CHAPTER I

FOURIER SERIES

Introduction
The core starting point of Fourier analysis is Fourier series. They are infinite series designed
to represent general periodic functions in terms of sines and cosines. Fourier series are very
important to the engineers and physicists because they allow the solution of ordinary
differential equations in connection with forced oscillations and the approximation of
periodic functions. A common example of a forced oscillator is a damped oscillator driven by
an external force that varies periodically. Periodic functions occur frequently in engineering
problems. The representation of these engineering problems in terms of simple periodic
functions, such as sines and cosines, is a matter of great practical importance, which leads to
Fourier series. This series, named after the French Mathematician and Physicist Jean-Baptiste
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), is a very powerful tool in connection with various problems
involving ordinary and partial differential equations. Fourier series are more universal than
the familiar Taylor series in calculus because many discontinuous periodic functions that
come up in applications can be developed in Fourier series but do not have Taylor series
expansions.

Physical applications
(a) Square wave (high frequencies): The analysis of a square wave in terms of Fourier
components may occur in electrical circuits designed to handle sharply rising pulses.
(b) Full wave rectifier: We can answer by the Fourier series analysis of the question that
how well the output of a full wave rectifier approaches pure direct current. The
rectifier which may be thought of as having passed the positive peaks of an incoming
sine wave and inverting the negative peaks, yields the function
 sin t ,    t  0
f (t )  
sin t , 0  t   .

Periodic functions
A function f (x ) is said to be periodic with period p if f ( x  p )  f ( x), for all values of
x, where p is a positive constant. The least value of p  0 is called the period of f (x ).

Example 1
Since f ( x )  sin x  sin( x  2 )  sin( x  4 )  sin( x  6 )  , so 2 is the period of
f ( x )  sin x.

Example 2
2
The period of f ( x)  sin nx or f ( x )  cos nx, where n is a positive integer, is .
n
Example 3
The period of f ( x )  tan x is  .

1
Other examples
Sketch the graph of the following functions:
 3,  5  x  0
(a) f ( x)  
3, 0x5
Since the period is 10, that portion of the graph in  5  x  5 is expanded periodically
outside this range with period 10. Note that f (x ) is not defined at x  0,5,5,10,15, -15, etc.
These values are the discontinuities of f (x ).

sin x, 0 x 
(b) f ( x)  
0,   x  2 .

(c) f ( x )  x 2 ,  3  x  3.

cos x, 0 x 
(d) f ( x)  
0,   x  2 .

Fourier series
Let f (x ) be defined in the interval ( L, L) and outside of this interval by
f ( x  2 L)  f ( x ), i.e., assume that f (x ) has period 2L. The Fourier series expansion
corresponding to f (x ) is given by

a  nx nx 
f ( x )  0    a n cos  bn sin , (1)
2 n 1  L L 
where the Fourier coefficients a n and bn are
L
1 nt
an  
f ( x ) cos dt; n  0,1,2,  (2)
L L L
L
1 nt
bn  
f ( x ) sin dt ; n  1, 2,3, 
L L L
If f (x ) has period 2L, the coefficients a n and bn can be defined equivalently from
c 2L
1 nt
an   f ( x) cos dt; n  0,1,2,  (3)
L c
L
c2L
1 nt
bn   f ( x) sin dt; n  1, 2,3, 
L c
L
where c is any real number. In the special case, if c   L, equations (3) become (2).

L
1
We can determine a0  f (t ) dt which is the mean of f (x ) over a period of 2L.

L L
If L   , the series (1) and the coefficients (2) or (3) are particularly simple. The function in
this case has period 2 .

2
Dirichlet conditions
(1) f (x ) is defined and single-valued except possibly at a finite number of points in ( L, L) ;
(2) f (x ) is periodic outside ( L, L) with period 2L ;
(3) f (x ) and f ' ( x ) are sectionally continuous in ( L, L).
Then the series (1) with coefficients (2) or (3) converges to
(a) f (x ) if x is a point of continuity;
Rf ( x)  Lf ( x)
(b) if x is a point of discontinuity.
2
Note: Continuity of f (x ) does not alone ensure convergence of a Fourier series.

