraction coefficient”, reducing
the speed of the arriving water and in-
Constant rpm
80% mep
creasing the slip on the propeller, mak- L2
ing it more heavy running. Heavy seas
will increase the resistance for a series
of reasons as described in Chapter 1, ep
tm
section “Added resistance in various stan
Con
conditions”. As a rule of thumb, 20% in-
crease in required power from added L4
resistance corresponds to 1% heavy
running, i.e. 1% lower rpm for the same Shaft speed [rpm]
engine power.
Fig. 3.05: Engine layout diagram with lines of constant mep and rpm
There must be a margin to allow for this
shift from the nominal, light, propeller
curve, nL , towards a heavier curve, nH. ational profile. In special cases up to possibly cause the propeller manufac-
This margin is termed the light running 10%. High light running margins are rel- turer to abstain from using a high light
margin: evant for ships where the expected rel- running margin.
ative increase in a ship’s resistance
from fouling, heavy weather, shallow However, this reduction of the propeller
nL - nH water, ice, etc., is high and may also be efficiency caused by the light running
LRM = × 100%
nH relevant if a PTO is applied. margin is actually relatively insignificant
compared with the improved engine
It is the responsibility of the ship de- performance obtained when sailing in
The curve arising after having added signer to select an adequate propeller heavy weather and/or with fouled hull
the light running margin to the light pro- light running margin so that the desired and propeller.
peller curve is termed the engine layout operating points (power and rpm) in all
curve, as it will be decisive for the final relevant conditions, will not fall inside a If the light running of a specific opera-
selection of the engine’s specified MCR barred speed range (see step 6), nor tional point is to be evaluated, this can
(SMCR). outside the engine load diagram (see be performed by considering the oper-
step 7). ational point (P, n) relative to the SMCR
Fig. 3.06 illustrates the engine layout di- point (PSMCR, nSMCR):
agram including sea margin, engine The recommended use of a relatively
margin and light running margin, giving high light running margin for design of
( )
n
the engine layout curve with point MP the propeller will involve that a relatively LR = P - 1 × 100%
which is the SMCR to be ordered. higher propeller speed will be used for nSMCR ×3
PSMCR
the layout design of the propeller. This,
MAN Energy Solutions recommends a in turn, may involve a minor reduction
light running margin of 4 to 7%, de- of the propeller efficiency, and may
pending on the specific ship and oper-
35
ve
8,000
ur
diagram limit the speed of the engine L4 v
ur
e
tc
PD
c
ou
whereas the lines L1-L 3 and L 2-L 4 are 7,000 y er
la ll
lines of maximum and minimum mep, ne ope
gi r
respectively. Depending on engine 6,000 En ht p
type, the line L 2-L 4 will typically be 75- Li g
80% of maximum mep. 5,000
CEAS
The online calculation tool CEAS, see
Fig. 3.07, can be accessed from the
MAN Energy Solutions website → Two-
Stroke → CEAS Engine Calculations.
CEAS can be used for plotting the cal-
culated SMCR within the layout dia-
gram of every engine design and cylin-
der number hereof present in the Fig. 3.07: CEAS front page
engine programme. Furthermore a
range of options, including fuel type(s),
emission reduction equipment and
possible turbocharger combinations,
are displayed and can be selected. Power [kW]
13,000
An extensive report containing output
about fuel consumption, capacity of 12,000 9
auxiliary systems, etc. is generated. -C10 E-C
ME M
0 S50
The tool is easy to use, efficient com- 11,000 5S6 7
pared to manual calculations, and MP
forms a superior basis for selecting the 10,000 9
right engine. M EC
- LP
5 0
9,000 6G SP
PD’
5. Select engine
ve
8,000
ur
PD
engines that include the example c
ou
7,000 y er
la l
SMCR point are displayed. Different ne el
priorities of the project will result in dif- n gi prop
6,000 E ht
ferent optimum engines.
Lig
5,000
The engine design capable of delivering
the largest power at SMCR-rpm can be 4,000
derated the most, resulting in a re- 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
duced fuel consumption, but will typi- Shaft speed [rpm]
cally also have the highest initial cost
and largest dimensions.
Fig. 3.08: Engine layout diagrams of selected possible engines, see the engine programme
37
Power [%SMCR]
160
100 ve 1
cur
ull
rve
dp
80 cu
ll ar
er
rv e
e ll
Bo
DLF
cu
op
pr
t
ut
60 gh
yo
Li
105% SMCR
la
in
e
More power g
with DLF En
40 BSRPM
20
BSR
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Speed [%SMCR]
Fig. 3.09: An example of a BSR extending above 60% rpm and resulting small BSR PM . In this
example DLF was applied as a retrofit to reduce BSR passage time
Sometimes other parameters such as The most basic guidance to avoid slow the same rpm. As such, the BSRPM ex-
engine dimensions can have a greater passing of the barred speed range is to presses the excess engine power in the
priority than the fuel consumption. En- avoid barred speed ranges that extend upper range of the barred speed range,
gine length and width can be a chal- higher than to 60% engine rpm. and hereby the ship’s capability to pass
lenge for smaller ships. it. On Fig. 3.09 the BSR and BSRPM is
A more detailed approach is to ensure shown along with the engine layout dia-
6. Passage of the barred speed a BSR power margin, BSRPM, of at least gram and the engine load diagram de-
range 10% in the design. scribed in the subsequent step.
As described in the section “Accelera-
tion etc.” in Chapter 2, challenges may When accelerating, the propeller will be
exist for passing the barred speed PL - PP heavy running to various degrees, and
BSRPM = × 100
range (BSR) of the shaftline sufficiently PP the bollard pull curve, see Chapter 2, is
quick to avoid shaft fatigue issues, es- used as a reference. Experience shows
pecially for 5 and 6 cylinder engines. that the bollard pull curve will be be-
This situation, and the dynamic limiter PP is the power required by the bollard tween 15-20% heavy running relative to
function (DLF) dealing with it, is ex- pull propeller curve at the upper end of the light propeller curve, 17.5% is often
plained further in the separate paper the barred speed range, whereas PL is used when better data is not available.