Odd and even functions

A function f (x ) is odd if f ( x)   f ( x). Thus, f ( x )  x 3 , x 5  3x 3  2 x, sin x,
x cos x, tan 3 x, etc. are odd functions.
A function f (x ) is even if f ( x)  f ( x ). Thus, f ( x)  x 4 , 2 x 6  4 x 2  5, cos x,
x sin x, etc. are even functions.
In the Fourier series corresponding to an odd function, only sine terms can be present, while
in the Fourier series corresponding to an even function, only cosine terms can be present.

Half range Fourier sine and cosine series

A half range Fourier sine or cosine series is a series in which only sine terms or only cosine
terms are present respectively. When a half range series corresponding to a given function is
desired, the function is generally defined in the interval (0, L), and then function is specified
as odd or even, so that it is clearly defined in the other half of the interval, namely ( L,0). In
each case, we have
L
2 nx
(4) a n  0, bn   f ( x) sin dx, for half range sine series
L0 L
L
2 nx
bn  0, a n   f ( x ) cos dx, for half range cosine series
L0 L

Convergence and divergence of infinite series

Consider the infinite series



u
n 1
n  u1  u 2  u 3   (5)

Let the sequence of partial sums of the series be S1 , S 2 , S 3 ,  where

S1  u1 , S 2  u1  u 2 , S 3  u1  u 2  u 3 , , S n  u1  u 2  u 3   (6)
If this sequence is convergent, i.e., if there exists a number S such that lim S n  S , the series
n

(6) is called convergent and S is called its sum. If lim S n does not exist, the series is called
n
divergent.

3
Example 1

1 1 1 1
2
n 1
n
  2  3 
2 2 2
1
Here S n  sum of the first n terms  1  .
2n
1
Then since lim (1  )  1, the series is convergent and has sum S  1.
n  2n

Example 2

n
 (1)
n 1
 1 111 

Here S n  1 or 1 according as n is even or odd. Hence lim S n does not exist and
n
consequently, the series is divergent.

Fundamental facts
1. If the n -th term of a series does not approach zero, the series is divergent.
2. Multiplication of each term of a series by a constant different from zero does not
affect the convergence or divergence.
3. Removal (or addition) of a finite number of terms from (or to) a series does not affect
the convergence or divergence.

Special series

Geometric series

n 1 a
 ar  a  ar  ar 2  , where a and r are constants, converges to S  if r  1
n 1 1 r
a (1  r n )
and diverges if r  1. The sum of the first n terms is S n  .
1 r
The p series

1 1 1 1
n 1 n
p
 p  p  p  , where p is a constant, converges for p  1 and diverges for
1 2 3
p  1.
The series with p  1 is called the harmonic series.

Tests for convergence and divergence

Comparison test for series of non-negative terms:
Convergence: Let v n  0 for all n  N and that v n converges. Then if 0  u n  v n for all
n  N, u n also converges. Note that n  N means that from some term onward. Often,
N  1.

4
 1 1 1 1
Example: Since n 1n
and  n converges,  n also converges.

2 2 2 2
Divergence: Let v n  0 for all n  N and suppose that  v n converges. Then if u n  v n
for all n  N , u n also converges.
 
1 1 1 1
Example: Since  , and
ln n n
n
n 2
diverges,  ln n
n 2
also diverges.

Solved problems

1 1 1 1
Prob. 1 Prove that      converges and find its sum.
1.3 3.5 5.7 n 1 (2 n  1)(2 n  1)

1 1 1 1 
We can write u n     . Then
(2n  1)(2n  1) 2  2n  1 2n  1 
1 1 1  1  1 1  1  1 1  1 1 1 
S n  u1  u 2  u 3    u n                  
2 1 3 2  3 5  2  5 7  2  2n  1 2n  1 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1  1 1 
         1  
2 1 3 3 5 2n  1 2n  1  2  2n  1 
1 1  1 1
Since lim S n  lim 1    , the series converges and its sum is S n  .
n  n  2
 2n  1  2 2
This series is sometimes called a telescopic series since terms of S n , other than the first and
last, cancel out in pairs.


1 2 3 4 n
Prob. 2 Prove that the series       diverges.
2 3 4 5 n 1 ( n  1)

n
n 1
We can write lim u n  lim  lim n   1.
n  n n  1 n n  1 1 0
n
Since we know that if a series converges, its n th term must approaches zero, hence the given
series is divergent.

Uniform convergence
Let u n ( x), n  1, 2,3,  be a sequence of functions defined on [a, b]. The sequence is said to
converge to F (x) if for each   0 and each x  [a, b], we can find N  0 ( N depending
on  ) such that u n ( x)  F ( x )   for all n  N . In such case, we write lim u n ( x )  F ( x ). If
n 

N depends only on  and not on x, the sequence is said to converge to F (x) uniformly in
[a, b] or to be uniformly convergent in [a, b].

5
Parseval’s identity
Statement: If a function f (x ) satisfies the Dirichlet conditions and if the Fourier series
corresponding to f (x ) converges uniformly to f (x ) in ( L, L), then
L  2
1 2 a0 2 2

L L
{ f ( x )} dx 
2
 
n 1
( a n  bn ) (7)

where a n and bn are the Fourier coefficients corresponding to f (x ).

a0   nx nx 
If    a n cos
f ( x)   bn sin , then multiplying by f (x ) and integrating term
2 n1  L L 
by term from  L to L, we obtain
L L
2 a0  L nx L
nx 
L { f ( x)} dx  2  f ( x ) dx   
n 1 
a n  f ( x ) cos
L
dx  bn  f ( x ) sin
L
dx 
L L L 

 2
a 2 2
 0 L  L  ( a n  bn ) (8)
2 n 1
where we have used the results

L L L
nx nx
L f ( x) cos L dx  Lan , L f ( x) sin L dx  Lbn , and  f ( x)dx  La
L
0 (9)

which are obtained from the Fourier coefficients.

Example 1
Find the Fourier series expansion of the function f ( x)  (  x ) sin x defined on the interval
   x   . Also, sketch the graph of the function.

a
Solution. The Fourier series corresponding to f (x ) is f ( x )  0   (an cos nx  bn sin nx ),
2 n 1

1 1 1
where a0   (  x) sin x dx  [(  x ) cos x  sin x ]  (2 )(1)  2
   
 
1 1
an   (  x) sin x cos nx dx   (  x)[sin( n  1) x  sin( n  1) x] dx
  2 
 
1 1

2 
 (  x)[sin( n  1) x] dx  2  (  x)[sin( n  1) x] dx


cos(n  1) x sin( n  1) x 2
But

 (  x) sin( n  1) x dx  [(  x) n 1

(n  1) 2
]
n 1
cos(n  1)


cos(n  1) x sin( n  1) x 2

 (  x) sin( n  1) x dx  [(  x) n 1

(n  1) 2
]
n 1
cos(n  1)

6
 (1)n 1 (1) n 1 1 1 2
Thus, an    (1) n [  ]  (1) n 2 ,n  1
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1

1 1
For n  1, a1   (  x) sin x cos x dx  [(1 / 2)(  x ) cos 2 x  (1 / 4) sin 2 x ]
  2
1 1
(1 / 2)(2 ) 

2 2
 
1 1 2
f ( x) sin nx dx   ( x  x 2 ) sin nx dx  (1) n 1 , n  0.
 
bn 
  n

2   4 2 
Thus f ( x )     2 (1) n cos nx  (1) n 1 sin nx 
3 n1  n n 
2
 1 1 1 1 
  4 2 cos x  2 cos 2 x  2 cos 3x  2 cos 4 x  
3 1 2 3 4 
1 1 1 1 
 2 sin x  sin 2 x  sin 3 x  sin 4 x  .
1 2 3 4 

Example 2
Write the Fourier series expansion of the function f ( x)  x  x 2 defined over the interval

1 2
   x   and hence prove that 
n 1 n2

6
.