“The dynamic limiter function”. the engine power limit without DLF at
38 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
80
The engine load diagram is important
when investigating the possibility of in- 6
stalling a shaft generator/PTO. Addi- 4
1
tionally it provides the basis for explain- 60
ing the necessity of the light running 2
margin. 10
40
The engine load diagram is shown in 3
Fig. 3.10, where different lines are num-
bered, setting the limits for operation of 9
the engine. The location of the SMCR 20
point within a layout diagram does not
influence the appearance of the load
diagram, see Fig. 3.11. 0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Line 1: The engine layout curve, per Speed [%SMCR]
definition moving through 100%
SMCR-rpm and 100% SMCR power. Fig. 3.10: Engine load diagram with marked lines
This curve coincides with the “heavy
propeller curve”, line 2. An engine with-
out PTO will typically operate to the Power [kW]
right of this curve about 95% of the 15,000
time.
14,000
9
Line 2: The heavy propeller curve is the -C
ME
light propeller curve (line 6) shifted with 50
13,000 8S
the light running margin to account for
heavy weather and fouled hull. 12,000 9
M E-C
50
Line 3: Maximum rpm for continuous 7S
11,000
operation. For engines with SMCR on
the line L1-L 2 in the layout diagram up MP
10,000
to 105% of L1-rpm can be utilised. LP
PD’
9,000
If the SMCR is sufficiently speed derat- SP
ed, 110% of SMCR-rpm, but no more
8,000
than 105% of L1-rpm, can be utilised, if
PD
permitted by the torsional vibration
7,000
conditions.
gram” explaining this concept in further Recommendation for operation Designing the power of the PTO not for
detail. A limit to this application is that, The green area between lines 1, 3 and the torque/speed limit (line 4) and mep
typically, class rules do not allow an 7 is available for continuous operation limit (line 5) but instead the PTOlayout limit
engine to run faster than 115% of without limitation. will ensure that the PTO can be operat-
SMCR-rpm. ed also in conditions not as ideal, as
The yellow area between lines 1, 4 and ideal sea trial condition.
Line 4: Is the torque/speed limit of the 5 is available for operation in shallow
engine, limited mainly by the thermal waters, in heavy weather, and during In case of fouling and/or heavy weather,
load on the engine. acceleration, i.e. for non-steady opera- the propeller curve will shift left to-
tion without any strict time limitation. wards the engine layout curve, exploit-
Line 5: Represents the maximum mean ing the light running margin. With in-
effective pressure (mep) level accept- The red area between lines 4, 5, 7 and creased heavy running, the electric
able for continuous operation. Note that 8 is available for overload operation for power taken out at the PTO must grad-
this is only a limit at high loads and 1 out of every 12 hours or when re- ually be decreased (and taken over by
speeds. At lower speeds, line 4 is a quired in an emergency situation. the auxiliary engines) in order not to
stricter limit. push the operational point outside the
Limits for low-load running exist. An engine limits.
Line 6: The light propeller curve, for electronically controlled ME engine can
clean hull and calm weather. Often operate down to around 15-20% of L1- In severe cases, fouling and sea condi-
used for propeller layout. The rpm mar- rpm. A mechanically controlled MC en- tions alone are enough to shift the pro-
gin (in percent) between the engine gine can operate down to 20-25% of peller curve to line 4, see “Light running
layout curve and the light propeller L1-rpm. margin”. In such cases, the PTO cannot
curve is the light running margin, see be utilised without overloading the en-
step 3. Shaft generator/PTO gine and the auxiliary engines must de-
With the SMCR and knowledge about liver all the electric energy. The PTO
Line 7: Represents the maximum power the load diagram, it is possible to cal- can take up load again when weather
for continuous operation. Note that culate the maximum power take out conditions have improved.
when increasing rpm towards lines 3 possible within the limits of the engine.
and 9, the maximum power for continu- Traditionally, complicated gearing have
ous operation cannot exceed 100%. The maximum power demanded by the ensured a constant electric frequency
light propeller curve and PTO com- from the PTO within a range of varying
Line 8: Represents the overload opera- bined should not exceed a limit gov- engine rpm. Gearing has to a wide ex-
tion limit of the engine. Overload run- erned by the following equation. This tend been replaced by power electron-
ning is possible only for limited periods, equation gives line 10 on Fig. 3.10: ics, as electronics have dropped signifi-
1 hour per 12 hours or when required in cantly in price over recent years.
an emergency situation, as the resulting
PTOlayout limit = PSMCR × ( n )
thermal load on the engine is high. n 2.4
Considering EEDI, see Chapter 4, a
SMCR PTO can be an attractive solution as
Line 9: Maximum acceptable engine the EEDI reference speed is calculated
rpm at trial conditions. 110% of at 75% engine load in trial condition,
SMCR-rpm, but no more than 107% of The maximum design PTO power at a where there is a margin for PTO power.
L1-rpm if permitted by the torsional vi- given rpm is then found as the vertical
brations. difference between line 6, the light pro-
peller curve, and line 10, the PTOlayout limit
Line 10: PTOlayout limit. This curve de- as marked in Fig. 3.10.
scribes the maximum combined power
required by the light propeller curve If the full SMCR power is used for pro-
and PTO at a given rpm if a shaft gen- pulsion, the PTO naturally cannot take
erator/PTO is installed. This layout limit out any power.
ensures some operational margin to
line 4, see the subsequent section
“Shaft generator/PTO”.
40 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Considerations of shaft motor/PTI Engine selection spiral for CP-pro- 5. Plot the SMCR on the engine layout
For some trades it may be attractive to peller diagrams for various possible engine
use a shaft motor, also termed a power types (use CEAS)
1. Resistance
take in (PTI). In such cases, electric This section will shortly elaborate on 6. Based on the CEAS results, select an
power from the gensets, waste heat re- the engine selection spiral for a CPP engine depending on the priorities of
covery or other electric power sources plant, referring to and explaining the the project
2. Required power
are used to boost the propulsion of the difference to the FPP engine selection 7. The engine load8.diagram of the se-
Compliance
ship. spiral. lected engine, considerations about
shaft generator/PTO and PTI if de-
When using PTI, the engine will typical- The steps in the CPP engine selection sired for the project
ly deliver 100% power, but the propel- spiral in Fig. 3.12 can be written as: 8. Check compliance with regulations,
ler, and thus also the engine, will run at EEDI and Minimum Propulsion Power
increased rpm due to the extra power 1. Establish calm water resistance, pro-
3. Margins (MPP), see Chapter 4 7. PTO/PTI
delivered to the shaft by the PTI. For peller diameter and working condi-
such type of operation, it can be nec- tions, see Chapters 1 and 2 Depending on the outcome of consid-
essary to consider an engine with an 2. Calculate the possible CP-propeller erations on a possible shaft generator
rpm-extended load diagram, see the operation and the required power in step 7 and regulations in step 8, it
later section. 3. Consider the operating principles of can be necessary to re-enter the de-
the CP-propeller for inclusion of pos- sign spiral at either step 1,speed
6. Barred 3, 4 or 6.
range
8. Compliance with regulations 4. Engine
sible PTO layout diagram
The selected engine’s compliance with 4. Establish the sea margin, engine
the environmental legislation described margin, and the rpm “light running”5. Select engine
in Chapter 4 must be considered. Con- margin for the project in order to
siderations on NOX reduction measures specify the maximum continuous rat-
to fulfil IMO Tier III in ECA zones does ing (SMCR)
not directly influence the attained EEDI,
as this is calculated for Tier II only.
1. Resistance
Having ensured that the ship complies
with SOX and NOX legislation as well as
EEDI, the ship’s capability to manoeu- 2. Required power
vre safely in all relevant conditions must 8. Compliance
be considered. This is termed minimum
propulsion power (MPP) and is de-
scribed in Chapter 4.
3. CP operation 7. PTO/PTI
Constant rpm
The required power at the design 6
4
speed will be practically the same, in- 1
60
dependent of the operational method, e
2 u rv
but the required power at lower speeds rc
will differ. 10
in ato
40 mb
Co 3
Constant rpm is only of interest if a
PTO is to be included, see step 3. Con- p/d = design 9
stant rpm operation eliminates the need 20
for considerations of two important
principles from the FPP selection spiral: p/d < design
light running margin and passage of the
barred speed range. 0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Speed [%SMCR]
Operating on a fixed combinator curve
means to follow a curve optimised for
optimal setting of the propeller speed Fig. 3.13: Combinator curve with engine load diagram, see Ref. [3.3]. The constant rpm curve can
and pitch. The combinator curve is de- also be referred to as the generator curve
Operating along a fixed combinator 7. Engine load diagram for CPP and 8. Compliance with regulations
curve, like for a fixed pitch propeller, considerations of PTO power Considerations on NOX and SOX elimi-
the propeller may be heavy running in The engine load diagram is unaffected nating measures do not change with
heavy weather, requiring a light running by the combination with a CP-propeller. the selection of a CP-propeller, and nei-
margin. See the FPP selection spiral. Instead, the position of the operational ther does the EEDI requirements.
point of the engine within the load dia-
The development within fixed combina- gram is in principle, depending on the As previously briefly discussed,
tor curves has been to calculate differ- capabilities of the propeller control sys- CP-propellers can be an attractive
ent combinator curves from which the tem, set free. solution for ship designs that have diffi-
crew can choose, depending on the culties towards fulfilling the require-
degree of fouling and sea conditions. When running at maximum rpm with ments for minimum propulsion power,
This eliminates the need for a light run- zero pitch, the power required to turn see Chapter 4.
ning margin, but attention to the conse- the propeller is approx. 15-20% of
quences of continuous heavy running is SMCR. If the CP-propeller control system can
required from the crew. control pitch and propeller rpm individ-
Shaft generator/PTO and PTI ually, the engine will be capable of de-
Some modern CP-propeller control As described previously, more options livering its maximum power even at re-
systems allow for continuous adapta- for operating a shaft generator with a duced ships speeds. Hereby, an
tion of the propeller pitch, exploiting CP-propeller exist: Constant engine increase in engine power (which would
that in fact installing a CP-propeller is rpm or (as with an FP-propeller) varying negatively influence the EEDI of the de-
equivalent to having free gearing be- engine rpm where gearing or modern sign) can be avoided.
tween the engine and the propeller. In- power electronics ensure constant fre-
clusion of a light running margin can be quency. The same considerations apply
avoided if automatic continuous pitch to inclusion of a PTI.
adaptation is applied, as the pitch can
be decreased when the propeller shifts When considering the PTOlayout limit, line
towards a heavier curve. Control sys- 10 on the engine load diagram in Fig.
tems that continuously adapt the pitch 3.13, it is evident that the most PTO
will be able to load the engine at all power can be delivered at relative high
points within the engine load diagram, engine rpm. Here, the distance be-
and as such the engine can in principle tween the light propeller curve/combi-
deliver maximum power in any weather nator curve and the PTOlayout limit is larg-
and fouling condition. est.