a
Solution. We have f ( x)  0   (an cos nx  bn sin nx).
2 n 1
 
1 1 2 2
Here a0   f ( x ) dx   ( x  x ) dx   2 ,
 
 
3
 
1 1 2 4
an   f ( x ) cos nx dx   ( x  x ) cos nx dx  2
(1) n , n  0,
 
 
n
 
1 1 2
bn   f ( x ) sin nx dx   ( x  x
2
) sin nx dx  (1) n1 , n  0.
 
 
n

2   4 2 
Thus f ( x )     2 (1) n cos nx  (1) n 1 sin nx 
3 n1  n n 
2
 1 1 1 1 
  4 2 cos x  2 cos 2 x  2 cos 3x  2 cos 4 x  
3 1 2 3 4 
1 1 1 1 
 2 sin x  sin 2 x  sin 3 x  sin 4 x  .
1 2 3 4 
Now f (x ) is discontinuous at both x   and x   .
Rf ( )  Lf ( )
So f ( )    2 . Therefore we can write
2

7
 2 1 1 1  
1 2
2   4 2  2  2   which implies that   .
3 1 2 3  n 1 n2 6

Example 3
Find a Fourier series of f (x ) in the interval [ ,  ] where
 
4 ,   x  
2
 2
x  
f ( x)   ,  x
 2 2
 
4 ,  x  .
 2
Also sketch the graph of the function.

x2
Solution. Since f ( x)  f ( x )  , the function f (x ) is even.

So, the Fourier series of f (x ) is given by

a
f ( x)  0   a n cos nx  bn sin nx ,
2 n1

 
2 2 2
x2 2  
where bn  0, a0   f ( x) dx   dx   dx  ,
 0
 0
  4 3
2

 
2 2 2
x2 2 
and a n   f ( x) cos nx dx   cos nx dx   cos nx dx
 0
 0
   4
2

2 n 4 n
 2
cos  3 2 sin .
n  2 n 2

 2  1  n 2 n 
Thus f ( x )    2  cos  sin  cos nx.
6  n 1 n  2 n 2 

Example 4
(a) Expand f ( x )  x, 0  x  2 in a half range Fourier sine and cosine series.
(b) Write Parseval’s identity corresponding to the Fourier series of Problem 4(a).
(c) Use the result of Problem 4(b) to find the sum S of the series
1 1 1 1
4
 4  4    4  .
1 2 3 n
2
2 nx 4
Solution. (a) (Sine series) Here a n  0, and bn   x sin dx   (1) n .
20 2 n

8
 
4 nx 4  1 x 1 2x 1 3x 
Thus f ( x)   (1) n sin   sin  sin  sin  .
n 1 n 2  1 2 2 2 3 2 

(Cosine series) Similarly, if f (x ) is even, i.e., if for a half range Fourier cosine series of
f (x), we have
2 2
2 nx 4
bn  0, a 0   x dx  2, and a n   x cos dx  2 2 [(1) n  1], n  0.
0
20 2 n 

4 1 nx
Thus, f ( x )  1  n [(1) n  1] cos
2 n 1
2
2

8  x 1 3x 1 5x 
 1 2 
cos  2 cos  2 cos  .
  2 3 2 5 2 
Lf (0)  Rf (0)
Since x  0 is a point of discontinuity, f (0)   0.
2
8 1 1 1  1 1 1 2
Thus 0  1  2  2  2  2   which implies that 1  2  2  2    .
 1 3 5  3 5 7 8
4
(b) Here L  2, a 0  2, a n  2 2 (cos n  1), n  0, bn  0.
n 
Then Parseval’s identity becomes
2 2
1 1 ( 2) 2 
16
 { f ( x )} 2
dx   x 2
dx    4 4
[(1) n  1]2
2 2 2 2 2 n 1 n 

8 64 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
or  2  4 ( 4  4  4  ), i.e., 4  4  4    .
3  1 3 5 1 3 5 96

1 1 1 1
(c) We have S  4
 4  4  4 
1 2 3 n
1 1 1 1 1 1
 ( 4  4  4  )  ( 4  4  4  )
1 3 5 2 4 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 ( 4  4  4  )  4 ( 4  4  4  )
1 3 5 2 1 2 3
4
 S
 