Engine tuning
Power [kW]
This and the following sections are in- 15,000
tended to provide further detail on
some of the engine related parameters
14,000
shortly described in the process of 9
-C
working though the engine selection ME
50
spirals. 13,000 8S
Constant ship speed curves where: Container and ro-ro: ⍺ = 0.15 - 0.25
As earlier described in Chapter 2, the P = propulsion power Fig. 3.15 shows an example of the re-
larger the propeller diameter, the higher quired power speed point M1, through
the propeller efficiency and the lower n = propeller speed, and which a constant ship speed curve
the optimum propeller speed. There is ⍺ = 0.28 is drawn. Hereby point M2 with
therefore a drive to optimise the aft- ⍺ = the constant ship speed coefficient. a lower engine power and a lower en-
body and hull lines of the ship to in- gine rpm is achieved at the same ship
clude a larger propeller diameter. For any combination of power and rpm, speed.
each point on the constant ship speed
The constant ship speed curve, ⍺, curve gives the same ship speed. Thus, for a handymax tanker, if the pro-
shown in Fig. 3.15 indicates the power peller diameter is increased, and going
required at various propeller diameters When such a constant ship speed line for example from the SMCR-rpm of nM1
and, thereby, propeller rpm’s to keep is drawn into the engine layout diagram = 127 rpm to nM2 = 100 rpm, the required
the same ship speed if at any given rpm through a specified MCR point ‘M1’, se- power will be PM2 = (100/127) 0.28 x PM1 =
the optimum pitch diameter ratio is lected in the layout diagram, another 0.935 x PM1, i.e. providing a power re-
used, taking into consideration the total specified propulsion MCR point ‘M2’ duction of about 6.5%.
propulsion efficiency. upon this line can be chosen to give the
ship the same speed for the new com- When changing the propeller speed by
Normally, for a given ship with the same bination of engine power and rpm. changing the pitch diameter ratio, the ⍺
number of propeller blades but differ- constant will change.
ent propeller diameter, the following re- Provided the optimum pitch/diameter
lation between necessary power and ratio is used for a given propeller diam-
propeller speed can be assumed: eter, the following data applies when
changing the propeller diameter:
( n2
)
⍺
P2 = P1 × n1 For general cargo, bulk carriers and
tankers: ⍺ = 0.20 - 0.30
45
Power functions and logarithmic y Fig. 3.16 depicts PB and Pprop in a nor-
scale for engine diagrams mal linearly scaled coordinate system
y = ax + b
and in logarithmic scale. The beauty of
Historically, and before the introduction i=1 the logarithmic scale is that a power
of computers, it was practical to dis- 2 function in logarithmic scale will be a
play engine layout and load diagrams in linear line, the slope of which depends
logarithmic scale. Logarithmic scale is on the exponent i of the power function,
still commonly used in the industry, and 1 according to the principal formula:
their use can be beneficial to the expe-
rienced designer, and bring additional
clarification. x
0 PB = c × ni
0 1 2
The effective brake power PB of an en- Straight lines in linear scales
gine is proportional to the mean effec-
tive pressure (mep) and engine rate of Resulting in the logarithmic scale
rate of revolution, n. When using c as a
constant, PB may then be expressed as
i=3
follows: log(PB) = i × log(n) + log(c)
PB = c × mep × ni
This means that the PB for constant
mep will follow lines of i = 1 in the loga-
i=2 rithmic scale and Pprop will follow lines
This means that for constant mep, the of i = 3.
power is proportional to the rotational i=1
speed of the engine, i = 1: Logarithmic lines of i = 1 are equivalent
Power functions in liner scales to regular linear lines, and as such the
shape of the engine layout diagram is
y = log (P) the same regardless of applying loga-
PB = c × n1 (for constant mep)
rithmic scales or not, only the shape of
i=0 the load diagram will change.
Chapter 4
Environmental regulations
Sulphur %
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
Global limit
2.5
SOx ECA
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Year
Regulations limiting the emission of sul- IMO has also made recommendations with regard to the lubrication of fuel
phur oxides (SOX) and nitrogen oxides on minimum propulsion power, de- components, special care must be tak-
(NOx) have been implemented during scribed at the end of this chapter. en as described in the paper “Guide-
the latest decades. Special emission lines for operation on fuels with less
control areas (ECA) have been de- Sulphur oxides than 0.1% sulphur”.
clared, further limiting SOx and NOx
emissions in specific areas. Sulphur in fuel leads to emission of SOX Alternative fuels such as LNG, LPG and
and particulate matter (PM). The IMO methanol contain an insignificant
Measures towards fulfilling these regu- has set a global limit on sulphur emis- amount of sulphur.
lations are briefly described in the sub- sions from all ships, gradually to be
sequent sections on SOx and NOx. For lowered as seen in Fig. 4.01. From The IMO permits the use of fuels with a
in-depth knowledge, the reader is ad- 2020, a global limit of 0.5% will apply, higher sulphur content if technical mea-
vised to consult MAN Energy Solutions’ and a limit of 0.1% already applies lo- sures can be applied to reduce the SOX
“Emission Project Guide”, Ref. [4.1]. cally in ECAs. emissions to a level equivalent to using
This is continuously updated and can low sulphur fuel, the main option for
be downloaded from our homepage → At the time of writing (2018), the sulphur this is SOX scrubbers.