96 16
4

Thus S  .
90

Example 5
Find the Fourier series of f (x ) defined by
  ,   x  0
f ( x)  
 x, 0 x 
1 1 1 2
and hence deduce that 1       .
32 5 2 7 2 8
9
Also sketch the graph of the function.

a  nx nx 
Solution: We have f ( x )  0    a n cos  bn sin .
2 n1  L L 
 0  
1 1 1 1  x2  
Here, L   , a0   f ( x) dx     dx   x dx x 0      ,


    0   2 0 2
 0 
1 1 1
a n   f ( x ) cos nx dx     cos nx dx   x cos nx dx
     0
 
1 1 1  11  1
 sin nx 0 
n



n
 n x sin nx     n 2 cos nx    n 2 (1)  1  
 0  0
 0 
1 1 1
and bn 
 

f ( x) sin nx dx 
    sin nx dx 

 0
x sin nx dx

 
1
 cos nx0  1  1 x cos nx  1  12 sin nx
n  n 0   n 0
1 1 1 1
  cos n  cos n  (1  2 cos n ).
n n n n
Hence the Fourier series expansion for the given function f (x ) is
 1  1 1 
 
f ( x)      2 (1) n  1 cos nx  1  2(1) n sin nx 
4  n 1  n n
 

 21 1 1 
    2 cos x  2 cos 3x  2 cos 5 x  
4  1 3 5 
 1 3 1 
 3 sin x  sin 2 x  sin 3x  sin 4 x  
 2 3 4 
Now since x  0 is a point of discontinuity, we have
1 1 
f (0)  [ Lf (0)  Rf (0)]  [  0]   and so
2 2 2
 21 1 1 
f (0)     2  2  2  
4  1 3 5 
  21 1 1 
      2  2  2  
2 4  1 3 5 
2
 1 1 1
Hence  1 2  2  2  
8 3 5 7

Example 6
Find a Fourier series of f (x ) in the interval [ ,  ], where
  x,   x  0
f ( x)  
  x, 0 x
1 1 1 2
and hence deduce that 1  2  2  2    .
3 5 7 8
10
Also sketch the graph of the function.

Solution. Since f ( x)    x in ( ,0)  f ( x ) in (0,  ) and

and f ( x)    x in (0,  )  f ( x) in ( ,0).
Therefore, f (x ) is an even function in [ ,  ]. Thus we have

a
f ( x )  0   a n cos nx.
2 n 1
1  1 0 

Here bn  0, a0   f ( x ) dx   (  x ) dx   (  x ) dx    ,
     0 
 0 
1 1 
a n   f ( x ) cos nx dx    (  x) cos nx dx   (  x) cos nx dx 
     0 
2 2
 2 (1  cos n )  2 {1  (1) n }, since cos n  (1) n .
n  n 
  2
Therefore, f ( x)    2 {1  (1) n } cos nx
2 n1 n 
 4  cos x cos 3 x cos 5 x 
   2  2
 2
 
2  1 3 5 

Since x  0 is a point of continuity, we can write

 41 1 1 
f (0)      2  2  2  
2  1 3 5 
2
1 1 1 
Thus 1  2  2  2    .
3 5 7 8

Example 7
Find a Fourier series of f (x), where
0,   x  0
f ( x)  
sin x, 0  x  .
Also sketch the graph of the function.

Solution. We have
a0 
f ( x)    (an cos nx  bn sin nx)
2 n 1
1  1 0 
 2
Here a0   f ( x ) dx   0 dx   sin x dx   ,
     0  
1  1 0 

a n   f ( x ) cos nxdx    0 dx   sin x cos nx dx 
    0 
n
1 1  cos n 1  (1)
 2
 , n  1,
 n 1  (n 2  1)

11
 
1
So for n  1, a1 
  sin x cos x dx  0, for n  3, a
0
3  0,

2 2
For n  2, a 2   , for n  4, a 4   , for n  5, a 5  0,
3 15
2
For n  6, a 6   , and so on.
35
 
1 1
Finally, bn   f ( x) sin nx dx.   sin x sin nx dx
 0  0
 
1 1 1
For n  1, b1   sin x sin x dx   (1  cos 2 x) dx  2 .
 0
2 0

1
But bn   sin x sin nx dx for n  1, n  2,3,4,
 0

1

2  [cos(n  1) x  cos(n  1) x] dx  0.
0

1  2 2 2  1
Thus f ( x)    cos 2 x  cos 4 x  cos 6 x    sin x.
  3 15 35  2

Example 8
Find the Fourier series representation of the function f (x), where
sin 2 x,    x   / 2

f ( x )  0,  /2  x  0
sin 2 x, 0  x  .