Two-Stroke → Project-Guides. content of HFO is approx. 2-3.5% and
significantly lower, approx. 0.1%, for SOX scrubbers
With the energy efficiency design index MGO, and somewhere in between for Scrubber technology has been known
(EEDI) the emission of greenhouse gas- MDO. The ECA sulphur cap has led to for decades, as inland emissions of
ses is set in focus and sought limited, the introduction of low-sulphur HFO SO2, e.g. from power plants, have been
as described in a section of its own. As (LSHFO), having a sulphur content be- regulated. The primary motivation for
an effect of implementing EEDI, the low 1%. Future reductions are expected using SOX scrubbers in a maritime ap-
to meet the 0.5% cap. As low-sulphur plication is that HFO is significantly
fuels typically have different properties cheaper than low-sulphur fuels. For a
47
0.0
IMO has regulated NOX emissions since 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
2000, implementing limits in various Engine speed [rpm]
Tiers, I, II and III. Tier II has applied
globally for ships which had their keel
laid after 2011. Tier III applies in Fig. 4.03: Limits on NO x emissions depending on engine speed
48 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Temperature and especially peak tem- Due to the recirculated exhaust gas, Using an EGR system to achieve Tier II
perature during the combustion is the more of the gasses in the chamber is an option to improve Tier II SFOC
main parameter governing the amount must be entrained in the combustion (specific fuel oil consumption). Instead
of NOX formed, but the timespan at process, i.e. the flame must broaden to of optimising the combustion parame-
peak temperature is of course also im- entrain sufficient amounts of oxygen to ters for fulfilment of Tier II, these can be
portant. burn the injected fuel. Entraining more optimised for maximum efficiency. This
gas means that the heat capacity of the has been termed EcoEGR.
Sufficient control of the temperature for combustion zone is increased, i.e. more
fulfilling Tier II can be achieved by ad- gas must be heated to burn the fuel, Selective catalytic reduction
justing engine parameters such as in- which lowers the peak temperature of SCR does not interfere with the com-
jection timing, injection pressure, ex- the combustion. The increased mass bustion process, but instead treats the
haust valve timing, etc. and specific heat capacity of the CO2 exhaust gas according to the chemical
and H2O in the recirculated gas com- reactions described in the “Emission
Fulfilling Tier III limits require specific pared to O2 and N2, in fresh air, also project guide”, Ref. [4.1].
NOX reducing technologies, described contributes to increasing the heat ca-
in the following sections about EGR pacity of the combustion zone. Since ammonia (NH3) is poisonous in its
and SCR. For certain fuels, such as pure form, it is stored and added in the
methanol, WIF (water in fuel) is also a An EGR system placed before the tur- form of urea, which is an aqueous solu-
possible technology to achieve compli- bocharger is a high-pressure (HP) sys- tion of NH3. The urea is reduced to am-
ance with IMO Tier III NOX limits. tem, whereas a low-pressure (LP) sys- monia in the system prior to the actual
tem is placed after the turbocharger. SCR catalyst.
Exhaust gas recirculation HP EGR is most commonly used in ma-
Tests show that the amount of NOX rine applications. An SCR system requires an elevated
formed is related to the amount of oxy- temperature in order to activate the cat-
gen found in the combustion chamber. When recirculating the exhaust gasses, alyst elements. Furthermore, the sul-
The EGR-plant substitutes some of the the amount of fresh air that must be phur content of the fuel sets limits for
fresh scavenge air with exhaust gasses provided from the turbocharger de- the minimum temperature, as sulphur
that have a lower oxygen content. The creases. The turbocharger must be ca- reacts with ammonia to form ammoni-
exhaust gas is led through a cooling pable of handling this condition, either um bisulphate (ABS) at low tempera-
and cleaning cycle before re-entering by a bypass or if multiple turbochargers tures. If the temperature is too low, this
the scavenge air receiver. are installed, by cutting out one. sticky substance can build up in the
49
ECA
ECA
ECA
ECA
Fig. 4.05: Existing emission control areas around North America and North Europe
catalyst elements. Often, the ABS-im- Especially at low load, the application Emission control areas
posed temperature limit is higher than of SCR increases the SFOC due to the
the temperature required for the ele- required minimum temperature of the Emission control areas (ECA) can be
ments to perform the reduction. exhaust gas. In the HP system, a cylin- declared for SOX or NOX , or for both
der bypass is installed to decrease the types of emissions. Fig. 4.05 shows the
SCR plants for marine applications ex- mass of air in the cylinders, thereby in- existing ECA zones. The SOX ECA limits
ist both in a high and low-pressure vari- creasing the exhaust gas temperature, of 0.1% sulphur apply to all ships both
ant. The benefit of the LP SCR is that it and reducing the efficiency of the en- in the North American and Northern
offers the designer better flexibility for gine. In the LP version it is required for Europe ECA. In the North American
arranging the installation, compared to some of the exhaust gas to bypass the ECA, Tier III NOX limitations are appli-
the HP solution that must be positioned turbocharger and directly heat the SCR cable for new ships built after 2016,
prior to the turbocharger. Temperatures elements, thus also decreasing effi- and in Northern Europe after 2021.
are lower after the turbocharger than ciency.
before, which means that typically only Any abatement technology reducing
low-sulphur fuel can be combined with the emission of SOX and NOX below the
a low-pressure SCR system. limits set will be accepted, given that
the relevant IMO guidelines are fol-
lowed.
50 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
EEDI-equation
51
Type of fuel Carbon content CF, (t CO2) / (t fuel) Approx. LCV, kJ/kg
Diesel / Gas oil 0.8744 3.206 42,700
Light fuel oil, LFO 0.8594 3.151 41,200
Heavy fuel oil, HFO 0.8493 3.114 40,200
Liquefied petroleum gas, LPG 0.8213 3.015 46,000
Liquefied natural gas, LNG 0.7500 2.750 48,000
Methanol 0.3750 1.375 19,900
Ethanol 0.5217 1.913 26,800
Table 4.02: Carbon factor and lower calorific values for different fuels, as defined by the IMO, Ref. [4.3]. Note that LPG is a mixture of propane and butane,
the values given here are for a 50/50 mixture. The primary content of LNG, pure methane, has an LCV of 50,000 kJ/kg
This equation is still a simplification of EEDI reducing measures ues are included, an EEDI reduction of,
the overall equation for calculating the Speed reduction e.g. 23%, is attained for LNG and 8%
index, Ref. [4.3], as seen at the bottom As explained in “Propeller law and for methanol.
of the left page. This equation is here- speed power curves” in Chapter 2, the
after referred to as the EEDI-equation. power required to propel the ship is Pilot oil is injected to ignite most alter-
proportional to the speed of the ship by native fuels. The amount of this must
In general, the power of the main en- the power of about 3 to 4, P ∝ V3 to 4. be included in the final EEDI.
gine (PME) and the specific fuel con- This means that if speed is increased
sumption (SFC) are to be taken at 75% from, for example 20 to 21 knots, the Decreasing specific fuel consumption
MCR, in g/kWh, also providing the ref- required power (placed in the numera- For example, a shaft generator can be
erence ship speed, Vref, at 75% MCR. tor of the EEDI equation) is increased installed on the main engine to reduce
by as much as 25% even if the speed the SFC for producing electric energy.
For passenger ships, for example a (placed in the denominator) is only in- Application of waste heat recovery sys-
cruise liner, but not a ro-pax, the ca- creased by 5%. tems would have a similar effect. Addi-
pacity is equal to the gross tonnage. tionally, EcoEGR for Tier II can be con-
For container ships, the capacity is set Accordingly, a small reduction in sidered.
equal to 70% of the maximum dead- speed, may result in a large reduction
weight. For all other ships the capacity in EEDI. When reducing the speed, and If in the early design phases a ship di-
is equal to the maximum deadweight, thus the power installed, the designer mensioned with a four-stroke main en-
Ref [4.3]. must make sure that the ship can still gine cannot attain an EEDI lower than
manoeuvre safely even in harsh condi- required, the implementation of a two-
The non-dimensional conversion factor tions. stroke engine with a lower SFC could,
(CF) between tonnes of fuel burned and depending on the layout of the ship, be
tonnes of CO2 produced accounts for Reducing power required a way to secure EEDI compliance.
the GHG emission of different types of Various steps can be taken to minimise
fuels, as shown in Table 4.02, Ref. [4.3]. the power required at a given speed. Capacity
Details on the influence of optimum Increasing the capacity while maintain-
In the EEDI-equation, feff refers to the propeller size and rpm are discussed in ing the total displacement of the ship
availability of alternative energy gener- Chapter 2. By optimising hull lines and can also reduce the EEDI. Reducing the
ating measures. Correction factors fj, fi, adding energy saving devices addition- lightweight is of most significance to
fc, fl and fw relates to specific calcula- al reductions can be achieved. ships with a large lwt/dwt ratio, e.g. lwt/
tions for the ship type and the systems dwt > 1.5 such as ro-pax ships, and of
installed onboard, such as ice classed Changing fuel type nearly no significance to bulk carriers
ships, cranes, ramps, etc., and is not As seen in Table 4.02, both the carbon and tankers, see Table 1.01 (p. 9).
treated here, see Ref. [4.3]. factor (CF) and heating values will influ-
ence the amount of CO2 produced. For most ship types, it is generally
Higher heating values will result in worth considering the above-men-
smaller masses of fuel burned and, tioned reducing measures prior to this
hereby, smaller amounts of CO2 gener- option.
ated, and vice versa. When heating val-
52 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
EEDI and light running margin Minimum propulsion power However, if the propulsion power in-
Due to the EEDI, there is a tendency to- stalled is below the given minimum
wards installing less powerful engines. While lowering a ship’s installed power power line value of assessment level 1,
The effect of this can be illustrated by has been acknowledged as a method then an evaluation on the ship’s design
an example of a car that has been fitted to obtain a lower EEDI value, it has also must be performed according to as-
with an engine with less power than raised a concern that it could result in sessment level 2.
usual. underpowered ships with reduced ma-
noeuvrability in heavy weather. As a re- It should be noted that this assessment
The car would definitely have a lower sult of this, the IMO has published an method is currently valid for phase 0
top speed and accelerate slower, and assessment method for determining and phase 1 of EEDI. It is expected that
the uphill running capability would be the minimum propulsion power re- it will also be incorporated for EEDI
reduced. In those situations, the re- quired to maintain the safe manoeu- phase 2 which is in force from the 1st of
duced power would have to be com- vrability of ships in adverse conditions, January 2020.
pensated for by using a lower gear ra- Ref. [4.4].
tio. However, a ship with an engine If the ship cannot fulfil the criteria to
coupled directly to a fixed pitch propel- The evaluation of minimum propulsion any of the assessment levels, various
ler cannot shift gear. So, to cope with a power can be performed by assess- options can be considered. Alternative
reduced main engine power, the engine ment level 1 or assessment level 2. fuels, that lower the EEDI, will allow for
and propeller can be designed with a a more powerful engine. Hull lines and
lower gear ratio, i.e. higher light running Assessment level 1 allows calculation the bow can be refined to minimise re-
margin. In this way, improved manoeu- of the minimum power line value based sistance in general and from interaction
vrability and higher ship speed in ad- on ship type and deadweight, with val- with waves specifically, etc.
verse conditions are achieved. ue a and b according to Ref. [4.4]:
Chapter 5
Examples of engine selections
for selected ship types
Deadweight, scantling 50,000 dwt
Breadth 32.2 m
Lightweight 9,700 t
lwt/dwt 0.19
This chapter exemplifies the selection Furthermore the reader is advised to SOX ECA regulations by NOX reducing
of main engine(s) for selected ship consult the example given for a 320,000 measures and a SOX scrubber. The de-
types based on the engine selection dwt VLCC in the separate paper “Pro- sign speed is set to 14.5 knots.
spirals for FP- and CP-propellers. pulsion of VLCC”. Here, important con-
siderations on EEDI and minimum pro- The principal parameters of the MR
All calculations are performed with sim- pulsion power are given, which are also tanker are shown in Table 5.01.
ple, open access tools, to underline the relevant for similar-sized bulk carriers.
exemplarity of the calculations. 1. Calm water resistance
Example 1 - MR tanker and propulsion coefficients
Three ships are considered: There are various methods for deter-
This example uses a 50,000 dwt MR mining the calm water towing resis-
–– MR tanker, 50,000 dwt, FPP, with/ tanker, and includes considerations on tance. In this case, the Ship-DESMO
without PTO, HFO EEDI phase 2 from 2020 and minimum program is used, Ref. [2.5] which is
–– Container carrier, 19,000 teu, FPP propulsion power. based on Ref. [1.2]. The calculated re-
with PTO, HFO sistance is often validated and opti-
–– Ro-ro, 6000 lm, twin screw CPP with The tanker is designed for operation on mised by a towing tank test at a later
PTO, LNG high-sulphur HFO in North America or stage of a project.