Solution. We have
a0 
f ( x)    (a n cos nx  bn sin nx).
2 n 1
1  1   / 2 0 
 1
Here a0   f ( x ) dx    sin 2 x dx   0 dx   sin 2 x dx   ,
      / 2 0  
1  1   / 2 

a n   f ( x ) cos nx dx    sin 2 x cos nxdx   sin 2 x cos nx dx 
     0 
 / 2 
 2 cos n  cos(n / 2)  2 cos n  1) 
   ,n2
 2
n 4    n 2  4  0
 2[1  cos(n / 2)]
 ,n2
 (n 2  4)
Since the denominator in the expression is zero for n  2, we compute
 / 2 
1 1
a2 
 

sin 2 x cos 2 x dx 
  sin 2 x cos 2 x dx  0  0  0
0

12
 1  1  / 2 

Again, bn   f ( x ) sin nxdx    sin 2 x sin nxdx   sin 2 x sin nx dx 
     0 
 / 2 
1  sin( n  2) x sin( n  2) x  1  sin( n  2) x sin( n  2) x 
     
2  n  2 n  2   2  n  2 n  2  0
2 sin( n / 2)
 ,n2
 (n 2  4)
Since the denominator in the expression is zero for n  2, we compute
 / 2 
1 2 1 2
b2 
 
 sin 2 x dx 
  sin
0
2 x dx

1
 2 x  sin 2 x cos 2 x / 2  1 2 x  sin 2 x cos 2 x0  1  1  3
4 4 4 2 4
So the Fourier coefficients are
1 2 2 1 2
a0  , a1  , a 2  0, a3   , a4   , a5   ,
2 3 5 3 21
2 3 2 2
b1   , b2  , b3   , b4  0, a5  , 
3 4 5 21

1 1 2 2 1 2 
Thus f ( x )    cos x  cos 3x  cos 4 x  cos 5 x  
2   3 5 3 21 
1 2 3 2 2 
   sin x  sin 2 x  sin 3 x  sin 5 x  
 3 4 5 21 

Example 9
Expand f (x ) in a half-range Fourier sine and cosine series, where
 x, 0  x 1
f ( x)  
 2  x , 1  x  2.
Also, sketch the graph of the function.

Solution: For half-range Fourier sine series, we have a n  0, n  0,1,2,3,


nx
and so f ( x)   bn sin
n 1 2
2 1 2
2 n x n x n x
with Fourier coefficients bn   f ( x ) sin dx   x sin dx   (2  x) sin dx
20 2 0
2 1
2
1 2
 2x n x 4 n x    2( 2  x ) n x 4 n x 
  cos  2 2 sin  + cos  2 2 sin
 n 2 n  2  0  n 2 n  2  1

2 n 4 n 4 2 n 4 n
 cos  2 2 sin  2 2 sin n  cos  2 2 sin
n 2 n  2 n  n 2 n  2

13
 8 n
 2 2
sin
n  2
Hence, the half-range Fourier sine series for the given function f (x ) is
8  1 n nx
f ( x)  2  2 sin sin
 n 1 n 2 2

For half-range Fourier cosine series, we have bn  0 for n  1,2,3, 

2 1 2 2 2
2  x2   x2 
with Fourier coefficients a0   f ( x ) dx   x dx   (2  x) dx      2 x    1
20 0 1  2 0  2 1
2 1 2
2 n x n x n x
and a n   f ( x ) cos dx   x cos dx   (2  x) cos dx
20 2 0
2 1
2
1 2
 2x n x 4 n x   2( 2  x ) n x 4 n x 
  sin  2 2 cos  + sin  2 2 cos
 n 2 n  2  0  n 2 n  2  1

2 n 4 n 4 4 2 n 4 n
 sin  2 2 cos  2 2  2 2 cos n  sin  2 2 cos
n 2 n  2 n n  n 2 n  2

4  n 
 22 
2 cos  1  (1) n 
n  2 
Hence, the half-range Fourier cosine series for the given function f (x ) is
1 4  1  n  n x
f ( x )   2  2 2 cos  1  (1) n  cos
2  n1 n  2  2

Example 10
Expand f (x ) in a half-range Fourier cosine series, where
1  x, 0  x  2
f ( x)  
 x  3, 2  x  4.
Also sketch the graph of the function.

Solution: For half-range Fourier cosine series, we have bn  0 for n  1,2,3, 

with Fourier coefficients

2 2 4 2 4
2 1 1 1 x2  1  x2 
a0   f ( x ) dx   (1  x ) dx   ( x  3) dx   x      3x   0
40 20 22 2 2 0 2  2 2
2 2 4
2 n x 1 n x 1 n x
and a n   f ( x ) cos dx   (1  x) cos dx   ( x  3) cos dx
40 2 20 4 22 4
2 4
1  4(1  x) n x 16 n x  1  4( x  3) n x 16 n x 
  sin  2 2 cos  +  sin  2 2 cos
2  n 4 n  4  0 2  n 4 n 4  2

14
 1 4 n 16 n 16 4 n 16 16 n 
  sin  2 2 cos  2 2  sin  2 2 cos n  2 2 cos 
2  n 2 n 2 n n 2 n n 2 

8  n 
 2 
2
(1) n  1  2 cos 
n  2 
Hence, the half-range Fourier cosine series for the given function f (x ) is
8  1  n  n x
f ( x)  2  2 (1) n  1  2 cos  cos
 n 1 n  2  4

Example 11
Expand f (x ) in a half-range Fourier sine and cosine series, where
 
x , 0  x 
 2
f ( x)  
  x, 
 x  .
 2
Also sketch the graph of the function.

Solution: For half-range Fourier sine series, we have a n  0, n  0,1,2,3,


and so f ( x )   bn sin nx
n 1


 2 

2 2 
with Fourier coefficients bn  f ( x) sin nx dx    x sin nx dx   (  x) sin nx dx 
 0  0 
 
 2 

 
2  x 1  2 2  2 x 1 
 
 n cos nx  2
sin nx    cos nx    cos nx  2 sin nx 
 n 0 n    n n 
2 2

1 n 2 n 2 2 n
  cos  2 sin  cos n  cos
n 2 n  2 n n 2
2 1 n 2 n
 cos n  cos  2 sin
n n 2 n 2
4 n
 2 sin
n  2

Hence, the half-range Fourier sine series for the given function f (x ) is
4  1 n
f ( x )   2 sin sin nx
 n 1 n 2
41  1 3 1 5 
  2 sin sin x  2 sin sin 3x  2 sin sin 5 x  
 1 2 3 2 5 2 

Now since x  is a point of continuity, we have
2
15
  41 1 1 
f ( )   2  2  2  
2  1 3 5 

 41 1 1 
  2  2  2  

2  1 3 5 
2
 1 1 1
Hence  1 2  2  2  
8 3 5 7

For half-range Fourier cosine series, we have bn  0 for n  1,2,3, 

with Fourier coefficients

 
  
2 22  x2  2  x2  
a0   f ( x) dx   x dx   (  x ) dx     x   
 0
0   2 0  2  2
2 2

 
2 22 2
and a n   f ( x ) cos nx dx   x cos nx dx   (  x) cos nx dx
 0
0 
2

 
2 1 1  22  2 1 1 
  n x sin nx  2
cos nx    n sin nx 
    n x sin nx  2
cos nx 
 n 0 n 
2 2

1 n 2 n 2 2 n 2
 sin  2 cos  2  sin  2 cos n
n 2 n 2 n  n 2 n 
1 n 2 n
 sin  2 cos
n 2 n  2