North Europe, fulfilling both NOX and
54 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
8,000
e
urv
7,000
ll c
w = 0.5 × CB - 0.05 = 0.35 and
pu
1-t PTO power
6,000
rd
t = 0.27 × CB = 0.22 ⇒ ηH = ( ) = 1.2
lla
1-w i
lim
Bo
105% SMCR
5,000 ut
ve
ur
e yo
la
rc
4,000 O v el
le
P T ur op
2. Light propeller curve ut
c
tp
r
The optimum choice of engine will de- With regard to EEDI, the ship consid-
pend on the priorities of the project. A ered here is to be built to phase 2 stan-
sensible compromise between opera- dards (20% reduction from the EEDI
tional (OPEX) and capital (CAPEX) ex- reference line) implemented from 2020.
penses could in this case be the
7G50ME-C9. This will be used for the With a capacity of 50,000 dwt, the re-
first iteration through the engine selec- quired EEDI can be calculated by first
tion spiral. establishing the reference line value for
a tanker, as set by Ref. [4.3]:
6. Passage of barred speed range
Quick passage of a barred speed range
can in some cases be a challenge for 5 Reference line value = a × b-c = 1218.8 × 50000-0.488 = 6.21
and 6-cylinder engines. Here, a 7-cylin-
der engine is employed and, therefore,
the BSR is expected to be passed
quickly because the BSR is placed at a With the reduction from phase 2 result-
relatively low rpm relative to SMCR-rpm ing in a required EEDI of:
and the required propeller power there-
fore is quite low.
X 20
Required EEDI = (1 - ) × Reference line value = (1 - ) × 6.21 = 4.97
For this example ship, the highest rpm 100 100
in the BSR is estimated to be at 48% of
SMCR rpm, see Fig 5.01. The location
of the BSR and the ability to pass it Through the same power prediction
quickly should be evaluated specifically method as applied in step 1, applying
for each project. Ref. [2.5], the reference speed at 75%
engine load and 100% capacity utilisa-
The barred speed range power margin tion in trial condition is established,
(BSRPM) is calculated as described in Vref = 14.30 knots.
the corresponding step in the FPP se-
lection spiral in Chapter 3, and is well
above the recommendation of minimum
10%.
PL - PP
BSRPM = × 100
PP
2,100 - 1,500
= × 100 = 40%
1,500
56 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
Before considering EEDI reducing op- Minimum Power Line Value = a × dwt + b = 0.0652 × 50,000 + 5,960.2 = 9,220 kW
tions, it is sensible to evaluate the
ship’s capabilities with regard to mini-
mum propulsion power at assessment
level 1, considering ship type and dwt.
5. Select engine most derated engine. At 75% SMCR cation oil consumption from added
Depending on the priorities of the proj- this engine has a 3% lower SFOC than cylinders. Even considering this, the
ect, the optimum engine can be select- an 8G95ME-C10-EGRTC. OPEX saving will be substantial in this
ed based on the CEAS reports. For this example.
case, the minimum fuel consumption is When evaluating the lower fuel con-
wanted, for which reason a 10G95ME- sumption of a derated engine, it is im-
C10-EGRTC is selected. This is the portant to consider the increased lubri-
58 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
105% SMCR
propeller curve and PTO combined is 30,000
to be designed to the PTOlayout limit: it
lim
20,000 o ut e
v e
lay cur rv
O
PT yout cu
er
n 2.4
el
a e l l
PTOlayout limit = PSMCR × ( ) 10,000
En
gin
ht
pr
op
nSMCR Lig
BSR
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
When considering the difference be- Shaft speed [RPM]
tween the PTOlayout limit and the light pro-
peller curve (see Fig. 5.04) over the full Fig. 5.04: Engine load diagram with PTO layout limit and layout diagram of the 10G95ME-C10-EGRTC
rpm-range as it is plotted on Fig. 5.05,
the availability of PTO power can be in-
vestigated. When operating along the
light propeller curve and using, for ex- In order to increase the maximum pow- gine selection spiral is re-entered at
ample, 75% MCR for propulsion, the er available for the PTO to the level de- step 4. The SMCR power is increased
engine will operate at 92% rpm. sired in this example, and to minimise by 2,000 kW, SMCR-rpm is maintained,
Fig. 5.05 shows that 5,400 kW is avail- the ratio of heavy operation (yellow ensuring a PTO availability as shown in
able for a PTO in this case. area) while the PTO is engaged, the en- Fig 5.05, right.
ai ai
3 av 3 av
O O
2 PT 2 PT
1 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Shaft speed [%SMCR] Shaft speed [%SMCR]
Fig. 5.05: PTO availability over the full speed range with the original (left) and increased SMCR (right)
59
As the SMCR point moves up, the mar- The reference EEDI is calculated, with
gin to the light propeller curve (i.e. the phase 2 (20%) reduction, Ref. [4.3].
light running margin) increases from 4
to 5.4%. The reference speed at 70% dead-
weight utilisation (for container carriers
The implications of the increased only) and 75% MCR in trial condition is
SMCR to the selection of the optimal calculated to 21.69 knots, Ref. [2.5] and
engine is investigated (through the gen- 21.42 knots with PTO.
eration of new CEAS reports) without
any changes to the previous conclu- The attained index is calculated based
sion: The selection of a 10G95ME-C10- on the EEDI equation in Chapter 4. The
EGRTC engine as optimal is un- method is similar to example 1, the PTO
changed. is included along with the 6% SFOC
tolerance.