2  n 
2 2 cos  1  (1) n .
n 2 
Hence, the half-range Fourier cosine series for the given function f (x ) is
 2  1  n 
f ( x )    2 2 cos  1  (1) n  cos nx
4  n 1 n  2 

Complex form of the Fourier series

Using Euler’s identities,

e i  cos   i sin  , e  i  cos  i sin 
where i   1.
1 inx 1
We can write cos nx  (e  e inx ) and sin nx  (e inx  e inx ) .
2 2i

16
 n x
Now the complex form of the Fourier series for f (x ) is obtained by expressing cos
L
n x
and sin in exponential form, i.e., the Fourier series
L

 n x n x 
f ( x)  a0   a n cos  bn sin , L xL (1)
n 1  L L 

can be written in the form as

a  i n x n x
  i  b  i n x i
n x

f ( x)  a0    n  e L  e L   n  e L  e L  
2 
n 1   2i   
a n  i nLx nx
  i  ibn  i nLx i
nx

 a0     e  e L 
  e  e L 
 2  
2 
n 1     

nx nx
1  i 1 i 
 a0    a n  ibn  e L
 a n  ibn  e L 
n 1  2 2 
  nx nx
i i 
 c0   c n e L  c  n e L  (2)
n 1  
1 1
where a0  c 0 , c n  (a n  ibn ), c  n  (a n  ibn ), n  1,2, 
2 2
Equation (2) is known as the complex form of the Fourier series which can also be written
as
 nx L nx
i 1 i
f ( x)   c n e L
where c n   f ( x ) e L dx for n  0,1,2,
n   2 L L

Example 12
Obtain the Fourier series expansion of the function
0,    x  0
f ( x)  
1, 0  x  .
 nx
i
Solution. We have f ( x)  
n  
cn e L
, L x L
L nx
1 i
where c n   f ( x) e L
dx , for n  0,1,2, Here L   .
2L L
 
1
So f ( x)   c n e inx ,    x   , where c n   f ( x) e inx dx, n  0,1,2,
n   2 

1 1 1
Now c0   f ( x )dx   ,
2 
2 2

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  
1  inx 1  inx 1
cn   f ( x) e dx   1. e dx   (cos n  i sin n  1)
2 
2 0
2ni
1
 [1  ( 1) n ]
2ni

 1
 , n  1, 3,5, 
  n i
0, n  2,4,6, 


1 1  ix e i 3 x e i 5 x  1  e  ix e i 3 x e i 5 x 

Thus f ( x)    e          
2 i  3 5  i   1 3 5 
1 1  ix 1 1 
     
  e  e ix  e i 3 x  e i 3 x  e i 5 x  e i 5 x  
2 i  3 5



1 2 1 1 
  sin x  sin 3x  sin 5 x  .
2  3 5 

Exercises
1. Find the Fourier series representation of the function f ( x)  x  1 over the interval
 1  x  1.
2. Find the Fourier series representation of the function f ( x)  x 2 over the interval
  x  .
3. Find the Fourier series representation of the function
 x  1,  1  x  0
f ( x)  
 x  1, 0  x  1.
4. Find the complex form of the Fourier series representation of the function
0,    x   / 2

f ( x)  1,  / 2  x   /2
0,  /2  x  

5. Find the complex form of the Fourier series representation of the function
0, 0  x  1
f ( x)  
1, 1 x  4
6. Find the Fourier coefficients of the periodic function
 k ,    x  0
f ( x)  
k , 0 x
Note
Functions of this kind occur as external forces acting on mechanical systems, electromotive
forces in electric circuits, etc. The value of f (x ) at a single point does not affect the integral;
hence we can leave f (x ) undefined at x  0 and x   .

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The periodic rectangular wave in this problem has a jump at x  0. Its left-hand limit there is
 k and its right-hand limit is k . Hence the average of these limits is 0. The Fourier series of
the wave does indeed converge to this value when x  0 because then all its terms are 0.

7. (Half-Wave Rectifier) A sinusoidal voltage E sin t , where t is time, is passed through a

half-wave rectifier that clips the negative portion of the wave. Find the Fourier series of
the resulting periodic function
0, Lt 0 
f (t )   where p  2 L and L 
 E sin t , 0  x  L 

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