8. Compliance with regulation
The container carrier is considered to As seen below, the attained EEDI is well
be built after the implementation of the below the required EEDI.
NOX ECA in the North Sea and Baltic
Sea in 2021, and therefore the ship is As of 2018, the IMO has not specified
equipped with EGR, also offering the rules for container carriers with regard
potential of EcoEGR. to minimum propulsion power. A con-
tainer carrier has a significantly higher
Compliance with global SOX regulations design speed than bulk carriers and
are achieved by the application of a tankers, and is hereby considered to
SOX scrubber. have, sufficient installed power for all
relevant conditions.
20 20
Required EEDI = a × b-c = 174,22 × 185,000-0.201 × (1- ) = 15.22 × (1 - ) = 12.18
100 100
(52,350 - 1,559
0.75
× 0.75 + 1,559) × 3.206 × (152.1 × 1.06)
Attained EEDI = = 7.317
129,500 × 21.42
60 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
4. Propulsion margins for CPP 5. Engine layout diagram with SMCR As the pitch is increased at high loads,
Initially, a sea margin of 25% is set for for CPP it will be slightly off the design pitch
the ship with an engine margin of 15%. The following engines are possible can- and result in a small reduction in effi-
The ro-ro ship is intended for sched- didates for this project based on the ciency. For reasons of simplicity further
uled traffic in the North Sea and there- power and rpm requirements calculat- considerations of this have been omit-
fore a large sea margin is included in ed: ted in this example.
order to avoid or catch up delays.
S50ME-C9-GI with L1 at 117 rpm and
As the CPP control system is assumed S50ME-C8-GI with L1 at 127 rpm.
to be able to control the pitch inde-
pendently of rpm, no light running mar- A high load pitch increase is a typical
gin is required. If a fixed combinator feature for CP-propellers with a combi-
curve were followed, a rather high LRM, nator curve. The high load pitch in-
of e.g. 7% if possible, would be rele- crease is typically applied for the last
vant as heavy seas can be encountered 10 to 15% power, see Fig. 5.06, left. In
in the intended operation area, as well order to account for the lower L1 rpm of
as the ship is intended for PTO opera- the S50ME-C9-GI engine design, high
tion. load pitch increase is applied to a larg-
er extent for this design, see Fig. 5.06,
Using the margins, the SMCR power right.
and rpm requirements are calculated.
100 + SM 100 + 25
100 100
SMCRpower = PD × = 10,025 × = 14,750 kW
100 - EM 100 - 15
100 100
/3
1
14,750
SMCRrpm = 117 x ( ) = 133 rpm
10,025
14,000 14,000
p/d > design p/d > design
12,000 12,000
10,000 10,000
e
urv
rc
at o
it
8,000 8,000
im
105% SMCR
bin
105% SMCR
tl
m
ou
Co
l ay
ve
ur
O
it
6,000
PT
6,000
lim
rc
p/d = design
to
it
ut
it
lim
bi
na
yo
lim
la m p/d = design
ut
O
Co
ut
PT
yo
yo
la
la
4,000 gi
ne 4,000 gi
ne
En En
2,000 2,000
Fig. 5.06: The light propeller curve with conceptual combinator curves plotted on engine load diagram with the layout diagram of the
S50ME-C8-GI and S50ME-C9-GI respectively
62 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
As the specific gas consumption of the If traditional fuels are employed, energy
engine is stated for pure methane saving devices and/or a reduction of
with an LCVmethane = 50 MJ/kg, the spe- sea and engine margins will be neces-
cific gas consumption must be correct- sary for compliance with EEDI phase 2.
ed to correspond to the LCV value of
LNG stated by the IMO, LCVLNG = 48 Similar to example 2, no considerations
MJ/kg, in order to apply the carbon fac- are currently required with regard to
tor of LNG, CF,LNG = 2.75, as determined minimum propulsion power for this type
by the IMO. of ship.
((29,500 - 987.5
0,75
) × 0.75 × f + 987.5) × 3.206 × 157.8 × 1.06
j
Attained EEDIMDO = = 12.19
15,000 × 22.47
((29,500 - 987.5
0.75
) × 0.75 × f + 987.5) × (3.206 × 6.7 + 2.75 × 129.0 × 48 ) × 1.06
j
50
Attained EEDILNG = = 9.42
15,000 × 22.47
64 MAN Energy Solutions
Basic principles of ship propulsion
List of abbreviations
BSR barred speed range MARPOL The International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships
BSRPM barred speed range power margin
MCR maximum continuous rating
CAPEX capital expenditure
mep mean effective pressure
CEAS computerised engine application system
MPP minimum propulsion power
CP controllable pitch
NCR normal continuous rating
CPP controllable pitch propeller
NMCR nominal maximum continuous rating
DF dual fuel
OPEX operating expense
DLF dynamic limiter function
PD propeller design point
dwt deadweight tonnage
PM particulate matter
ECA emission control area
PTI power take in (shaft motor)
EEDI energy efficiency design index
PTO power take out (shaft generator)
EGR exhaust gas recirculation
SCR selective catalytic reduction
EM engine margin
SFC specific fuel consumption
FP fixed pitch
SFOC specific fuel oil consumption
FPP fixed pitch propeller
SM sea margin
GHG greenhouse gasses
SMCR specified maximum continuous rating
IMO International Maritime Organisation
WHR waste heat recovery
LCB longitudinal centre of buoyancy